TERRORISM

The history of terrorism is a history of well-known and historically significant individuals, entities, and incidents associated, whether rightly or wrongly, with terrorism. Those labeled "terrorists" rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator,revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, patriot, or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures.

Definition
The definition of terrorism has proved controversial. Though many have been proposed, there is no consensus definition of the term "terrorism".Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion.Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for a religious, political or ideological goal, and deliberately target or disregard the safety of noncombatants (civilians).Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged. The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism: "Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them." By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is : inescapably political in aims and motives violent or, equally important, threatens violence designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussion (indirect consequence) beyond the immediate victim or target conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform) perpetrated(done) by a subnational group or non-state entity.

History
The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called "Reign of Terror."

Nineteenth century
An early example of the use of the term "terrorism" in the current sense is in Joseph Conrad's 1907 story, The Secret Agent, where it is used to describe anarchists attempting to cause terror and foment social disruption by blowing up Greenwich Observatory: "The venomous spluttering of the old terrorist without teeth was heard." In 1867, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, a revolutionary nationalist group with support from Irish-Americans, carried out attacks in England. These were the first acts of "republican terrorism," which became a recurrent feature of British history. In Russia, by the mid-nineteenth century, the intelligentsia grew impatient with the slow pace of Tsarist reforms, and sought instead to transform peasant discontent into open revolution. Anarchists like Mikhail Bakunin maintained that progress was impossible without destruction. Their objective was nothing less than complete destruction of the state. Organized into secret societies like the People's Will, Russian terrorists launched a campaign of terror against the state that climaxed in 1881.At about the same time, Anarchists in Europe and the United States also resorted to the use of dynamite. Two groups within the Ottoman Empire also resorted to techniques considered by some historians to be in the same category as those used by the Anarchists.The IMRO was founded in 1893 in Thessaloniki, now in Greece but then part of the Ottoman Empire. This organization was driven by Slavic nationalism, and later acquired a reputation for ferocious attacks.

Twentieth century
Some of the most successful terrorist groups were the vast array of guerrilla, partisan, and resistance movements that were organized and supplied by the Allies duringWorld War II. The British Special Operations Executive (SOE) conducted operations in every theater of the war and provided an invaluable contribution to allied victory. The SOE effectively

invented modern terrorism, pioneering most of the tactics, techniques, and technologies that are the mainstays of modern terrorism. It could be said that throughout the Cold War, both sides made extensive use of terrorist organizations to carry on a war by proxy. Many of the Islamic terrorists of today were trained by the U.S. and UK to fight the USSR in Afghanistan. Similar groups, including the Viet Cong, received training from Soviet and Chinese military "advisers." The most sustained terrorist campaign of the twentieth century was that of the Irish Republican Army. The first campaign saw 26 of the 32 counties gain independence. A second campaign became know as "the Troubles" between 1972 and 1997, with the Provisional Irish Republican Army conducting bombings, assassinations, and even mortar attacks on the Prime Minister's residence, 10 Downing Street. Today, modern weapons technology has made it possible for individuals to cause a large amount of destruction alone or with only a few conspirators.

Types of terrorism
Different types of terrorism have been defined by lawmakers, security professionals and scholars.types differ according to what kind of attack agents an attacker uses or by what they are trying to defend.

State terrorism
Many definitions of terrorism ristrict it to acts by non-state actors but it can also be argued that states can and have been terrorists. state can use force or the threat of force, without declaring war, to terrorize citizens and achieve a political goal. It has also been argued that states participate in international terrorism, often by proxy.

Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism refers to the intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians in the name of a political or other cause. The U.S Centre For Disease Control has classified the viruses bacteria and toxins that could be used in an attack.

Cyberterrorism
Cyber terrorist use information technology to attack civilians ant draw attention to their cause. More often, cyberterrorism refers to an attack on information technology itself in a way that would radically disrupt networked services.

Ecoterrorism
Ecoterrorism is a recently coined term describing voilence in the interest of environmentalism. These have included fur companies, logging companies, and animal research laboratories.

Nuclear Terrorism
Nuclear terrorism refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.

Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism has several meanings. It can be denoted as violence used by drug traffickers to influence government or prevent government efforts to stop the drug trade. In the last several years narcoterrorism has been used to indicate situations in which terrorist groups use drug trafficking to fund their other operations.

Causes
The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political conflict. The type of conflict varies widely;

Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups Imposition of a particular form of government, such as democracy, theocracy, or anarchy Economic deprivation of a population Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army

Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when direct conventional warfare either cannot be or is not being used to resolve the underlying conflict.

Tactics
Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity. They usually employ poison or explosives, but there is also concern about terrorist attacks using weapons of mass destruction. There are some of the following tactics which terrorists use to spread terror.

Methods of attack
Terrorists seek to demoralize and paralyze their enemy with fear, and also to pressure governments into conceding to the terrorist's agenda. While they act according to different motivations and goals, all terrorist groups have one tactic in common: to achieve maximum publicity in order to intimidate and generate a message as a means to attain its objectives. Terrorism uses violence on one part of society to instill fear in the larger part of society to make a change. Terrorism employs propaganda as a tactic to ensure the attention of the public through the attention from the media. Often, damage is done with an improvised explosive device although chemical weapons have been used on occasion.

Training
Training camps have often been used to prepare terrorists to mount their attacks. The range of training depends greatly on the level of support the terrorist organization receives from various organizations and states. State sanctioned training is by far the most extensive and thorough, often employing professional soldiers and covert operatives of the supporting state. The training generally includes physical fitness, combat or martial arts, firearms, explosives, intelligence/counterintelligence, and field craft. More specialized training may include mission specific subjects such as, language, cultural familiarization, communications, and surveillance techniques. In every instance the quality of training is extremely high and well organized.

Cover
Where terrorism occurs in the context of open warfare or insurgency, its perpetrators may shelter behind a section of the local population. This population, which may be ethnically distinct from the counter-terrorist forces, is either sympathetic to their cause, indifferent, or acts under duress.

Funding
Funding can be raised in both legal and illegal ways. Some of the most common ways to raise funds are through charities, well funded organizations, or a non-violent organization with similar ideologies. In the absence of state funding, terrorists may rely on organized crime to fund their activities. This has included kidnapping, drug trafficking, or robbery.

Communication
The revolution in communications technology has dramatically changed how terrorist organizations communicate. E-mails, fax transmissions, websites, cell phones, and satellite telephones have made it possible for organizations to contemplate a global strategy. However, too great a reliance on such technology leaves organizations vulnerable to sophisticated monitoring of communication.

Examples of major incidents of terrorism

The 1972 Munich massacre during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany The December 1975 hostage taking at the OPEC headquarters in Vienna, Austria The October 1984 bombing in Brighton, England, by the PIRA in an unsuccessful but lethal attempt to kill then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher The June 1985 bombing of Air India Flight 182 originating from Canada The destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland on December 21, 1988 The killing of Nicaraguan civilians by the United States during the 1980s The 1993 World Trade Center bombing The 1993 Mumbai bombings The 1995 sarin gas attacks in Tokyo, Japan The Oklahoma City bombing by Timothy McVeigh on April 19, 1995 The Centennial Olympic Park bombing in 1996 The U.S. embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania on August 7 1998

The Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland (August 15, 1998) The August 31 September 22: Russian Apartment Bombings kills about 300 people, leading Russia into Second Chechen War The September 11, 2001 attacks in New York City, and Washington D.C. The 2001 Indian Parliament attack on December 13, 2001 The Passover Massacre on March 27, 2002 in Netanya, Israel The Moscow theatre siege and the Beslan school siege in Russia The Bali bombing in October 2002 The March 11, 2004 attacks in Madrid The July 7, 2005 bombings in London The second Bali bombing on October 1, 2005 The Mumbai train bombings on July 11, 2006.

Effects of Terrorism
Psychological effect
The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, a non-profit organization made up of more than 2000 mental health professionals who study the impact of traumatic events and treat trauma survivors, said today that there is potential in the recent terrorist attacks to cause severe distress and psychological suffering. "Research indicates a link between experiencing mass traumatic events like this attack and later mental health problems for many," said ISTSS President Bonnie Green, Ph.D., "especially those who were injured, directly witnessed the death of others, or experienced the loss of family members and friends. Rescue workers and caretakers of the injured and bereaved also may experience significant mental distress," Dr. Green said. Because these attacks were deliberate, extremely violent, and involved large numbers of casualties, there is potential for many people to suffer lasting psychological effects. Even those who only watched the events unfold on TV may experience strong psychological reactions. Research has shown that while most people exposed to traumatic events do not have lasting problems associated with their exposure, many may experience mild stress reactions, and 20% or more may develop clinically significant psychological problems. If significant distress continues for many months, becomes more, rather than less, severe over time, or interferes with one's daily ability to function, professional help should be considered.

Individuals may feel irritable and some may try to "calm down" by using alcohol or other substances. Children, like adults, may have difficulty sleeping or nightmares, and may avoid reminders of the events. They also may act out aspects of the events in their play, or avoid school, social play, or being around other people.
While these feelings are understandable and normal, violence may beget yet more violence and add to the overall suffering from the original event.

The Society offered this advice: People can help themselves by spending time with supportive friends and family, sharing feelings and comforting each other. Taking care of one's self is also advised: getting enough sleep, eating well, exercising, and limiting use of alcohol, caffeine, and cigarettes. Write in a journal. Offering assistance to others as well.

Children can be helped to understand that it is normal to be upset, to express feelings and thoughts about the events, and to return to normal routines as soon as possible.

Economic effect on Pakistan

Terrorism has become on of the major problem for economy and people of Pakistan. Repetition of terrorist attacks on various important organization and cities has made every Pakistani very conacious about these terrorists. Suicide bombing in shopping malls, common business centers and on roads is only affecting economy but also social and psychological status of every Pakistani. Pakistan being front line partner in in war against terrorism have paid much more than actual. Pakistan has imported terrorism in his own territory by supporting allied forces in countering terrorism. Present offensive by Pakistan army against the militants/Taliban in FATA(Federally Administrated Tribal Area) has fled more than 90,000 people away from their area. Government of Pakistan along with many international NGOs and UN Agencies trying his best to facilitate these displaced peoples with basic needs of daily life. Government of Pakistan immediately provide 9 million rupees for the rehabilitation of these displaced peoples in the temporary camps.Government stated that initially it has sources to facilitate these displaced peoples for six months,while number of displaced people is increasing as army is moving deep in the areas of Taliban.As Pakistan is playing vital role in war against terror while Pakistan's own territory is not away from insurgents. Islamic International University in Islamabad was also targeted in these consequences of terrorist attack.Schools of Provincial and Fedaral areas are closed and student sitting in homes while waiting for re-opening of their schools. Peshawar attack on a very common place Meena Bazar has also changed the rush in markets in non- visibility of buyers and visitors. all these factor are adding destruction to economy of pakistan.

Responses to terrorism
Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignment of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values. Responses that are directed specifically at preventing terrorist attacks are termed "counter-terrorism." Examples of several counter-terrorism strategies follow.

Target-hardening
Whatever the target of terrorists, there are multiple ways of hardening the targets to prevent the terrorists from hitting their mark. One method is to place Jersey barrier or other sturdy obstacles outside tall or politically sensitive buildings to prevent car and truck bombing. Aircraft cockpits are kept locked during flights, and have reinforced doors, which only the pilots in the cabin are capable of opening.

Premptive neutralization
Some countries see preemptive attacks as a legitimate strategy. This includes capturing, killing, or disabling suspected terrorists before they can mount an attack. Another major method of preemptive neutralization is interrogation of known or suspected terrorists to obtain information about specific plots, targets, and the identity of other terrorists.

Domestic intelligence and surveillance

Most counter-terrorism strategies involve an increase in standard police and domestic intelligence. The central activities are traditional: Interception of communications and the tracing of persons. New technology has, however, expanded the range of such operations. Domestic intelligence is often directed at specific groups, defined on the basis of origin or religion, which is a source of political controversy. Mass surveillance of an entire population raises objections on civil liberties grounds.

Military intervention
Terrorism has been used to justify military intervention in countries where terrorists are said to be based. That was the main stated justification for the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. Thus repression by the military in itselfparticularly if it is not

accompanied by other measuresmay result in short term victories, but be unsuccessful in the long run.

Non-military Intervention
The human security paradigm outlines a non-military approach which aims to address the enduring underlying inequalities which fuel terrorist activity. Causal factors are delineated and measures implemented which allow equal access to resources and sustainability for all peoples. Such activities empower citizens providing "freedom from fear" and "freedom from want." This can take many forms including the provision of clean drinking water, education, and vaccination programs, provision of food and shelter and protection from violence, military or otherwise. Successful human security campaigns have been characterized by the participation of a diverse group of actors including governments, NGOs, and citizens.

How Terrorism Is Related To International Relations

The international relations theory context of the contemporary discourse on terrorism (1) The basic contention is that parsimonious theories of terrorism subscribe to a prevailing global order that is overwhelmed by or oblivious to some of the complexities of post-international politics, the interdependence that sustains it, and the structural relations underpin it. In addition it is argued that the discourse on terrorism tends to be rationalist in nature. Within the confines of international relations theory the limits of this rationalist mode of theorizing and the conceptualizations that accompany it, curtail a critical and reflectivist approach to the subject matter. The rationalist bias and dominance marginalize contending perspectives and may even distort political rhetoric, practice and policy. On the other hand, it assesses the theoretical landscape of international relations within which the discourse on terrorism is located. The aim is to indicate that this discourse, not unlike that on other sectoral security concerns, is embedded in and representative of mainstream theorizingof a positivist, explanatory and problem solving nature. In conclusion, since competing conceptions are few expections

(2)

(3)

underdeveloped, marginalized or even silenced, the need and opportunity exist for conciliatory, extra-paradigmatic theorizing and bridge-building.