An

Assignment on

Choice of Mining Methods

Date of Submission: March 28th, 2023

Submitted by:

Mr. Shreyash V. Sayankar

M.Sc. Tech Geology (Applied) Semester- IV

Submitted to:

Mrs. Samaya Humane

(Associate Professor)

Post Graduate Department of Geology

Rashtrasanta Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University

Nagpur-440001

2023-2024
Introduction
Mining is a crucial industry that plays a significant role in the extraction of valuable
minerals and resources from the Earth's crust. It encompasses various methods and techniques
to access and extract these resources, each with its own set of advantages, disadvantages, and
suitability to specific geological and environmental conditions.

The choice of mining method is a critical decision in the realm of resource extraction,
as it directly influences the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact of operations. Mining
methods encompass a wide array of techniques tailored to extract naturally occurring mineral
substances from the earth or other celestial bodies. These methods range from traditional
surface mining to advanced underground techniques, each with its unique set of advantages
and challenges. The importance of selecting the appropriate mining method cannot be
overstated, as it directly impacts the economic viability of a mining project, the safety of
workers, and the sustainability of the environment (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).

A well-chosen mining method can maximize resource recovery while minimizing costs
and environmental disturbances. Conversely, an inappropriate choice can lead to inefficiencies,
safety hazards, and long-term environmental degradation. Thus, thorough consideration of
geological, technological, economic, and environmental factors is paramount in selecting the
optimal mining method for a given deposit (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).

Recovery of mineral from subsurfacce rock involves the development of physical

access to the mineralised zone, liberation of the ore from the enclosing host rock and transport
of this material to the mine surface. There are four main mining methods: underground, open
surface (pit), placer, and in-situ mining (Brady & Brown, 2004).
Factors in Selection
There are many factors, both quantitative and qualitative, that must be taken into
account in the choice of mining method. Following is the list of these factors (Boshkov &
Wright, 1973),(Morrison & Russell, 1973), (Folinsbee & Clarke, 1981).

1. Spatial Characteristics of the Deposit: Size, shape, depth, and regularity influence
method choice and mine layout.
2. Geologic and Hydrologic Conditions: Mineralogy, structure, and hydrology impact
method selection and ground support needs.
3. Geotechnical Properties: Mechanical properties of ore and waste dictate equipment
selection and support requirements.
4. Economic Considerations: Reserves, production rate, and comparative costs
determine the viability of methods.
5. Technological Factors: Recovery, selectivity, and mechanization options influence
method suitability.
6. Environmental Concerns: Ground control, subsidence, and workforce conditions are
vital considerations.
Classification of Mining Methods
There are a variety of schemes to classify mining methods and aid in selection
(Peele,1941; Young 1946), of which the oldest has been most widely copied and may still be
the most useful. Table 1 indicates the Classifiation of Mining methods.
Table 1. Classification of Mining Methods (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).
Locale Class Subclass Method Commodities Relative
Cost (%)
Surface Mechanical Open pit mining Metal, nonmetal 5
Quarrying Nonmetal 100
Open cast (strip)
mining Coal, nonmetal 10
Auger Mining Coal 5

Aqueous Placer Hydraulicking Metal, nonmetal 5

Dredging Metal, nonmetal <5
Solution Borehole mining Nonmetal 5
Leaching Metal 10
Underground Unsupported Room and pillar Coal, nonmetal 20
mining
Stope and pillar Metal, nonmetal 10
mining
Shrinkage stoping Metal, nonmetal 45
Sublevel stoping Metal, nonmetal 20
Supported Cut and fill stoping Metal 55
Stull stoping Metal 70
Square set stoping Metal 100
Caving Longwall mining Coal 15
Sublevel caving Metal 15
Block caving Metal 10
Surface Mining
Surface mining stands as a predominant method for mineral extraction, characterized
by the removal of overburden, including soil and rock layers, to access mineral deposits near
the Earth's surface. Despite the significant initial investment, particularly in transportation
equipment, surface mining offers a multitude of advantages. Chief among these is its high
productivity, allowing for substantial ore output at relatively low operating costs. Furthermore,
surface mining operations generally maintain safer working conditions compared to
underground mining, leading to improved worker welfare and reduced accident risks (Morrison
& Russell, 1973).

This method is typically favored when commercially valuable minerals or rock are situated
close to the surface or when the overburden is relatively thin, rendering tunneling impractical.
Heavy machinery, such as earthmovers, plays a pivotal role in stripping away the overburden
to unveil the mineral deposits underneath. Following extraction, the land undergoes
reclamation, a crucial process aimed at restoring the surface to a safe and usable condition.
Through comprehensive reclamation efforts, surface-mined areas are rehabilitated, ensuring
environmental sustainability, and mitigating the long-term impact of mining activities on local
ecosystems and communities (Morrison & Russell, 1973).

The benefits of surface mining over shaft mining/underground mining are numerous. These
include a significant increase in worker productivity, with an approximate three-fold rise in
tons per man-day, and a remarkable resource recovery rate of around 90%, compared to 60%
or less for underground mining (room and pillar) (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007). Moreover,
surface mining entails reduced initial site preparation costs, fewer injuries per work hour, and
a notable decrease in vulnerability to labor strikes due to lower manpower requirements
(Morrison & Russell, 1973).

Surface mining encompasses a variety of methods tailored to extract minerals from near-
surface deposits, such as open-pit mining, placer mining, hydraulicking, dredging, and solution
mining. Among these, open-pit mining is prevalent for thick deposits with low stripping ratios,
offering high productivity and cost efficiency. Aqueous extraction methods, like placer and
solution mining, prove economical but are applicable to limited deposits. Contour mining,
following coal seams in mountainous terrain, offers high recovery and safety. Area mining,
including open-cast or strip mining, is practiced on a large scale with low unit costs and high
productivity, prioritizing concurrent reclamation with extraction (Brady & Brown, 2004).
Surface mining methods or techniques

When mining of a mineral deposit including stones of various kinds is undertaken by

exposing them to the atmosphere (i.e. open air and sun), it is known as surface mining. Based
on the location of the deposit, the surface datum, the mines can be classified as open pit,
opencast, quarrying or auger mining (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).

1. Open Pit Mining

Open pit mining involves the excavation of large open pits or quarries to extract
minerals situated close to the Earth's surface. This method is particularly suited for ore bodies
that lie near the surface with minimal overburden to remove. It typically targets low-grade,
shallow ore deposits and operates on a non-selective basis, extracting both high and low-grade
zones

i. Flat lying seam or bed, flat

terrain. Example platinum
reefs, coal.

ii. Massive deposit, flat terrain.

Example iron-ore or sulphide
deposits.

iii. Dipping seam or bed, flat

terrain. Example: Anthracite

iv. Massive deposit, high relief.

Example: copper sulphide

v. Thick bedded deposits, little

overburden, flat terrain.
Example: iron ore, coal.

Fig. 1: Various open-pit and ore body configuration. (Source: Altiti et. Al., 2021).
 • Operational Process: The process begins with the removal of overburden using
heavy machinery such as excavators and haul trucks. Once the overburden is
removed, the mineral deposit is exposed and can be extracted using methods such
as drilling, blasting, and loading (Brady & Brown, 2004).
• Advantages: High production rates, efficient extraction of large quantities of ore,
and cost-effectiveness for shallow mineral deposits.
• Disadvantages: Environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, landscape
alteration, and safety hazards due to the use of heavy equipment.
2. Quarrying:
• Description: Quarrying involves the extraction of construction materials, such as
limestone, granite, and sandstone, from natural rock formations near the surface
(Brady & Brown, 2004).
• Operational Process: Quarrying operations typically involve drilling, blasting,
and cutting to extract blocks or slabs of rock from the quarry face. The extracted
materials are then transported to processing plants for further refinement (Brady &
Brown, 2004).
• Advantages: Provides a reliable source of construction materials for various
industries, relatively low operating costs compared to underground mining
methods.
• Disadvantages: Environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, noise, and dust
pollution, as well as safety hazards associated with quarry operations.

3. Open Cast (Strip) Mining:

• Description: Open cast mining, also known as strip mining, is a surface mining
method used to extract coal and other minerals from shallow seams or deposits
(Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).
• Operational Process: The process involves the removal of overburden using large
earth-moving equipment, such as draglines, excavators, and trucks. Once the
overburden is removed, the exposed coal seam or mineral deposit is extracted using
mechanical equipment (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).
• Advantages: High production rates, efficient extraction of shallow mineral
deposits, and relatively low operating costs.
 • Disadvantages: Environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, soil erosion,
and water pollution, as well as safety hazards associated with large-scale earth-
moving equipment.

Fig. 2: Open Pit Mining Process Diagram. (Source: Dimech, et. al.,2022)

4. Auger Mining:
• Description: Auger mining is a surface mining method used to extract coal and
other minerals from relatively shallow deposits using a rotating auger drill
(Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).
• Operational Process: The process involves drilling horizontal or inclined
boreholes into the mineral seam using an auger drill. The coal or mineral is then
extracted from the borehole using a rotating cutting head or screw conveyor
(Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).

Fig. 3: Auger Mining in Coal Mine. (Source: Ji & Liu, 2021).

 • Advantages: Suitable for extracting thin coal seams or deposits located near the
surface, relatively low operating costs compared to other surface mining methods.
• Disadvantages: Limited to shallow deposits, potential for ground subsidence and
stability issues, and environmental impacts such as soil disturbance and habitat
destruction.

Surface Aqueous Methods:

1. Placer Mining:
• Description: Placer mining is a surface mining method used to extract valuable
minerals, such as gold, from alluvial deposits found in riverbeds, streams, and
beaches (Brady & Brown, 2004).
• Operational Process: The process involves the use of pans, sluice boxes, and
dredges to separate gold and other heavy minerals from sedimentary deposits.
Water flow is used to wash away lighter materials, leaving behind concentrated
mineral deposits (Brady & Brown, 2004).
• Advantages: Relatively simple and low-cost method for extracting gold and other
heavy minerals from surface deposits, minimal environmental disturbance
compared to other mining methods.
• Disadvantages: Limited to deposits with accessible water sources, potential for
habitat disturbance and sedimentation, and challenges associated with permitting
and environmental regulations.

Fig. 4: Mining Rocker (Source: Hustrulid, 2016).

2. Hydraulicking:
• Description: Hydraulicking, also known as hydraulic mining, is a surface mining
method used to extract minerals, such as gold and tin, from alluvial deposits using
high-pressure water jets (Hamrin, 1987).
• Operational Process: The process involves directing high-pressure water jets at
the mineral-bearing sediment to dislodge and wash away the valuable minerals.
The resulting slurry is then collected and processed to recover the minerals
(Hamrin, 1987).
• Advantages: Efficient method for extracting minerals from alluvial deposits, high
production rates, and relatively low operating costs.
• Disadvantages: Environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, sedimentation,
and water pollution, as well as safety hazards associated with high-pressure water
jets and unstable slopes.

Fig. 5: Monitor pumps at a hydraulicking operation on Hester

Creek. (Source: Walthman, 2007).

3. Dredging:
• Description: Dredging is a surface mining method used to extract minerals and
materials from underwater deposits, such as sand, gravel, and marine aggregates
(Hamrin, 1987).
• Operational Process: The process involves using specialized vessels, known as
dredges, equipped with suction or mechanical dredging equipment to extract
materials from the seabed or riverbed. The dredged material is then transported to
the surface for processing (Hamrin, 1980).
• Advantages: Efficient method for extracting materials from underwater deposits,
minimal environmental disturbance compared to land-based mining methods.
• Disadvantages: Environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, sedimentation,
and disturbance to aquatic ecosystems, as well as regulatory challenges associated
with permitting and environmental compliance.

Fig. 6: Grab Dregger. (Source: Suedel, et. al., 2019).

Surface Solution Methods:

1. Borehole Mining:
• Description: Borehole mining is a surface mining method used to extract minerals
or resources from underground deposits through boreholes drilled from the surface
(Hamrin, 1987).
• Operational Process: The process involves drilling boreholes into the
underground deposit and then using specialized equipment to extract the minerals
or resources through the boreholes. The extracted material is pumped to the surface
for processing (Hamrin, 1980).
• Advantages: Suitable for extracting minerals from deep or inaccessible deposits,
minimal surface disturbance compared to conventional mining methods.
• Disadvantages: Technical challenges associated with borehole drilling and
mineral extraction, potential for groundwater contamination and environmental
impacts, and regulatory constraints related to permitting and environmental
compliance.

Fig. 7: Borehole Mining. (Source: Abramov, 2020).

2. Leaching:
• Description: Leaching is a surface mining method used to extract valuable metals
or minerals from ores by dissolving them in a chemical solution (Hamrin, 1980).
• Operational Process: The process involves applying a chemical solution, such as
acid or cyanide, to the ore deposit to dissolve the desired metals or minerals. The
resulting solution, known as the leachate, is then collected and processed to recover
the dissolved metals or minerals (Hamrin, 1987).
• Advantages: Efficient method for extracting metals or minerals from low-grade
ores, reduced environmental impact compared to conventional mining methods,
and potential for selective extraction of target minerals.
• Disadvantages: Environmental risks associated with chemical leaching solutions,
potential for groundwater contamination and soil pollution, and regulatory
challenges related to permitting and environmental compliance.
Underground Methods:

Unsupported Methods

Room and Pillar Mining:

• Description: Room and pillar mining is a common underground mining method used for
extracting coal, salt, and various minerals. It involves the extraction of mineral deposits by
creating rooms and leaving behind pillars of ore to support the roof (Hamrin, 1980).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the excavation of rooms using continuous
miners or other cutting equipment. These rooms are typically arranged in a grid pattern,
with pillars of ore left between them to support the overlying rock. The pillars are gradually
extracted as mining progresses, eventually leading to the collapse of the roof
(Hamrin,1987).

Fig. 8: Room and Pillar Mining. (Source: Hamrin, 1980)

Stope and Pillar Mining:

• Description: Stope and pillar mining is similar to room and pillar mining but involves the
extraction of mineral deposits in irregularly shaped stopes. This method is commonly used
for narrow ore veins or deposits with complex geometries (Hamrin,1987).
• Operational Process: The process begins with the creation of stopes, which are irregularly
shaped excavations within the ore body. Pillars of ore are left intact to support the roof,
and mining proceeds by extracting ore from the stopes. Over time, the pillars may be
extracted to allow for complete recovery of the ore deposit (Layman, 1982).

Shrinkage Stoping:

• Description: Shrinkage stoping is a mining method used for steeply dipping ore bodies
with high ore grades. It involves the gradual extraction of ore from the bottom of the stope,
causing the overlying rock to collapse and fill the void (Layman, 1982).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the excavation of a vertical or subvertical
slot at the bottom of the stope. Ore is then blasted and broken, causing it to shrink and fill
the slot. The process is repeated until the entire stope is filled with broken ore, which is
then transported to the surface for processing (Hamrin, 1980).

Sublevel Stoping:

• Description: Sublevel stoping is a mining method used for ore bodies with moderate to
steep dip angles. It involves the extraction of ore from a series of sublevel drifts or
galleries, typically spaced at regular intervals along the ore body (Hamrin, 1980).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the development of sublevel drifts or
galleries at predetermined intervals along the ore body. Ore is then blasted and broken,
allowing it to be extracted from the sublevels. As mining progresses, the ore body is
gradually depleted, and the sublevels are extended further into the deposit (Hamrin, 1980).

Supported Methods:

Cut and Fill Stoping:

• Description: Cut and fill stoping is a mining method used for steeply dipping ore bodies
or irregular ore deposits. It involves the excavation of horizontal or subhorizontal slices,
followed by backfilling with waste rock or other materials to support the roof (Hamrin,
1980).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the excavation of a horizontal or

subhorizontal slice at the bottom of the ore body. Once the ore is extracted, the void is
backfilled with waste rock or other materials to provide support. This process is repeated
until the entire ore body is extracted (Layman, 1982).
Stull Stoping:

• Description: Stull stoping is a mining method used for narrow ore veins or deposits with
irregular shapes. It involves the extraction of ore between sets of timber or steel supports
known as stulls (Hamrin, 1980).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the installation of stulls at regular intervals
along the ore body. Ore is then extracted between the stulls using drilling and blasting
techniques. The stulls provide support for the roof and prevent collapse during mining
operations (Hamrin, 1980).

Square Set Stoping:

• Description: Square set stoping is a mining method used for wide ore bodies or deposits
with high ore grades. It involves the extraction of ore using a series of interlocking timber
or steel sets arranged in a square grid pattern (Hamrin, 1987).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the installation of square sets at regular
intervals along the ore body. Ore is then extracted between the sets using drilling and
blasting techniques. The square sets provide support for the roof and prevent collapse
during mining operations (Layman, 1982).

Caving Methods:

Longwall Mining:

• Description: Longwall mining is a highly productive underground mining method used

for coal and some metal deposits. It involves the extraction of a long panel of coal or ore
along the seam (Layman, 1982).

• Operational Process: Longwall mining utilizes a shearer machine to extract a long panel
of coal or ore along the seam. Hydraulic supports provide roof support as the machine
advances. The extracted material is then transported to the surface for processing (Layman,
1982).

Sublevel Caving:

• Description: Sublevel caving is a mass mining method used for large, low-grade ore
deposits. It involves the controlled collapse of ore beneath a series of parallel drifts
(Nicholas, 1981).
• Operational Process: The process begins with the development of access tunnels or
declines leading to the deposit. Drifts are then excavated parallel to the ore body, and the
ore is blasted to induce caving. The collapsed ore is then transported to the surface for
processing (Layman, 1982).

Block Caving:

• Description: Block caving is a mass mining method used for large, deep ore deposits,
particularly for copper and gold. It involves the undercutting of the ore body to induce
caving (Nicholas, 1981).

• Operational Process: The process begins with the development of access tunnels or
declines leading to the deposit. The ore body is then undercut using drilling and blasting,
causing it to collapse under its weight. The collapsed ore is then transported to the surface
for processing (Layman, 1982).

Fig. 9: Schematic layout of an idealised underground mine (after Hamrin 1982).

Factors Influencing Selection
The selection of mining methods is influenced by a variety of factors that encompass
geological, economic, environmental, technical, and market considerations.

Geological considerations play a pivotal role in determining the most suitable mining method
for a particular ore deposit. Factors such as the shape, size, depth, and grade of the ore body
are essential in assessing the feasibility of different mining techniques. Additionally, the
stability of the surrounding rock formations, as well as the mineralogy of the deposit, including
the presence of associated minerals, must be taken into account to ensure safe and efficient
extraction (Hartman, 1987).

Economic factors heavily influence the decision-making process in mining operations. Capital
and operating costs are critical considerations, as they directly impact the financial viability of
a project. Furthermore, the potential revenue from extracted minerals, which is influenced by
market demand, commodity prices, and anticipated returns on investment, plays a significant
role in determining the profitability of mining ventures (Hartman ,1987).

Environmental and social considerations are increasingly important in modern mining

practices. Environmental impact assessments are conducted to evaluate the potential ecological
consequences of mining activities, including habitat destruction, pollution, and land
degradation. Compliance with regulatory requirements and obtaining social license to operate
through community engagement and stakeholder consultation are imperative for sustainable
and responsible mining operations (Hartman, 1987)

Technical feasibility encompasses the availability and suitability of mining equipment,

machinery, and technology. Access to infrastructure such as transportation networks, power
supply, and water resources also influences the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of mining
projects. Additionally, ensuring mining safety and implementing risk mitigation measures are
essential to safeguard the well-being of workers and minimize operational hazards (Folinsbee
& Clarke, 1981).

Market dynamics, including supply and demand dynamics, technological advancements, and
the competitive landscape, also play a significant role in the selection of mining methods.
Market conditions, global economic trends, and innovations in mining technology influence
the marketability and competitiveness of mined commodities, shaping investment decisions
and strategic planning in the mining industry (Folinsbee & Clarke, 1981).
Method Selection Process

The method selection process in mining is multifaceted and involves various qualitative
and quantitative approaches to ensure the most suitable choice for a given deposit. One
qualitative method, pioneered by Hartman (1987), emphasizes factors such as ore strength,
rock strength, and deposit geometry to determine whether surface or underground mining is
more advantageous. This method provides an initial screening process to identify potential
mining methods and then evaluates them economically to aid decision-making (Hartman &
Mutmansky, 2007).

On the other hand, Nicholas (1981, 1992b) proposed a quantitative approach that involves a
three-stage process. In the first stage, candidate deposits are assessed based on deposit
geometry, grade distribution, and geotechnical properties. Each mining method is numerically
rated for suitability, considering factors such as ore and rock strength. Unsuitable methods are
eliminated, and the remaining options are ranked. Subsequently, in the second stage, mining
and capital costs are estimated, along with production rates, labor supply, and environmental
considerations. Finally, in the third stage, costed-out candidate methods are compared
economically to determine the most feasible mining method. This method allows for a
systematic evaluation of factors and facilitates a detailed examination of mining methods based
on technological, economic, and environmental considerations (Hartman & Mutmansky, 2007).

Furthermore, the method selection process typically involves several key stages:

Preliminary Assessment: This stage entails gathering data on the geological characteristics of
the deposit, including size, grade distribution, and structural complexities. Engineers and
geologists evaluate various mining methods based on factors such as ore strength, rock
strength, and deposit geometry (Folinsbee & Clarke, 1981).

Feasibility Studies: Feasibility studies are conducted to assess the technical, economic, and
environmental aspects of potential mining methods. Engineers analyze factors like capital and
operating costs, production rates, equipment requirements, and environmental impacts to
identify the most viable options and estimate project profitability (Folinsbee & Clarke, 1981).

Stakeholder Engagement: Stakeholder engagement is critical throughout the method

selection process. Consulting with stakeholders, including local communities, government
agencies, and investors, helps address concerns related to environmental conservation, land
use, and social impacts of mining activities (Folinsbee & Clarke, 1981).
Risk Assessment and Management: Risk assessment is integral to the method selection
process. Engineers identify potential risks associated with each mining method and develop
risk management strategies to mitigate them. This may involve implementing safety measures,
contingency planning, and monitoring systems to ensure compliance with regulations and
industry standards (Folinsbee & Clarke, 1981).

By following these method selection processes, mining companies can make informed
decisions and choose the most suitable mining method that aligns with their technical
capabilities, financial resources, and sustainability objectives.
Summary

• In conclusion, the selection of an appropriate mining method is a critical decision that

significantly impacts the efficiency, safety, and environmental sustainability of mining
operations. This report has outlined the diverse range of factors influencing method
selection, including geological, economic, environmental, technical, and market
considerations.
• Geological factors such as the size, shape, depth, and grade of the ore deposit, as well as
the stability of surrounding rock formations, are essential in assessing the feasibility of
different mining techniques. Economic considerations, including capital and operating
costs, market demand, and anticipated returns on investment, play a crucial role in
determining the financial viability of mining projects.
• Environmental and social considerations are increasingly important in modern mining
practices, with environmental impact assessments and stakeholder engagement playing
key roles in ensuring responsible and sustainable mining operations. Technical feasibility,
access to infrastructure, and ensuring mining safety are also imperative considerations in
method selection.
• The method selection process involves a multifaceted approach, incorporating both
qualitative and quantitative methods to systematically evaluate factors and facilitate
informed decision-making. Whether employing qualitative assessments based on ore
strength and deposit geometry or quantitative approaches involving numerical rating
systems and economic analysis, mining companies must meticulously evaluate various
mining methods to identify the most suitable option for a given deposit.
• By following a comprehensive method selection process, mining companies can make
informed decisions that align with their technical capabilities, financial resources, and
sustainability objectives. Ultimately, the optimal mining method chosen should maximize
resource recovery while minimizing costs, environmental impacts, and safety hazards,
ensuring the long-term success and viability of mining operations.
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