What is Developmental Psychology?

As a result of the difficulties in studying the human being in controlled

laboratory conditions most of the principles in psychology are generalizations from

experimental psychological studies. The human organism is an expression of life.

Man is a biological organism as well as a social individual. His actions throughout

life are determined by the inherited potentialities (biological component) as well as

the forces in society. The individual emerges from a unicellular (one-celled)

structure called the “zygote”. The zygote is obtained after fertilization between the

male and female sex gametes (the sperm and the ovum) usually at the upper part

of the fallopian tube.

Developmental psychology is concerned with the unfoldment of life from

within the zygote beginning at conception till birth and from birth till adolescence.

It is also concerned with understanding what forces in the environment influence

the unfoldment of the life within the organism, determining their pattern of

influence and recommending ways of controlling and minimizing the deleterious

forces so that human development may be enhanced.

Theoretical Approaches in Developmental Psychology

Three major theories influence studies in developmental psychology. The

first is the predeterministic theory, which argues that everything an individual is

likely to become in life is already fixed at the moment of fertilization and cannot be

altered either during gestation or at post-natal development. These include the

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physical features, mental abilities, and emotional dispositions of the individual.

Genetic studies have however shown that the sex of the individual is the only

physical attribute which is fixed at fertilization and does not undergo modification

either at the prenatal or post- natal stage.

The second influence is the deterministic theory which argues that though

certain features like the sex of individual are determined or fixed at conception, the

course of development of certain features are laid out during the period of

gestation. Sheldon explained that the somatic features, temperaments, and

intellectual dispositions are founded during the process of blastulation and

gastrulation at the embryonic stage. At this stage when the foetus becomes

triploblastic, that is; three-layered; one of the body layers may tend to develop

faster than the others; hence the resulting individual may become ectomorphic,

mesomorphic or endomorphic, thus acquiring the corresponding mental and

emotional characteristics associated with that tissue layer.

The third influential theory is the environmental theory, which argues that all

human characteristics are flux rather than fixed or predetermined. This viewpoint

argues that the environment exerts a lot of influence on the physical, emotional

and mental characteristics of the individual. Studies of nature –nurture controversy

has learnt enormous credence to the influence of environment on individuals. The

trait theory of Gordon Allport also supports this conclusion. In view of the

important place of each individual in the social order, it is important to investigate

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 the biotic and abiotic factors, which influence human development.

Significance of Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology involves the study of how life unfolds from the zygote till birth

and from birth till adulthood as well as those factors which influence human development

throughout the life span. These influences include prenatal conditions like the age of the

mother, maternal health and disease, maternal nutrition, rhesus factor and maternal habits

like smoking and drinking. It also studies the influence of the post-natal environmental

conditions such as peri-natal birth conditions, nutrition, accidents, and relations with

significant persons in the individual.

Revision Questions:

1) Critically examine the definition of the term Psychology.

2) Outline and describe the various branches of Psychology as a scientific discipline.

3) Define the term Developmental Psychology

4) Mention and discuss the three major approaches to the study of Developmental

Psychology.

5) Examine the significance of developmental psychology to the teacher.

References

Afe, J.O.(2000). Human Development, in J.O.Afe & E.O.Egbochuku (Eds) Educational

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 Psychology and Learning, Lagos, Tony Terry Prints

Allport, G.W. (1937). Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, New York: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston

Allport, G.W. (1961). Pattern and Growth in Personality, New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston

Anderson, J.E.(1960). Child Development Research: the next 25 years. Child

Development, 31, 191-199

Ataha, U.C.(2011). Fundamentals of Human Learning and Development, Benin, Vision

Catalysts

Hurlock, E.(1976). Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company

Sandstrom, C.I. (1979). The Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence, Aylesbury,

Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd

USE OF RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Objectives

At the end of this module, the students should be able to;

a. Explain the meaning of research.

b. Explain the use of research in developmental psychology

c. Discuss the various types of researches used by developmental

psychologist, their advantages and disadvantages

d. Explain the Implications of the use of research in the study of

developmental psychology

What is Research?

Research can simply be said to mean finding solutions to problems that affect
mankind. Research is a diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a
subject in order to confirm or reverse some issues being contended. Free
encyclopaedia defines research as creative work undertaken on a systematic basis
in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of human’s

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culture and society and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications.

According to Oriaifo (1991) research is formal inquiry involving diligent and often
protracted investigation carried out in a series or logical steps which may lead
from simple observations and testing to grand lane and theorem.

Afe (1995) defined research as the systematic inquiry into the emergency issues
about the theory and practice of education.

All the foregoing definitions of research summarize research to mean a

systematic process of finding out dependable solutions to problem.

Use of Research in Developmental Psychology/Research Methods

Introspection

This was the oldest method of obtaining data, which is no longer in use today
due to its subjectivity as a method. The method involves an individual looking
inwards, observing the state of his mind and reporting his feelings. Though it was
an easy method of collecting data with the development of other research
methods, its importance has dwindled because of the subjective nature of its
findings. No one could rely on the data derived from introspection especially as
one person could not explore what another was doing.

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION METHODS

As psychology developed into a reliable science of human behaviour, it moved

away from the method of introspection to observation. Facts are collected by
recording the overt behaviour of the individual. It is through these facts that the
inner workings of the mind are revealed. Naturalistic methods depend on
observation psychologists look at people in their natural settings, without making
any effort to change their behaviour. From these methods, information about the
average times for various behaviours to occur among normal people is provided.
By using these methods, psychologists can secure more details and greater depth
of insight than by using some other methods.

Advantages

1. It is a more reliable method of gathering data than introspection. Its results

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 can be realised in various situations and are therefore useful for control and
prediction.

2. It can provide a rich source of ideas for future study.

Disadvantages

1. The researcher or psychologist lacks control over the behaviour of the

subjects being observed, because under this situation, no independent
variable is manipulated. Hence, it is generally believed that this method is
highly speculative.

2. What is observed may not necessary reveal the true feelings of the
individual.

3. The observer’s presence may alter the behaviour he or she is observing.

When the subjects being observed are conscious that they are being
watched, they tend to distort their behaviours. In research, this is known as
the HAW THORNE EFFECT. In order to minimise this problem, some
psychologists or researchers hide their identity as observers.

4. Individuals who are observing may have their own bias, which could
possibly colour their interpretation of feelings.

LONGITUDINAL METHOD

Longitudinal method involves the study of the same set of individuals at different
points in their lives; usually child psychologists are interested in finding out the
changes that have taken place in the behaviour of children over a number of years.
This method allows researchers to gather information about language
development, intellectual development, social, emotional, and physical
development.

Advantages

1. It is possible to study the same children over a period of time, looking at

their lives periodically and recording how they are growing.

2. It allows researchers to plot individual growth curves in such areas as

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 language, motor and cognitive development.

Disadvantages

1. This method is expensive and requires steady staff to carry out the research.

2. There is what is called sample shrinkage, whereby subjects drop out

because they are ill or dead, or because they have moved away from their
families or homes.

3. Usually the span of years covered by longitudinal research inevitably

includes social or economic events.

CROSS-SECTIONAL METHOD

This method investigates development by simultaneously combining different

groups of persons of various ages for study. It is in contrast to the longitudinal
method and makes possible the study of different ages at a time.

Advantages

1. Population for a study can be reached.

2. It saves great deal of time and cost less money than the longitudinal studies.

3. It allows for flexibility. At every stage of the conduct of a study, its plans can
be altered without some time being lost.

4. It makes possible the study of different ages at a time.

Disadvantages

1. It cannot explain why certain behaviours take place.

2. It lumps together children to the same chronological age but different

maturational age.

3. Comparability of the groups being studied is always uncertain.

CASE-STUDY METHOD

This is a modern method and it is used to collect a variety of information about

a single child. This method is a special type of longitudinal study, which focuses on

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a single individual rather than a group of subjects. The main objective of this
method is to make such information gathered available to a professional for
analysis. Specific problems are thus diagnosed and remedies proposed. For
instance, the person’s life is studied from birth to the time when behavioural
problem is first noticed. Problems studied by the case-study method include
delinquency, school failure and maladjustment to school. In collecting information,
a case study may make use of observation, interview, medical examination, and
tests. In addition, parents, relatives and other adults may be approached for
information.

Advantages

1. It provides comprehensive information about the child that is being studied

and from various sources.

2. It offers opportunity for co-operation between teachers, parents and other

social workers outside the school system.

Disadvantages

1. Data secured from one individual are of a questionable value.

2. Observations made are frequently biased.

3. No two individuals are exactly alike and therefore it would be wrong to apply
the finding from the life of one person to another.

QUESTIONNAIRE

This is the most widely used method of gathering information in psychological

research in Nigeria. The subjects give written responses. There are many different
types of questionnaires. It is used to examine how people feel and what they do.

Advantages

1. It is liable to falsification, as many people may create impressions about

themselves that may not necessarily conform to their real personality.

2. Before the results from a questionnaire are accepted, there is need to seek
the views of a large number of people.

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INTERVIEW METHOD

An interview method consists of several questions that are intended to obtain

information. Quite often, the interview is recorded on tape so that the interviewer is
saved the difficulty of replying on memory. Usually two people try to make
meaning out of the results, using what is known as a rating scale. There are many
different types of interviews, which range from depth interview of a single subject
to nation-wide surveys.

Advantages

1. It is a useful method of investigating many different problems.

2. It adds a personal touch to the study of human behaviour.

Disadvantages

1. Interviews usually contain many inaccuracies arising from the desire of the
person being interviewed to portray himself in good light.

2. Information coming from interviews is largely subjective and cannot be

easily generalized.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The experimental method is one of the most rigorous objective techniques

available to science. It is the most reliable of all methods of collecting information.
It is precise and systematic in its approach. In an experiment, the resulting
changes in the other variables. Instead of measuring events as they occur in
nature, it attempts to create conditions under which a study can be conducted. It
does not, unlike the questionnaire method; use questions while the collecting
information. Instead, any group that is to be studied is usually divided into
CONTROL and EXPERIMENTAL groups. The latter group is investigated while the
former is not. Experiments offer the most effective technique for establishing a
cause-and-effect relationship. This is a relationship in which a particular
characteristic or occurrence is one of the factors that determine another
characteristic or occurrence.

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Advantages

1. It is the most reliable and precise way of collecting information.

2. The approach is systematic and information gathered is objective.

Disadvantages

1. The findings of an experimental study usually have limited application

because of the small number of people that it uses.

2. Those who are being tested may not behave in the manner that the
experimenter wants.

CONCLUSION:

The choice of any research method is dependent on the researchers intuition and
discipline and the intended objectives. Researches are very invaluable guide to the
understanding of various developmental stages human go through in life and the
associated challenges.

UNIT 3

Use of Research in Education

According to Gall, Borg and Gall (1996). Four types of knowledge that research
has contributed to education are; Description, Prediction, Improvement and
Explanation.

Description: Results of research can describe natural or social phenomenon, such

as its form, structure, activity change over time and relationship to other
phenomena.

Prediction: Research is intended to predict a phenomenon that will occur at a

particular time. In Educational Research, researches have been engaged in
acquiring knowledge about factors that predict students success in school and in
the world of work.

Improvement: This type of research is mainly concerned with the effectiveness of

intervention. The research design includes, experimental, evaluation or action
research.

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Explanation: This type of research subsumed the other three in that of research are
able to explain an educational phenomenon, it means that they can describe,
predict is consequences and know how to intervene to change their consequences.

UNIT 4

Implications of Research in Developmental Psychology

Development psychology is a branch of science of psychology and as such relies

on theory and data in the study of age related changes in human development,
through researches of various types, dependable solutions to problems associated
with development are achieved.

Some of the researches that are undertaken in this area bother on understanding
children’s physiological development, evaluating educational program and
language acquisition in young children among others.

The essence of research in developmental psychology is to establish the relevant

theories and methods of child rearing practices that are conventional. Researches
contribute to bridging the gap between developmental theory and knowledge.

Developmental psychology is concerned with human growth and factors which

shape human behaviour from birth to old age. Through the longitudinal research
method, the development of a special ability such as language development and
changes in a growing child over a given period of time from infancy, the preschool
years to adolescence will be studied. The child can be compared with the expected
standard and followed up by speech training if impairment is observed.

A cross sectional research can also be carried out at infancy stage to identify
impairment such as visual, auditory, motor, cognitive, etc. Specialist in the area will
be made to work will the child to restore observed anomally.

Various researches and their outcomes are very useful in assisting the
developmental process of children so as to minimize to the barest minimum likely
setbacks they will encounter in the home, school and life in general as they
progress into adulthood.

In conclusion,

Developmental Psychology uses scientific research methods to study

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physiological, psychological and other changes that occur in human’s day during
their life span.

In studying these changes during the individuals lifespan developmental

psychologists use systematic observation, self reports, interviews, case studies,
biographies and experiments.

REFERENCES

Afe J. O. (1995) ‘’Research on Teacher’’ in Teacher Education in Nigeria. Trends,

issues and challenges. Benin: Nigerian Education Research Association (NERA).

Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An

introduction (6th Edition). White Plains, NY: Longman

Kerlinger, F. N. (1973) Foundations of Behavioural Research: New York: Rinehar

& Winston.

Nwana, O. C. (1981) Introduction to Educational Research for Student-Teachers.

Ibadan: Heinemam Education book Nig

Oriaifo, S. O. (1991) “Issues in Research and Publications’’ in Tertiary

Institutions in Nigeria. Edited by S. O. Oriaifo and F. I. Okogba. (A Publication of the
Institute of Education, Uniben)

Physical Development

Objectives: At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

a) Name and describe the different stages of human physical development.

b) Define and distinguish between the concepts of growth, maturation and

development.

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 c) List and discuss the major principles of development

d) List and discuss the principles of patterns of development

e) Clearly describe or explain the biological foundations of human

development.

f) Examine the significance of the principles of development to the teacher

Unit 1: Stages of Human Development

Human development is naturally divisible into three major stages:

(i) Pre-natal stage: This begins from conception and ends at birth. This period

is marked by the zygotic, embryonic and foetal stages.

(ii) Neo-natal stage: Is the period from birth till infancy, which covers 2 weeks.

The newborn or infant is usually referred to as neonate.

(iii) Post-natal stages: Covers the period after infancy till adulthood and old age.

This period is further divided into:

(a) Babyhood 2 weeks – 2 years

(b) Childhood: Early 2 years – 6 years

Late 7 years – 11 years

(c) Adolescence: Early 11 years – 16 years

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 Late 16 years – 21 years

(d) Adulthood: 21 – 54 years

(e) Old Age: 55 years+

Unit 2: The Nature of Growth and Development:

The terms growth and development have been very widely used and equally

largely misunderstood due to the tendency to interchanged one for the other.

Growth is not synonymous to development. The student of developmental

psychology should note that:

Growth is an increase in the size of the internal structures of the organism leading

to increase in height and weight of the individual (Sandstrom, 1979). Hurlock

(1976) notes that growth is mainly quantitative in nature, but leads to the

stabilization of the skeleton. Growth occurs as a result of cell multiplication or

division and cell elongation or enlargement.

Development in contrast to growth is qualitative in nature. It is a progressive

series of orderly and coherent changes leading towards the goal of maturity. Such

changes are directional, leading forward rather than backward (Hurlock, 1976).

Sandstorm (1979) noted that development leads to greater strength and stability.

Anderson (1960) emphasized that development is not a matter of adding inches to

14
stature, or ability to ability, but a complex process of integrating many structures

and functions; hence each change is dependent upon the preceding one and in turn

affects what will come after. Development is characterized normally by the gradual

unfoldment of traits in the individual accompanied by change in size, body

proportion, disappearance of old features and acquisition of new features.

Behavioural change is usually the outcome of developmental changes in the

individual.

Maturation is characterised by the completion of structural changes and the

attainment of the capacity to function physically and mentally in a manner

characteristic of that stage. It marks the end of growth and the foundation for

development. (Hurlock, 1976). Sandtrom (1979) describes maturation as the

attainment of a particular level of functional ability, which makes possible the

achievement of a certain pattern of behaviour. Medinnus and Johnson (1969)

explain that it involves the organic and bio physiologic changes, which occur in an

individual’s body independent of external environmental conditions, experience or

practice.

Maturational changes include changes in behaviour attributable principally to

structural development or an orderly sequence of events determined by changing

physically structure. It normally occurs in an orderly fashion similar to all members

of the species and is therefore predictable and heritable. Consequently, Hurlock

15
(1976) defines maturation as the unfolding of traits potentially present in the

individual resulting from his hereditary endowment. Medinnus and Johnson (1969)

explain further that it is the net sum of gene effects prevailing in a self-limited life

cycle, which marks the constitutionality of the individual. Maturation is thus

phylogenetic while development is ontogenetic. Phylogenetic functions are

functions, which are common to a species or population. They are potentially

present in the race and are relatively immune to learning, exercise or environmental

condition. Examples include sitting, crawling, standing and walking. Ontogenetic

functions are those functions which are specific to the individual such as

swimming, reading and writing. These functions depend upon proper

environmental support and stimulation. Thus while maturation is unaffected by

learning, development depends on the interaction of the individual’s endowment

and the social and cultural forces of the environment. From the fore-going

comparison between maturation and development, the following can be obtained

as the characteristics of development.

Unit 3: General Characteristics of Development

In the foregoing section maturation was seen to be orderly, similar within the

species, heritable and predictable. These four tendencies characterise maturation.

Development has its peculiar characteristics. These characteristics of

16
development must not be confused with the characteristics of patterns of

development as some authors sometimes do. Both characteristics of development

and characteristics of pattern of development will be examined separately.

(i) Development comes from maturation and learning

This characteristic comes from the fact that maturational functions are

phylogenetic while developmental functions are ontogenetic-leading normally to a

change in behaviour. Maturation lays the foundation or confers the ability for

learning to occur. Without the completion of structural changes and the attainment

of the capacity to function, the child cannot imitate, practice or carry out any

exercise hence learning cannot occur. When learning which builds on the

foundation of maturation has occurred then changes in behaviour will be observed.

Developmental changes are said to have set in.

(ii) Development follows a predictable pattern:

Every species, whether animal or human, follows a particular pattern of

development common to all the individuals in that species. Maturationally, children

sit and crawl before they walk. Similarly in development, there is a pattern, which

all group members must pass through. Consequently, Freud has suggested that

human beings pass through the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages of

psychosexual development. Piaget describes the sensori-motor, pre-operational,

concrete operational and formal operational stages of cognitive development.

17
Although no two individuals are exactly alike, all normal children tend to follow a

general sequence of developmental characteristic of the species and the cultural

group.

Two laws govern the physical development of the human infant; the

cephalocaudal and the proximodistal law. According to the cephalocaudal law,

development spreads over from the body from the head to foot. Thus

improvements in structure and function come first in the head region then in the

trunk and last in the legs. By the proximodistal law, development proceeds from

the central axis of the body toward the extremities. In prenatal development, the

head and trunk develop first before the limbs. Functionally, the baby is able to use

his arms before his hands as a unit before he can control the movement of fingers.

(iii) There are individual differences in the rate of development:

Although the pattern of development is similar for all, each child follows this

predictable pattern in his own way and at his own rate. All children do not reach

the same point in physical and cognitive development at the same age. Since

there are differences in the hereditary potential and environmental support

systems of the individuals, developmental differences are prone to occur in

terms of rates.

Physical development varies with hereditary potential, food, general health

conditions, sunlight, fresh air, absence or presence of emotional strain, and

18
 pressures or absence of pressures from hard physical work. Intellectual

development is a result of the inherent capacity for growth, emotional climate

and intellectual stimulation. Attitudes and social relationships influence

personality development.

(iv) Early development is more important than later development

The importance of early development lies in the fact that it forms the

foundation for later development. Good physical and mental potentials can be

seriously damaged by unfavourable environmental conditions during prenatal

and early post-natal life. Similarly, if a baby develops mistrust early in life, he is

likely to pass through life with that attitude and other negative psychosocial

components like shame and doubt, guilt, inferiority and role diffusion will follow

the wrong foundation already laid.

(v) Development proceeds in stages:

Human life proceeds in stages. The appearance of new features and

significant forms of behaviour mark each stage. Usually there are changes in

emotional and intellectual development as well as social adaptation. The

significant features of these stages, which include prenatal, infancy, babyhood,

childhood and adolescence, shall be discussed later.

Unit 4: Characteristics of patterns of Development

We had earlier observed that differences exist between the characteristics

19
of development and the characteristics of patterns of development.

Characteristics of patterns of development derive from the principle that

development follows a predictable pattern. Hence the characteristics, which make

development predictable, include the following:

1. Development is similar to all and sequential.

2. Development is continuous

3. Development proceeds from the general to the specific

4. Development is highly integrated and correlated

5. Development proceeds at different rates.

Below is a brief explanation of each of these characteristics.

1. All children follow a similar pattern of development with one stage leading to

the next. The baby stands before he walks, he draws a circle before a square. In

no case is this sequence altered even by variations in individual speed of

development.

2. Development is continuous from the moment of conception to death but it

occurs at different rates- sometimes slowly and sometimes rapidly. Because

development is continuous, what happens at one stage has an influence on the

following stages.

3. In mental as well as motor responses, general activity always precedes specific

activity. Before birth the foetus moves his whole body but is incapable of

20
 making specific responses. Similarly, in post-natal life, the baby waves his arms

in general movements before he is capable of reaching and grasping which are

specific responses.

4. The stage of maturity in one trait affects that in others. Correlation between

physical and mental development is especially marked. For instance, body

configuration is related to school readiness while sexual maturity triggers

appropriate pattern of interests and behaviour.

5. While development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is

never uniform for the entire organism. If the body is to attain its adult

proportion then inequalities in rates must occur. The feet, hands, and nose

reach their maximum developmental level early in adolescence, while the lower

parts of the face and shoulders are slower in reaching theirs.

Unit 5: The Biological Basis of Physical Development

. Human life and development begins within the confines of the female

reproductive system at the moment of conception. Conception occurs when the

male gamete (spermatozoa) fuses with the female gamete (egg or ovum) during

sexual intercourse. This fusion gives rise to a unicellular organism called the

zygote. Fertilization normally occurs at the upper part of the fallopian tube also

called the oviduct. To understand the biological determinants of human

21
development, it is important to obtain a mental picture of the female human

reproductive system. The female reproductive system comprises the vagina, the

uterus, the fallopian tubes and the ovaries as the major organs. These can be seen

in the picture shown below.

The Female Reproductive System of Man

Source: Anatomy Quizz: http://classroom.sdmesa.

edu/anatomy/images/Reproductive_label/Female_fert_label.

The vagina is an elastic, muscular tube that connects the cervix of the

uterus to the outside of the body. It is located below the uterus and the urinary

bladder. The functions of the vagina include receiving and housing the penis during

sexual intercourse, carrying the sperm to the uterus and fallopian tubes. It also

serves as the birth canal by stretching to allow delivery of the fetus during

22
childbirth. During menstruation, the menstrual flow exits the body through the

vagina.

The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ which connects the

vagina and the fallopian tubes. The vagina is connected to the uterus via a

muscular valve called the cervix. The uterus is also known as the womb. It receives

the embryo, and surrounds and supports the developing fetus during pregnancy.

The inner lining of the uterus, known as the endometrium provides support to the

embryo during early development while the visceral muscles of the uterus contract

during childbirth to push the fetus through the birth canal.

The fallopian tubes are a pair of muscular tubes that extend from the left

and right superior corners of the uterus to the edge of the ovaries. The fallopian

tubes end in a funnel-shaped structure called the infundibulum, which is covered

with small finger-like projections called fimbriae. The fimbriae swipe over the

outside of the ovaries to pick up released ova and carry them into the infundibulum

for transport to the uterus. The inside of each fallopian tube is covered in cilia that

work with the smooth muscle of the tube to carry the ovum to the uterus. It is

within the fallopian tube that fertilization occurs. Transportation of the zygote from

the fallopian tube to the uterus normally lasts eight days. During this period, the

unicellular zygote undergoes tissue differentiation into a diploblastic blastula in the

fallopian tube, and later into a triploblastic gastrula before its arrival in the uterus.

23
During the oestrus cycle, the walls or endometrium of the uterus become richly

supplied with blood to be able to support the embryo. Implantation takes place on

the eighth day after fertilization. If fertilization occurs and implantation takes place,

then the supply of blood to the endometrium is sustained, but if not, the

endometrium sheds its supply and it flows through the vagina as menstrual blood.

Another opportunity to support and bring to birth a baby is lost.

The ovaries are a pair of small glands located on the left and right sides of

the pelvic body cavity lateral to the superior portion of the uterus. Ovaries produce

female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone as well as ova

(commonly called "eggs") which is the female gametes. Ova are produced from

oocyte cells which develop slowly from the early stage of a woman’s life until they

reach maturity during puberty. Every month a mature ovum is released alternately

from each ovary. This is called ovulation. The ovum travels from the ovary to the

fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized before reaching the uterus.

The human being is a complex organisation of several body systems some

of which include the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, excretory, circulatory,

muscular and limbic systems. Each system is made up of organs which in turn are

made up of tissues. Each tissue comprises bundles of cells which are structurally

and functionally similar. The cell, then, is the structural and functional unit of the

living organism. There are two types of cells in the human body; namely those cells

24
which make up the entire framework of human body called the somatic cells, and

those cells which are involved in reproduction which are called the gametes or the

reproductive cells. The structure and function of every cell in the body is

determined by the chromosomes. This is so because the chromosomes carry the

genes through which hereditary information is conveyed from parental generation

to the filial generation. The genes are made up of amino acids called

deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). Four types of amino acids thyamine, cytosine,

adenine and guanine, combine in different patterns within the chromosome to

determine features which individuals eventually inherit. Please note that the

chromosome is a double helical structure and that the amino acids are arranged

along specific sites on the chromosomes. These sites are called loci (locus for

singular). Usually genes occur in pairs as in the diagram below. For instance, in the

second loop of the chromosome illustrated here, we have: Thymine-adenine,

adenine- thymine and guanine- cytosine combinations. Each of these combinations

is called an allelic pair, while each of the amino acids on the same site or locus of

the complimentary strand of the chromosome is called an allele.

25
 Schematic Representation of a Chromosome
Source: http://www.ehrig-privat.de/ueg/images/dna-structure.jpg

Cell division in the human body provides the means through which chromosomes

are shared. Two types of cell division are known to occur; namely mitosis and

meiosis. Mitotic cell division occurs in the other cells of the body except the

reproductive cells. This leads to a situation in which the usual twenty three (23)

pairs or forty six (46) chromosomes in the body are maintained. This is called the

diploid state. Meiotic cell division occurs during gametogenesis and results in the

production of gametes with a haploid number; that is, half the number of

chromosomes. In this case, instead of the twenty three pairs of chromosomes,

each gamete has only twenty three chromosomes. This is necessary to maintain

the chromosomal balance in nature.

26
 2n=23 pairs of
2n=23 pairs of
chromosomes
chromosomes
Parental
Cells

Daughter Cells
with 23
chromosomes

n= 23 n= 23 n= 23
chromosome n= 23
chromosomes chromosome
s chromosome
s
ss

A Schematic Representation of Meiotic Cell Division in Human Beings

As a result of meiotic cell division, nature is able to maintain the chromosomal

equilibrium from one generation to another among all plant and animal species.

Unit 6: Educational Significance of Characteristics of Development

The characteristics of development have a lot of significance in the

teaching – learning process. Firstly, the inter-relationship between maturation and

learning accounts for the individuality amongst human beings. Gesell (1970) notes

that maturation cannot be transcended by any educational agency when

27
maturational readiness has not been reached.

Also in spite of the fact that there are maturational limits, few people ever

reach their limit because they never realise the immense capacity of their

potentials. Innate capacities must therefore be stimulated by environmental

factors (Harris, 1960). As good seed planted in poor soil will result in stunted

plants, so do children who grow up in environments devoid of educational and

cultural opportunities lack the resources to reach their maximum potentials.

One very important point about this relationship is that the effectiveness of

learning depends upon proper timing. A child cannot learn until he is ready to learn.

When a child is exposed to learning before the needed maturational foundations

have been laid, he may experience failure which is likely to cause psychological

damage and impede progress in later learning even when the needed foundation

has then been laid. Maturational readiness suggests at what age training should

begin and in what sequence training should occur. Havinghurst refers to

maturational readiness as the teachable moment, a moment when “the body is

ripe, and society requires it, and the self is ready to achieve a certain task”.

The second importance of these characteristics is in the value of prediction.

Since the rate and pattern of development are predictable it is possible to

anticipate at a fairly early age the range within which the child will fall at maturity.

Also the pattern enables both parents and teachers to plan a child’s education and

28
to train him for the type of work he is best fitted to do.

Thirdly, since each child has his own rate of development, parents and

teachers must not expect the same behaviour from all children of the same age.

There are expected differences in the interests, attitudes, and behaviour patterns

of boys and girls of the same chronological age who are early, late or average

maturers. There should therefore be differences in the mode and presentation as

well as the content of learning materials in order to cater for the wide range of

interests, attitudes, needs and capabilities of children of the same age.

Two implications can be derived from the importance of early development.

Firstly, since learning plays an increasingly dominant role, as the child grows older,

the pattern of his development can be controlled and directed into channels that

will result in good adjustments. Secondly, since early development is so important,

it is sometimes desirable to make changes in what has been learned. The sooner

the changes are made the easier for the child and consequently, the more likely he

will be able to co-operate in making the change. Once a pattern of behaviour has

been learnt, it must unlearned before it can be replaced by new a pattern.

Fifthly, since all children normally pass through the different stages of

development at approximately the same ages, child training and provisions for

learning are planned to fit into the pattern characteristic of children of a given

cultural group and educational class. When the developmental pattern is normal,

29
one stage prepares the child for, and leads him successfully into the next.

Revision Questions:

1) Name and describe the different stages of human physical development.

2) Define and distinguish between the concepts of growth, maturation and

development.

3) Clearly describe or explain the biological foundations of human

development.

4) List and explain the various principles of development and examine their

importance in educational practice.

5) List and explain the five (5) principles of patterns of development.

References

Afe, J.O.(2000). Human Development, in J.O.Afe & E.O.Egbochuku (Eds)

Educational Psychology and Learning, Lagos, Tony Terry Prints
Allport, G.W. (1937). Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston

Allport, G.W. (1961). Pattern and Growth in Personality, New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston

Anderson, J.E.(1960). Child Development Research: the next 25 years. Child

Development, 31, 191-199
Ataha, U.C.(2011). Fundamentals of Human Learning and Development, Benin,
Vision Catalysts

30
 Gessell, A (1954). The Ontogenesis of infant Behaviour, in L. Carmichael (Ed),
Manual of Child Psychology, New York, Harper and Wiley

Harris, D.B. (1960). The Development of Potentiality, Teachers Coll. Rev., 61,
423-428

Hurlock, E.(1976). Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company

Sandstrom, C.I. (1979). The Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence,

Aylesbury, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd

Module 4
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Objectives:

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

a) Define and explain the meaning of cognition

b) Define cognitive development

c) Explain how cognitive development occurs with respect to organization,

adaptation, assimilation and accommodation.

d) List and describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

e) Compare and contrast Piaget’s model of cognatic development with

Jerome Bruner’s model of representations

f) Discuss the implications of Piaget’s and Bruner’s theories to education.

g) List and discuss the factors which influence cognitive development

The ultimate goal of the initiatory process of education is to ensure the total

development of the individual, which entails the expression of his psychomotor,

affective and cognitive abilities. Amongst these three, the formal school system

seems to have laid more emphasis on cognitive development as a result of its

31
epistemological orientation. So much focus has been placed on cognitive

development that Bloom (1956) has delineated six levels of cognitive abilities;

namely: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives, tend to confuse cognition

as the expression of the above named abilities. One may then wish to ask the

question, “Just what is cognition?”

This module will attempt to give a theoretical perspective to the meaning of

cognition. The pattern of cognitive development shall also be examined using the

Piagetian model of mental characteristics and Bruner’s theory of representations.

The various factors influencing cognitive development shall also be examined.

Firstly, let us attempt to answer the question: “what is cognition”.

Unit 1: The Meaning of Cognition

The term “cognition” derives from an old Latin word translated as “cognitive”

which generally stands for processes related to thought and knowledge

(Sandstrom,1979). In psychological literature, cognition has been used

interchangeably with intelligence, and cognitive with intellectual. Thus when one

speaks of cognitive development, he is synonymously referring to intellectual

development. An exhaustive explanation of the meaning of cognition therefore

demands a thorough understanding of the meaning of intelligence as applied in

psychological literature.

32
 Vernon (1972) following Burt (1955) traces the origin of the word

“intelligence” to Aristotle who distinguished orexis – the emotional and moral

functions, from dianoia – the cognitive and intellectual functions. He notes that

Cicero translated the word as intelligentia where inter means “within” and legere

means, “to bring together, choose, discriminate”. Conford (1969), however, shows

that Plato had already used the term, intelligence earlier on to refer to that state of

mind which could “rise to grasp the supreme form” and “descend by a deduction”

to confirm the whole structure of moral and mathematical knowledge. Plato’s

usage of the term seems to conform to Cicero’s later translation since both

induction and deduction include some element of differentiation and integration, or

in Cicero’s words, choosing, discriminating and bringing together.

Modern usage of the term has been controversial since its definition

contrast between the a priori and empirical, the biological and psychometric, as

well as the academic or theoretical and the practical. For instance, Terman

conceives intelligence as “the ability to carry on abstract thinking”. This is an

example of the a priori definition. Woodrow called it the “capacity to acquire

capacity” while Thorndike perceived it as “the power of good responses from the

point of view of truth or fact”. Buckingham wrote that intelligence is “the ability to

learn… measured by the extent to which learning has taken place”. Clorin defined

an individual as intelligent “in so far as he has learned, or can learn to adjust

33
himself to his environment”. These definitions were given by 13 of the 17

psychologists summoned to attain the international symposium on intelligence

testing in 1921.

From the above definitions, one can find that a common element runs

through them, the functional nature of intelligence. Beginning with Terman, it is

found that intelligence is that quality of mind, which influences thinking, capacity,

responses, learning, and adjustment.

Alfred Binet regarded intelligence as a complex set of qualities, including:

i) appreciation of a problem and the direction of the mind towards its

execution;

ii) the capacity for making the necessary adaptations to reach a definite

end; and

iii) the power of self-criticism.

He states that the fundamental quality of intelligence is “judgement, otherwise

called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting oneself to

circumstances” and also identified reasoning and comprehension as the essential

components of intelligence.

In his factor analytic studies, Spearman (1927) also identified reasoning as

a central component of all intelligent activities. But Thorndike (1922) further wrote

that intellect should be defined as that quality of mind (or brain or behaviour if one

34
prefers) in respect to which Plato, Thucydides, and the like, differed most from

Athenian idiots of their day, or in respect to which the lawyers, physicians,

scientists, scholars, and editors of reputed greatest ability at constant age, say a

dozen of each, differ most from idiots of that age in our asylums.

Thus while intelligence or cognition can be regarded as that quality of mind which

enables the individual to make appropriate adaptations and adjustments to his

environment, Thorndike’s later writing insinuates that behind this observed quality

of mind lies some underlying psychophysical structures. Cognitive development

will therefore refer to the cultivation of these psychophysical structures to

facilitate the expression of that quality of mind, which enables the individual to

adjust to his environment. Incidentally, this argument conforms to the piagetian

view of cognitive development. Let us now examine Piaget’s model of cognitive

development. The relevance of his theory to formal school learning will also be

pointed out.

Unit 2: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget has been referred to as the colossus of cognitive development

(Turner, 1975) due to the primary and influence of his work in this area. He views

the expression of intellectual ability as developmental in nature, thus explaining the

differences in the way children and adults think.

In Piaget’s (1952) view, intelligence is an adaptation. He views cognitive

35
development as a psychobiological process involving changes in the schematic

structures of the individual with growth and experience. He also notes that the

development of cognition depends on the individuals’ interaction with the

environment. Such interaction leads to organization and adaptation. These two

words are basic to understanding Piaget’s view of consideration.

Organization is the tendency of every living organism to integrate

primary processes into coherent systems. For instance, when an infant is

originally capable of looking at objects or grasping them, the integration of

these two processes so that the child is able to grasp object at the same

time that he looks at them, organization is said to have occurred. Piaget

refers to each of these separate primary processes as a schematic

structure.

Adaptation is the innate tendency of the child to interact with the

environment, which fosters progressively complex mental organization. Adaptation

comprises two complimentary processes: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation is the individual effort to deal with the environment by making it fit

into his own existing structures by means of incorporation.

Piaget illustrates assimilation with the following schema of organization:

(1) a + x b;

(2) b + y c;

36
 (3) c + z a, etc.

In this schematic equation, a, b and c represent the organised elements or

existing structures while x, y and z represent the environmental elements which

could be new knowledge or experience. From this equation it can be deduced that

whenever there is some interaction between the organized element and existing

structure with the environmental elements or experience, a higher organized state

of the individual occurs.

Assimilation is only possible if the environmental element is supported by

the organized element. In the teaching – learning situation, it can be said that when

previous knowledge supports new learning, then assimilation becomes possible. If

the new learning or situation does not support the child’s existing knowledge, a

modification in the child’s organized elements (actions, ideas, and knowledge)

must be made. This process of modifying the organized elements to suit the new

situation in defined as accommodation.

Unit 3: Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget explained that cognitive development occurs in stages beginning at

birth. At each of these stages, the child shows characteristic patterns of

responding to the environment. These patterns are discussed in detail below.

(a). Sensory-Motor Stage

Piaget traced the origin of cognitive development to what he calls

37
sensory-motor intelligence. At birth and during the few months of life, most of the

actions of the baby are based on reflex. The child grasps sucks and cries by

conditioned reflex.

Towards the end of the first six months, new behaviour patterns arising

from a combination of observation (receptor or sensory) processes and motion

(effector or motor) processes, begin to occur. Piaget believes that these form the

transition between simple, conditioned actions or habits and intelligent behaviour.

The ability to look and grasp is a good example of such sensori-motor behaviour.

Piaget illustrate this as follows:

A small child is lying in its perambulator. The hood is up and a row of rattles

with a string hanging from it is fastened to the hood. When the child catches hold

of the string and pulls, the entire rattles sound at once. Astonished at the results,

the child grabs the string again and repeats the procedure time after time. The first

movement and the ensuing effect become a single action, which creates a need to

repeat the action when the objects stop moving.

This is called a circular reaction. This is behaviour, which can be repeated

as units without any previously determined goal and without any advantage being

taken of coincidences that may appear while they are being performed (Sandstrom,

1979). Later new elements are added to these reactions which make possible a

certain degree of generalisation. This enables the child to find new means of doing

38
things by experimentation between 12-18 months, and to invent new means of

relating to the environment through mental combinations between 18-24 months.

Another major feature of this stage is lack of object performance. At this

stage if objects are removed from the child’s sight, he assumes that the object has

disappeared. To the child only objects, which are perceptually present, are those,

which exist. As children come to learn more about the relationship between

themselves and their environment and begin to differentiate one from the other,

they begin to acquire object performance. The major sign of object performance is

the development of searching behaviour. In this case, when objects are removed

from sight, the child begins to search for them.

(b) Pre-Operational Stage:

This begins from the age of two years. Children begin to learn to represent

aspects of words as symbols or visuals images (Darley, Glucksberg and Wincha,

1986). Consequently, the major task at this period becomes the development of

speech skills and the concept of number at the earlier and latter stages

respectively. Wilson, Robeck and Michael (1969) note that this period forms the

transition between the external action and internalization of actions or the

operational stages. It marks the emergence of pre-logical thought. Piaget

identified two sub-stages of pre-operational intelligence, namely: the

pre-conceptual and intuitive thinking stages.

39
 The pre-conceptual stage begins from age two and last till four years. The

child begins to acquire concepts. He first acquires generic concepts before he

learns to distinguish between generic and specific concepts. Play and imitation

become the building blocks for representation of language while experimental

speech is involves the child talking to himself as if he were talking to others.

The intuitive stage marks the beginning of school age and covers the period

four to seven years of age. During this period, the child learns the basic skills for

communication. Three modes of communication appear: egocentric speech,

socialised speech, the child attempts to communicate with self even though in the

presence of others. Socialized speech involves communication with others, while

in collective monologue, children stimulate each other to speech but do not

engage in dialogue as the response of the second child to the first child’s stimulus

may be unrelated.

During this period, the child also learns about the concept of numbers,

weight, length and height, but assesses quantities on their most obvious

perceptual qualities, not on the more complex qualities as adults do.

Consequently they lack the ability to conserve in volume, height/length, and weight.

Piaget uses various examples to illustrate their lack of conservation. For instance,

given two beakers of different shapes and sizes, one short and large and the other

tall and thin, if the same quantity of drink is poured into both, the child will refuse

40
the drink if he is offered the drink in the short, large beaker in presence to the one

in the tall and thin beaker. This probably explains why children prefer to sip coke

from the bottle instead of their drinking cup.

Piaget also notes that the child’s thinking at this stage is egocentric and

irreversible. Egocentricism is the child’s inability to imagine how things look from

another person's perspective. Like the seven blind men who went to view the

elephant, only the perspective of the child is correct. Irreversibility is the inability to

think back on their actions.

(c) Concrete Operational Stage:

This third stage covers the period between age 8-11. It is a predominantly

operational stage. An operation is an action, which are internalised, and reversible.

At this stage the child is able to internalise new data. He is able to think

about actions, which he had only been able to carry out externally at the

sensori-motor stage. He is also able to attain conservation of substance between

7-8 years, of weight between 9-11 and of volume between 11-12.

This stage is called concrete operations because, inspite of the child’s

ability to think, his thinking is very still dependent upon concrete and tangible

objects. For example, if 10 years old is given the question:

“John is taller than Harry. John is shorter than Tom. Who is the Shortest?”.

The answer may be difficult to him, but ridiculously simple to a twelve-year-old or

41
an adult.

(d) Formal Operations:

Piaget regards this as the highest level of cognitive development. Formal

thought begins to develop during the 11th and 12th years when the child begins to

understand abstract concept. He becomes able to form ideals, reason about the

future and handle abstract-to-fact propositions. He is able to develop propositions

and reason logically towards conclusions.

Unit 4: Educational Implications of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s theory can be regarded as a descriptive theory because it

describes the major cognitive characteristics of children’s behaviour at each of the

developmental stages. The major implication of Piaget’s theory, therefore, is that

teachers should take advantage of the abilities which children’s developmental

abilities should help the teacher in planning his lesson, selecting teaching aids and

presenting instruction in the class.

Biehler (1971) bemoans that one question which teachers usually ask is “If

these are stages that children reach at given norms of ages, can we accelerate the

stages… how far can we speed them up?”

To this, he says, Piaget gives an affirmative answer but cautions that maximal

acceleration is not desirable. Rather than use the hierarchy to accelerate the

stages, teachers should try to understand why children think and reason as they do

42
and to help pupils’ master intellectual processes at the appropriate age.

An understanding of Piaget’s hierarchy of cognitive development will help

the teacher to know, not only the type of experiences to offer at each stage but

also the manner of offering those experiences. Also, teachers who understand the

pattern of speech development in the child will help to reinforce the child’s verbal

responses rather than feel awkward and out of place with the child’s speech

pattern especially when he engages in experimental conversation or monologue.

It is also important that teachers should encourage play since it promotes

the development of sensori-motor intelligence through the provision of the

opportunity to develop Piagetian schemata, which are the primary resources for

cognitive development. It is upon such primary sensori-motor schemes that later

intelligence is built. Opportunities for play also provide the needed laboratory for

the child to experiment with “self” and the newly acquired tool for social

development: language.

Finally, Hunt (1961) speculating on ways of increasing children’s intelligence

suggest that this can be done by arranging experiences in the proper order.

Though this may be true, teachers need to know that the opportunity to learn which

they provide their pupils as well as the amount of guidance which they can give,

are important in advancing the cognitive development of the child. They therefore,

need to maximise the frequency of contact, which they offer to their children in

43
order to bring about optimum intellectual development.

Writing on Piaget’s developmental theory, Turner (1975) comments that

“Piaget is not easy to understand, nor may one always agree with his

interpretations of the empirical data” He, however, acknowledges that Piaget has

made a start and that no scientific perspective can do more. Turner further

explained that the degree to which a true identification is made will depend on the

range of the perceiver’s categories and his ability to utilize the category at his

disposal.

Unit 5: Bruner’s Theory of Representation

Bruner views cognitive growth as a development of two-forms of

competence, firstly, the ability to represent the recurrent regularities of the

environment and, secondly the ability to transcend the momentary by developing

ways of linking past to present and to future. He distinguishes between three

forms of representations: enactive, iconic and symbolic in the order of appearance.

Enactive representations appear first. It is thew mode of representation past

events through appropriate motor responses and originates from the infants need

to relate his actions to his visual field. Initially, the child cannot separate his notion

of the object from his notions towards it. For instance, if a child shakes a rattle and

it makes noise if the rattle incidentally drops, the child continues to shake his

44
hands all in the attempt to reproduce the noise of the rattle.

Iconic representation appears when the child is able to replace the action

with an image or spatial scheme. Images are said to “stand for” the object in the

sense that a picture or map stands for the object pictured. In other words, the

appearance of iconic representation is marked by the child’s ability to represent

concepts as mental images. For instance, when the child hears the sound “cow” he

immediately develops a mental picture of a cow. Iconic representation is

facilitative of certain tasks. Kullman (1960) found that junior school children who

were imaginers were superior to non-imaginers in tasks which required them to

learn to relate arbitrary verbal labels to picture but inferior at the conceptual task of

recognizing what a set of pictures had in common.

Symbolic representation is the last form to develop and is the most

adaptable and flexible. This happens when the child is able to associate concepts

with arbitrary systems of labeling. At this stage, the child no longer represents his

world in the form of mental images, nor is he restricted by his visual field in his

action.

Bruner notes that language is a major form of symbolizing. He argues that if

a person can use language to encode stimuli, he is freed from the world of

appearance and he gains greater stability and flexibility provided that the linguistic

labels are appropriate to the task and do offer a way of encoding relevant

45
information. Turner (1975) points out that in addition to being a system of labels, is

hierarchically organized. It has super ordinate words like colour or shape, which

may facilitate the development of the concepts they embody. To be able to use

symbols, frees the user from the present context, thus facilitating association with

the past and the future.

Unit 6: Implications of Bruner’s Theory:

Turner points out that if cognitive growth is the result of both an internal

push and an external pull, and if it can be conceptualized as the development of

three modes of presentation and their integration, then Bruner’s theory has

profound implication for schooling. The following constitute some of these

implications:

1). The skills involved in manipulating and handling the environment, in

perceiving and imagining, and in symbolically representing it should

be developed to their greater extent.

2). These skills can be taught in some form to children of any age as

they develop and their mastery increase, then they will need to return

to the skills but on a higher level.

3). Instruction should be related to the mode of representation used and

growth should be encourage by bringing other modes to bear on the

same problem.

46
 4). Teaching should be concerned with structure not facts alone so that

the child is primarily engaged in learning how to know.

Unit 7: Factors Influencing Cognitive Development

From work of Piaget, we learn that cognitive development depends on

organization and adaptation. Bruner also shows that the child’s representation of

information is influenced by his perception of the situation. Consequently, all the

factors influencing organization, adaptation and perception are likely to influence

cognitive development. This may be a biological, psychological and socio-cultural

factor. The following factors have been identified by Hurlock (1972) as some of

the factors influencing cognitive development:

a) Condition of the sense organs b) Intelligence

c) Opportunities for learning d) Type of experience

e) Amount of guidance f) Sex, and g) Language.

How each of these factors influences the development of cognition will be

examined briefly here.

(a) Condition of the sense organ: Assimilation and accommodation is

influenced by the amount and type of sensory in-put available to the organised

elements of the individual. Sensory in-put in turn depends on the condition of the

sense organs. Faulty sensory organs will result to faulty sensory in-put. This will

greatly influence the organized or disorganized foundation for future experiences.

47
 (b) Intelligence: This can be regarded as a biological element as well as a

physiological construct. In biological perspective, intelligence is influenced by the

number neurons comprising the brain. Darley, Glucksberge and Klincha (1986) hint

that each individual has 10-100 billion neurons in his brain. This follows that the

more brain cells an individual has the greater the cognitive facilities.

Psychologically, intelligence determines the patterns and mode of individual

adaptation of his environment. The higher the facility for adaptation the faster will

be the individual rate of cognitive development.

(c) Opportunities for Learning: The opportunities, which an individual has

for learning determines the amount of stimulation, which he receives. This in turn

influences the frequency of adaptations, which occur in the individual child. A

child who is brought up in an intellectually impoverished environment is likely to

lag behind his peer in cognitive development while the child who is reared in an

intellectually stimulating environment will be preconscious in cognitive

development.

(d) Type of Experience: The type of experience which a child receives

can be categorised into two; familiar and unfamiliar experiences. Familiar

experiences are those experiences related to the child’s organised element or

existing structure while unfamiliar experiences are not related to the child’s

existing structure. Familiar experiences promote assimilation while unfamiliar

48
experiences tend to promote accommodation. However, if experiences are too far

unrelated with pre-existing structure, the amount variation needed for

accommodation to occur may be much that confisibility occurs. Such confisibility

can through the child into a state of cognitive disequillibrium resulting from a

disorganisation to the existing structures. Teachers should ensure that the

experiences offered are at the child’s stage of development and are not too novel

to the child.

(e) Amount of Guidance: Guidance is needed in the promoting of

accommodation. Consider a child who had initially learnt to call all adults males

“Daddy”. If this child is one day told that a certain adult male visitor to the house is

not “Daddy”, he will need to be guided to develop a new category of concepts for

the visitor until this is done, the child may be thrown into a state of prolonged

cognitive disharmony.

(f) Sex: Sex is a biological as well as socio-cultural factor. Biologically,

sex influences the distribution of talents between groups (Fakunle, 1986) and

therefore affects the interest of males and female children alike.

Socio-culturally, sex labels what each person should do and in what

direction his/her interest should be developed. Since children are trained from

early childhood to think and act in a manner considered appropriate for members

of their sex, this is bound to influence their perception of objects in their

49
environment and consequently, their categorization.

(g) Language: This is a means of representing the environment in

symbolic form. Language influences cognitive development in that it determines

the facility with which the individual thinks and acts. Whether a child is capable of

pre-operational, concrete or abstract thinking depends on the amount of

vocabularies, which he has acquired.

Summary:

In this module, cognitive development has been identified as one of the

primary goals of the educational process. The term cognition was traced to Plato,

Aristotle and Cicero. As a construct, cognition involves the process of

differentiation and integration, that quality of mind which influences thinking,

capacity, responses, learning and adjustment.

Piaget’s model of cognitive development, which proceeds through the

sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete and formal operational stage has been

described. Bruner’s representational theory has also been examined. While Piaget’

s theory explains why children think the way they do, Bruner’s theory explains that

presentation of instruction should be made to suit the child’s stage of

representation.

Finally, seven factors were identified as influencing cognitive development.

These factors can be classified as biological, psychological and socio-cultural.

50
Parents, teachers and guardians have a great responsibility to moderate the

psychological and socio-cultural factors, which can influence the cognitive

development of the children.

Revision Questions:

1) Define the term; Cognition

2) Explain the terms organization, adaptation, assimilation, and

accommodation, and show how they help in fostering cognitive

development.

3) Describe Piaget’s model of cognitive development and examine its

implications to educational practice

4) Describe Bruner’s model of cognitive representation and show its

relationship with Piaget’s work.

5) List and explain the various factors influencing cognitive development.

6) Show how the knowledge of these factors can be used to foster the

development of children’s intelligence.

References

Ataha, U.C.(2011). Fundamentals of Human Learning and Development, Benin,

Vision Catalysts

Anwana, U.I. (1989). Psychology: Aspects of Human Development, Agbor,

Central Books Ltd

51
Biehlher, R.F. (1971). Psychology Applied to Teaching, Boston, Houghton Mifflin
Company

Burt, C. (1955). The Meaning and Concept of Intelligence, Eugenics Review, 47.
81-91

Butcher, H.J. (1968). Human Intelligence: Its Nature and Assessment, London,
Methuen & Co. Ltd

Conford, F.M. (1969). The Republic of Plato, London, Oxford University Press
Darley, J.M. , Glucksberg, S. & Wincha, R.A. (1986) Psychology, New Jersey,
Prentice-Hall Inc.

Fakunle, D. (1986). Fundamentals of Sex Education, Nigerian Journal of

Educational Psychology, 1(1),45-52

Heim, A.W. (1970). The appraisal of Intelligence, Bristol, J.W.Arrow-Smith

Hunt, J.M (1961). Intelligence and Experience, New York, McGraw-Hill Book
company Inc.

Hurlock, E. (1972). Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company

Inc

Kuhlman, C. (1960). Visual Imagery in Children, Unpublished Doctoral

Dissertation, Harvad University, cited in J. turner(1975) . Cognitive
Development

Manaster, G.J. (1977). Adolescent Development and the Life Tasks, Boston,
Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Mukherjee, A. (1978). Educational Psychology, India, K.P.Basu Publishing Co

Mussen, P.H, Conger, J.J., Kagan,J & Huston, A.C.(1984) Child Development
and Personality, New York, Harper and Row

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood, New York, W.W.
Boston & Company Ltd
Piaget, J. (1963). The Origin of Intelligence in Children, New York, W.W. Boston
& Company Ltd

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Sanstrom, C.I (1979). The Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence,
Hamondsworth, Pengiun Books

Spearman, C. (1927). The Abilities of Man, London, Macmillan

Stones, E. (1966). An Introduction to Educational Psychology, London Methuen

and Co. Ltd

Thorndike, E.L. (1922). Practice Effects in Intelligence Tests, Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 5, 101-107

Turner, J. (1975). Cognitive Development, London, Methuen and Co. Ltd

Uba, A. (1980). Fundamental Psychology of Childhood and Adolesence, Ibadan,

Claverianum Press

Vernon, P.E. (1960). Intelligence and Attaiment Tests, London, University Press
Ltd

Wilson, J.A.R., Robeck, M.C.& Michael, W.B. (1969). Psychological Foundations

of Learning and Teaching, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company

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MODULE 5

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Objectives

At the end of unit 1, students should be able to;

a. Explain the meaning of Social Development.

b. Know and discuss the Agents of Socialisation.

c. Discuss fully the Social Development and Developmental tasks during

Infancy, Early Childhood, Middle, Late Childhood and Adolescence.

d. Give at least five Educational Implication of Social Development

UNIT 1

Meaning of Social Development

Social development, which is used interchangeable with the term ‘socialisation’

may be defined as the manner in which the child gradually becomes adjusted in his
pattern of relationship with his fellow men in line with social norms and value.
Hurlock (1979) defines social development as the acquisition of the ability to
behave in accordance with social expectations. In other words, to be socialised
means that the individual behaves in such a way that is acceptable to the social
group which he belongs. Social development, therefore can be defined as a
process by which is confined within a much narrower range, the range of which is
customary and acceptable according to the standards of his group.

Man is basically a social animal. He is born, develops and progresses within the
society. The home is a microcosm of the society and this is where social
development starts at infancy and childhood. Social development and adjustment
of the child starts from early infancy, 0 – 2years. The foundation of social
development is laid by the parents in the family setting. The success of future

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social adjustment depends largely on the parents and other members of the family
who lay the foundation of social development. However, the child has the closest
contact with the mother and is likely to be influenced greatly by the personality of
the mother.

Socialisation which is a process through which individuals learn the ways of a

group or society begins at birth and continues throughout life. During the first few
months of a baby’s life, social activities are directed towards satisfying the infant’s
biological and economic needs of warmth, food and human contact. The kind of
care that babies receive will strongly influence their perceptions, attitudes and
feelings about the world. Infants whose needs are met promptly with positive
emotional overtures begin to view the world as safe and comfortable, whereas,
children who receive care that is inadequate, inconsistent or emotionally rejected
may know the social environment as hostile or untrustworthy. If the socialisation
process is to be effective, the emotional relationship between parents and the
child must flow in both directions.

Hurlock identified three processes of socialisation as;

1. Learning to behave in socially approved ways;

2. Playing approved social roles; and

3. Developing of social attitudes

During the process of socialisation, the individual learns to behave in a manner

approved by the social group, since every social group has its own standard of
what is ‘proper’ behaviour. Secondly, every social group has its own expected
patterns of behaviour for various sexes and groups. For example, there are some
socially prescribed roles of parents, children, siblings, sons, daughters, wives,
husbands, grandparents, teachers, pupils etc. A social role is a pattern of
customary behaviour which is defined and expected by members of a given social
group.

The third process involves development of social attitudes. Since socialisation

is a learning process the appropriate social attitude is gradually developed through
interactions with the agents of socialisation at home, at work place and within the
community.

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 These three processes of socialisation as proposed by Hurlock agree with the
definition of socialisation by Mussen et al. [1974]. They opined that socialisation is
a process by which the individual acquires those behavioural patterns, beliefs,
standards and motives that are valued by, and appropriate in his own cultural
group and family.

UNIT 2

Agents of Socialisation

The individual as a central agent of socialisation process plays very active roles
without which socialisation cannot take place. The individual is the socialised
while the other agents act as the socialisers, without the individual’s active
involvement, socialisation will not take place. the individual’s interaction with the
family, peers and significant others in the community brings about socialisation.
Although, there are some universal aspects of socialisation but the very culture in
which the child grows up prescribes both the content and method of socialisation.
The cultural milieu of the child influences his training/upbringing, his personality
characteristics, motives, attitudes and values. In all cultures, children must be
cared for, fed and toilet-trained. However, variations arise in the permissiveness or
restrictiveness with respect to carrying out these responsibilities. Every culture has
it s own method of child rearing specific to it. The agents of socialisation in a given
culture have great impact on the social development of the individual.

According to Brinkerhoft and Lynn (1985), the agents of socialisation have

significant impact on the development of personality, self-concept and social roles
throughout life.

The major agents of socialisation will be discussed in this chapter: the family,
the school, peer group, mass media, religion, and the community.

The Family

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 The family is considered the first and foremost agent of socialisation since it is
regarded as the ‘seat of learning’. For the development of social skills and
attitudes, it is generally believed that children who have satisfactory social
relationship with members of their family can extend such relationship to others
outside the home. The new born baby begins life with very few specific emotions
or motivational responses to people. He has no innate tendencies to love, hate,
fear, approach or avoids people. His experience with human beings during the first
year lays the foundation for his future attitudes towards them. His reactions to the
person or persons who care for him, in most cases the mother can form the
nucleus for his later behaviour towards others. Hence, the family in which the
individual is born into determines to a large extent his social and personality
characteristics. If the home environment is favourable, the chances are that
favourable social attitudes will be developed by the child. If, on the other hand, the
home atmosphere is marked by constant friction and tension the chances that
unfavourable social attitudes will be developed becomes great. Other family
factors that may affect early social experiences are;

1. Family composition;

2. Characteristics of the parents; and

3. Structure of parental authority.

The school

Education, which is known as a vehicle for social change is formally received in

the school. Hence, the important role of the school as an agent of socialisation
should not be over looked. The school offers the child the first extended
relationship with the ‘outside world’. The school is the first place the child
undergoes a formal and planned process of socialisation.

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 The school takes over from the parents after the initial primary socialisation in
the family. Parsons (1961) asserted that after the family has initiated primary
socialisation, the school takes over as the focal socialising agency. The skills,
attitudes, values and abilities necessary for a functional adult life. Through the
school curriculum, the society’s cultural values and ideologies are transmitted.
Specifically, psychomotor, affective and cognitive skills are developed through
relevant school subjects and co-curricular activities. The school helps children to
acquire:

a. Acceptable moral behaviour;

b. Respect for constituted authority and obedience to rules and regulations;

c. Appreciate individual differences;

d. Survival skills; and

e. Cultural values.

The Peer Group

The peer group of a child plays a major role during the middle childhood years.
The peer group provides the child with immediate satisfaction and integrates him
faster into the broader social world. Peer group influence has greater impact in
school than at home. Peer group is referred to as the child’s friends or equals,
classmates or individuals of identical interest.

The child’s basic social attitudes are greatly influenced by peer groups since
there is a growing tendency among peer to adopt the values and attitudes of
others. If a child’s relationships with peers outside home are favourable, he will
enjoy social contacts and want to repeat them. Whereas, if they are unpleasant or
frightening, he will want to avoid such contacts in the future, he will develop

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unfavourable attitude toward outsiders and will fall back on the companionship of
family members. The reverse is the case if the family relationship is unpleasant.
Peer group socialisation affects the child’s developments of self-concept, provides
the opportunity for self-learning through role taking, provides the mechanism for
learning social roles and values that adult do not want to teach. The peer group
modifies the child’s views and behaviour by making him submit to the wishes of
the peer group. For example, certain behavioural patterns such as stinginess or
over dependency learnt at home may not be acceptable by the peer group. The
peer group influence is remarkable on the child’s personality, self concept and
social identity and so the peer interaction should be carefully monitored by the
stakeholders of children.

Mass Media

Another important agent of socialisation in this era is the mass media. Studies
have shown that the mass have some positive and negative influences on children.
Bandura (1963) and Bradley (1975) carried out an experiment on the relationship
between television viewing and aggressive behaviour. They noted that children
subjected to scenes of violence during the experiment exhibited more violent
behaviour than children in the control group who were not exposed to violent
scenes. However, there are some positive socialisation function of mass media e.g.
most information received through the media like television, novels, newspapers,
journals and magazines tend to widen the academic horizon of the child, speed up
their intellectual and social growth and serve as role models for their future
careers. There is need to censor and edit information that reaches growing
children inorder to limit their exposure to negative socialisation through the media
e.g. horror film, pornographic displays, ritual murder, suicide cases and other
negative vices. Other agents of socialisation include the community, religion, clubs

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and societies and work environment etc.

The community as well as religious affiliation, clubs and societies and job
settings affect the social development of individual community whether rural or
urban. It provides the infrastructure and environment needed for socialisation.
Rural areas may not have libraries, standard play ground, and audio-visual aids that
enhance the achievement motivation of youths. Societal values like honesty,
sharing, caring, hospitality, obedience and hard work are reinforced by religion.

Development of Social Consciousness

As the child grows, he comes into contact with many forces that influence his
behaviour in both positive and negative dimensions. The child learns in the context
of a social situation how his behaviour is rated by other people’s reactions and
responses. There are some basic processes of social learning that enhance the
development of social consciousness among children

Four processes of social learning will be briefly discussed here:

1. Observational learning;

2. Imitation;

3. Identification; and

4. Reinforcement.

The first three processes are inter-related and for social development to take
place, the child must go through the three processes. When a child observes a
behaviour, he tries to imitate it if it appeals to him, he will desire to identity with
this model. For example, if a child admirers his teacher, the tendency is to learn to
behave like him. Pre-school children easily copy their parents or relatives behaviour

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as models, whereas, school age children copy their teachers and peer groups
behaviour. The individual continues to exhibit the model’s behaviour if he is
reinforced. Reinforcement is any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a
response re-occurring.

UNIT 3

Social Development and Developmental tasks during Infancy, Early

Childhood, Middle, Late Childhood and Adolescence

Infancy period generally fall between 0-2 years while early child hood is
between 2-6 years. The new born begins life with very few specific emotional or
motivational responses to other people. He has no innate tendencies to love, hate,
fear approach or avoid people. However, it should be noted that the child’s
experiences with his care-takers during the first year, lay the foundation for his
future attitude towards people. Therefore, extreme neglect at this period may lead
to unfavourable social relationships. The infant exhibits a very small set of
responses called ‘REFLEXES’ which are not learnt, e.g. suckling on nipple, crying in
response to pain or discomfort, smiling etc. These are adaptive responses
necessary for the baby’s survival and adaptation to the environment. There are
other reflexes that reflect the state of the infant’s nervous system, for example, the
grasp reflex (closing hand tightly), the babinski reflex (extension of the big toe and
fanning out of the toes when the sole of the foot is stroked). Maturational
responses develop with no special tutoring in the formal sense. Every child will
creep, stand, walk, sit-up and grasp objects when ready. Learning responses are
different from the above; they are acquired in a specific sense e.g. writing,
colouring, singing, footballing, swimming, and sailing. Other indices of social
development are looking, vocalising, babbling, speech development etc. The size

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of the baby’s vocabulary during infancy and early childhood depends on so many
factors such as intelligence, rich social environment, incentives and opportunity to
learn new words.

Human infants generally begin life as dependent egocentric creatures. They are
concerned only about the satisfaction of their needs and the speed and devotion
with which these needs are satisfied. They begin to love the person who satisfies
their physical needs, usually their mothers and significant others when they start
nursery school. The child who does not experience love early in life is likely to live a
life of isolation at adulthood. During the early childhood after the infancy period,
the child learns that he is no longer going to be allowed to play, cry, sleep or eat
according to his own desires. He learns to gradually instils discipline in the child.

Developmental Tasks during Infancy and Early Childhood

1. Walking, playing, talking.

2. Taking of solid food.

3. Controlling elimination of waste.

4. Learns sex differences and sexual modesty.

5. Achieves physiological stability.

6. Learns simple concepts of social and physical reality.

7. Learns how to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings and other

people.

8. Learns to distinguish right from wrong and developing of conscience and

character.

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Social Development during Middle and late Childhood 6-11years

The socialisation of the child that started during the pre-school years reaches
its climax in the middle childhood. The social development of the child is
influenced by the quality of interaction at home but mainly in the school. The
teacher should motivate the child to achieve, since children, during the first three
years of primary school are fascinated by their accomplishment. Any
discouragement at this stage will lead to despondent action that may result in
regressive behaviour such as inferiority complex, low self-concept and dependency.
Since children spend more hour interacting consciously with others in the school,
the excessive egocentrism of early childhood begins to give way as social maturity
sets in. At this period, children begin to master their environment through activities
carried out in groups like playing football, cooking, sewing, collecting items e.g.
bottle tops. Teachers should provide materials and opportunities to direct
excess energy to constructive activities with defined goals.

During the later childhood years, peer group formation becomes more
pronounced and powerful. At this period, it is referred to as ‘gang age’; an age
when social consciousness develops rapidly and when becoming socialised is one
of the major developmental tasks. They find increasing pleasure in being with
small groups of their own sex-all boys or all girls. They become restless and
unhappy if restrained from being with their friends even for a few hours. The
typical child gang is a play group, made up of children who have common play
interests; its primary purpose is to have a good time, though occasionally, having a
good time may lead to mischief making. Children at this age group become more
interested in doing what their gang likes as against what their parents or teachers
instruct. They want to identify with their gang group and conform to their set
standard of conduct. Parents, guardians and teachers should watch closely and

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ascertain the type of friends their children/pupils keep as they have great influence
on their behaviour and character. In view of this early monitoring, guidance and
counselling of the children is paramount at this developmental stage.

Developmental Tasks of Middle/Late Childhood

1. Acquisition of physical and psychomotor skills through activities like

games, drawings etc.

2. Building wholesome attitudes towards oneself.

3. Learning to get along with age mates.

4. Learning appropriate masculine and feminine roles.

5. Developing fundamental rules in reading, writing and calculating.

6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.

7. Developing conscience, morality and a sense of value.

8. Achieving/developing personal independence.

9. Developing appropriate attitude towards social groups and institutions.

Social Development during Adolescence 11-19years

Adolescence is the transition between childhood and adulthood stage and is

characterised by very rapid physical development. The adolescent is neither
regarded as a child nor as an adult. As the adolescent is trying to cope with the
rapid physical, emotional and mental growth, the socialisation process is making
conflicting demands. At puberty, which coincides with early adolescence,
(generally between ages 11-14), there is a change in social attitudes, a decline in
group activities and tendency to prefer a solitary life. Because of the anti-social

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behaviour characteristic of this age, puberty is sometimes called the ‘’negative
phase’’ and ‘’a period of disequilibrium’’. The disharmony between the developing
adolescent’s view of life and the societal expectations create the inevitable storm
and stress in their lives. Adolescent easily find socialisation sources outside home
among their peer group. In the process, they often begin to view home with
scepticism; they see it as more restrictive and primitive than other sources of
social interaction. Socially, adolescents find approval among their friends more
important than parental approval and as a result he pays little attention to parental
authority at home. Most parents interpret this behaviour of adolescents as
rejection of home and adopt autocratic child rearing style. It should be noted that
adolescents desire behavioural autonomy and this is not acceptable to most
parents and so they view adolescents as rebellious while they in turn view their
parents as old fashioned. They often think that accepting parental values will put
them out of step with their peers. Adolescent period is usually a problematic
period in family life. Parents need to have close interaction with the adolescents in
a free and conducive atmosphere to allow them air their views while they explain
the likely dangers in the decisions they might take and their ugly consequences, e.
g. cultism, drug abuse, sexual promiscuity. It is advisable to maintain good
relationship with the adolescents so that you can easily identify any anti-social
behaviour. Parents and teachers should accept them as individuals with peculiar
needs (mental, physical, physiological, emotional and spiritual) different from
those of others and assist them accordingly to go through this stage.

Developmental Tasks of Adolescents 11-19 years

1. Achieving new and more mature relationship with age mates of both sexes.

2. Achieving a masculine or feminine role.

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3. Accepting ones physique and using the body effectively.

4. Achieving assurance of economic independence.

5. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.

6. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour,

7. Acquiring a set of values and ethical standards.

8. Selecting and preparing for an occupation.

9. Preparing for marriage and family life.

Measurement of Social Maturity

Allport (1961) states that the first sign of social maturity is the individual’s
extension of himself to his surrounding environment. Moore (1969) noted that
social maturity is determined through an individual’s readiness to relate with his
immediate environment and the rate at which he identifies with social tasks.

Havighurst (1952) suggests that an individual develops socially in three stages;

the first stage of maturity is the developmental task of young adults; selection of
mates for marriage; learning to adjust and live in harmony with life partner; bearing
children; home management; making choice of career or continues education,
assumes some types of civic responsibility and searches for a congenial social
group.

At the second stage, the social maturity is shifted to efforts made to achieve
civic and social responsibilities which include the following: the establishment and
maintenance of an economical standard of living, assisting teenage children
become responsible and relating more effectively with one’s spouse.

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 At the third stage, individuals seek to affiliate more with their age groups and to
meet their social and civic responsibilities.

Teachers may study the social structure of a classroom by asking students to

make certain meaningful choices such as whom ‘’would you like to work with if
given a group assignment’’. Each individual is allowed to choose an individual he
would like to work with. At the end of the exercise you will be able to sketch a
sociogram that shows the social structure of the group. The individual more
frequently chosen by different persons is the ‘star’ of the group while the individual
hardly chosen by any one is the ‘isolate’ of the group. The isolate should be
involved more in-group activities to develop socially.

Social competence can be measured through sociometric techniques.

Sociometry is the study of inter-relationships amongst members of a group, other
techniques that can be used to rate others as well as oneself is the Q sort,
semantic differentials and rating scales. Researchers have agreed that a
multidimensional approach to the assessment of social competence is the most
useful. The five methods most typically used are: direct behavioural observation;
behaviour rating scales; sociometric approaches; interviewing techniques; and
self-reports.

There are other psychological constructs that are indices for measuring social
maturity, level of tolerance, aggressive tendency, and jealousy.

UNIT 4

Educational Implications of Social Development

Very early in social development, the child finds it difficult to get along with other
children. They quarrel and are hostile to themselves over sharing of toys and other

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play materials in their co-operative play activities. Parents and teachers of the
pre-school children must learn to recognise the patterns of play among their pupils
and encourage co-operative activities among them.

The child’s social and personality development is influence by the type of family
he comes from. A child from a more open and democratic family tends to be more
confident and friendly than a child from an autocratic home who may be
aggressive and unsociable. Parents need to be educated on the various child
rearing practices and their varying effects on the character of the growing child.

It should be noted that when social development is hampered in a child, it leads

to obvious behavioural disorder affecting academic progress, we term this
maladjustment. Such a child needs special attention in the midst of others. A
professionally trained guidance counsellor could assist in resolving the conflict for
goal achievement.

It is important to identify the isolates in the class and encourage them to work
with others to enhance their self-concept. Use the socio-metric technique to
identify the stars and isolates in the class and assist them accordingly.

Identify deficiencies and strengths among them, give assignments that each
child will benefit from in order to identify their innate latent potentials e.g.
leadership roles, help to build up their self-concept and esteem through activities
that act as motivators.

Adolescents need parents/teachers acceptance and reassurance; this provides

an important emotional linkage to bridge the generation gap. The counsellors
should acts as consultants between the adolescents and their parents/guardians.

Adolescents need to be allowed some freedom in taking decisions while the

adult moderates in a logical way. Do not merely tell the adolescent to desist from

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an anti-social behaviour, or from taking a decision, advance logical reasons and
likely repercussions which may result, e.g. let the adolescent know that the
consequences of premarital sex and sexual promiscuity are early pregnancy,
sexually transmissible disease among other problems. You can narrate past
misfortunes that befall adolescents who were rebellious.

Teachers should organise informal activities that can bring adolescents close to
each other in order to share the interest and aspirations of others. Through
excursions, games and debates, adolescents can discover and develop their
talents, ideas, values and interests.

It is paramount that all the stakeholders of children should develop positive

attitude towards the upbringing of their children to ensure a smooth social
development and balanced adult personality.

Revision Questions

1. What do you understand by the term ‘Social Development’?

2. Discuss in details the agents of socialisation.

3. What are the factors that affect the development of social consciousness?

4. What are the features of social development during infancy?

5. Discuss the development tasks of adolescents?

6. What do you consider the educational and counselling implications of social

development?

References

Bandura, A. (1963), in Ekennia et al (1998). What Television violence can do to

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your child in Educational Psychology: An Introductory Survey, Oweni Novelty
Enterprises Limited.

Brandley, S. G (1975). British Children and Television Violence, public opinion

38, winter, Quarterly.

Brinkerhoft, D.B and Lynn, K.W. (1985). Sociology, New York; West Publishing
Company.

Erikson, H.E (1974). Identity, youth and crisis; London: Faber and Faber.

Hurlock, E. (1979). Child Development, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company

Inc.

Mussen, P.H., Conger, J.J. and Kagan, J. (1974). Child Development and
Personality, 4th Edition. New York, Harper and Row.

Parsons, T. (1961). The school class as a social system, in Halsey, Flond and
Anderson. Essays in sociological theory. New York: The Free Press.

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 MODULE 6

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Objectives

At the end of Module 7, the students should be able to;

a. Explain the meaning of Personality Development.

b. Know and discuss factors affecting Personality Development and their effects

c. Know the approaches to the study of Personality.

d. Discuss the structure of Personality by Sigmund Freud and the Psycho-sexual

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 stages

e. Discuss Implications of Freud’s Personality Development.

UNIT 1. WHAT IS PERSONALITY?

The origin of the term personality is from a Latin derivative
“persona” which means mask. In the ancient Rome, actors wore masks called ‘persona’ to
indicate the personality characteristics of the roles they played. Personality here, is
equated with overt behaviour and appearance of individual actors. This is not always so,
because the internal psychological conditions have not been considered relevant as a
personality dimension. Hence, Allport’s definition appears more encompassing.
Allport(1961) defines personality as the dynamic organization within the individual of
those psycho-physical systems that determine his/her characteristic behaviour of thought.
According to English and
English(1968), most personality psychologists restrict the use of the term ‘personality’ to
non-intellectual traits, applying it particularly to the traits which determine a person’s
social effectiveness and happiness in life.
Although the word ‘personality’ is used in various senses, most of these
popular meanings fall under two main areas. The first use equates the term to social skills
or adroitness. An individual’s personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which
he/she is able to elicit positive reaction from a variety of persons under different
circumstances. The second usage considers the personality of the individual to consist of
the most outstanding or salient impression that he/she creates in others. A person may be
said to have an aggressive personality, a submissive personality or fearful personality.
Despite the plethora of definitions, there is some basic agreement among investigators
that personality is a hypothetical construct i.e. an abstraction, which refers to an internal,
mediating state of the individual. Most psychologists regard personality as relatively
stable. Eysenck defines personality as a more or less stable and enduring organization of
a person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique, which determines his unique
adjustment to the environment. A common idea that is inherent in most definitions of
personality is the distinctive patterns of behaviour (including thoughts and emotions that
characterize each individual’s adaptations to the situations of his/her life.
The human
personality is formed and modified by the interaction between the biological man and his
environment or between the entities known in psychology as nature and nurture.
Personality development is such a vast area in counseling psychology that no one
approach can exhaustively discuss the numerous conditions and events throughout the
developmental period.

UNIT 2. FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND THEIR EFFECTS.

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 Personality development and social development are
inter-related. Three major factors responsible for the development of personality are:
1) hereditary endowment;
2) early experiences in the family; and
3) events of later life.
In this chapter we are going to discuss briefly the effect of some major factors of
personality development such as:
1) Genetic or hereditary factors.
2) Somatic or physiological factors.
3) Parental factors.
4) School and peer factors.
5) Cultural factors.

Genetic or Hereditary Factors

The question whether a given personality trait shared by a
parent and a child has been genetically inherited or imparted by the parents to the child
(through social interaction) has been widely researched. The results from several studies
on fraternal and identical twins suggests that hereditary plays a major role in determining
an individual’s personality. Identical twins have identical genetic make-up, larger samples
of identical of identical twins ranked closer in several scales of personality assessment
than the fraternal twins. Even when the identical twins were reared in various
environments, they were more alike in personality characteristics, suggesting the strong
influence of hereditary on personality development. The question of the relative influence
of hereditary and environment is complicated by the interaction of those influences and its
tendency to intensify certain traits. For example, a child’s achievement is closely related to
his/her environment and hereditary. Environmental factors can either strengthen or
weaken the innate ability to achieve. In a social environment in which achievement is not
recognized and reinforced, the child is less likely to develop his/her innate ability to
achieve later in life.

Somatic or Physiological Factors

Some studies on the influence of hereditary on personality characteristics have focused
on somatic factors or physiological traits like physique, hormonal balance and the sense
organs. It should be noted that the influence of the environment on the foetus, begins even
before birth. The mother’s health, temperament, diet, all affect the characteristics of the
infant. Sheldon, an American physician in 1942 classified personality on the basis of
somatic characteristics. He isolated three primary components of human physique –
endomorphy , mesomorphy and ectomorphy. He was able to isolate three major
temperamental components. He noticed a high correlation between physique and
temperament. The three major temperament components are viscerotonia, somatonia and

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cerebrotonia. Each of these, according to Sheldon tends to be accompanied by specific
human physique. The viscerotonia temperament loves eating, is highly sociable and
relaxed and these are mainly endomorphs who have a rounded soft spherical body. The
somatonias are energetic, courageous and assertive personalities and they are mainly
mesomorphs who have hard rectangular body. The cerebrotonias are introverted, fearful
and reserved, they are mainly ectomorphs who have a delicate, lean body with a flat chest.
However
, the belief that an individual’s temperament can be predicted from his physique and vice
versa has been met with criticisms.

Parental Factors
Several studies of early childhood experiences have generally
indicated that the child’s relationship with his/her mother in his/her early years has
important environmental influence in the development of adult personality (Freud and
Harlow 1963, Erikson, 1963). A study of a group of infants raised by their natural mothers
showed that the level of the child’s emotional and intellectual development was directly
related to the amount and quality of his interaction with his mother. The mother-child
relationship is crucial to normal personality development. Human infants are totally
dependent at birth and usually require a longer period of post-natal care than any other
species. Bowlby (1958) proposes the five infantile instincts to explain the importance of
the mother-child tie. The child’s attachment to his/her mother is related to five instinctive
responses – sucking, crying, smiling, clinging and following. Immediately after the birth,
only the crying and sucking instincts are expressed. Thereafter,during the first 6 months,
smiling, clinging and following instincts emerge. Failure to establish mother-child
attachment due to mother’s absence or neglect result in abnormal personality
development. The father’s closeness to the child is also important in the development of a
normal personality. The influence of the father is probably most important in connection
with the child’s sexual development. Parental personality, attitudes and character
influences the developing child.

School and Peer Factors

Another important social factor that influences the child’s personality after the home is the
school environment and the peer group generally wields a significant influence in the
intellectual, emotional and social behaviour. The socializing forces of the peer group
mainly affect the child. According to Carl Rogers, an individual develops normally if he/she
experiences unconditional positive regard from a significant others. When the child goes
to school, he/she meets with academic success or failure. These experiences can either
be beneficial or destructive to the developing personality depending on the child’s
psychological adjustment. Maria Montessorri and Jean Piaget emphasize interaction with
peers as the principal means of overcoming some shortcomings in personality

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development of egocentrism in learning. Alutu (1998) also opined that healthy
teacher-student interaction will help in the realization of expected discipline and good
conduct among students. Glasser (1969) criticized the school in the role they play in
blocking the total personality development of students who are unable to compete
academically, he noted that educational institutions reward only students who perform
well with little or no attention given to other aspects of learning experience. Through the
school, the social norms of the society are imparted to the child so as to make him/her
able to adjust in the larger society. If the school fails in this task, the child shows signs of
maladjustment and resentment. The teacher’s constitute a major influence on the child’s
personality development. Children who relate well with their teachers are more confident
and progressive. The influence of the peer group on social development and personality
becomes more glaring as the child becomes an adolescent.

Cultural Factors
The culture in which a child grows up determines to a large
extent the child’s personality make up. There are different child rearing practices in various
cultures and subcultures and these have their significant effects on the child’s personality
development. In some cultures and social classes, children are breast-fed longer, weaned
and toilet trained at a later age compared with other cultures. In addition, in some cultures,
parents will use physical punishment to discipline while others will rely more on reasoning,
isolation, appeal to guilt and other methods involving the threat of loss of love. All these
variations in child rearing practices account for the observed differences in personality
traits among individuals. The cultural milieu of the individual is an interplay of hereditary,
parental, school and peer group factors. So far, in this chapter, we have been able to
demonstrate that neither somatic factors nor parental, peer and cultural factor operate in
isolation. The reader is referred to this chapter on child rearing practices across cultures
for details on cultural factors on their influence on the development of personality.

Personality Theories
There is a conglomeration of theories of personality due to the disagreement among great
psychologists on which is the best theory. As had been mentioned earlier, there is no
universally acceptable definition of the term ‘personality’ so it is with the term ‘personality
theory’. There are as many definitions and views on personality as there are many
personality theories. A theory is a set of models or conventions (created by the theorists)
containing a cluster of relevant assumptions, systematically related to each other within a
set of empirical definition.

UNIT 3. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY

In this chapter, attempt will be made to review some of the outstanding
approaches to the study of personality. These approaches to the study of personality will

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be discussed briefly. 1) Type theories.
2) Trait
theories.
3) Psycho-dynamic theories.
4) Social behaviour theories.
5) Phenomenological theories.

Type Theories
The type theory is the oldest approach to the study of personality. This theory was first
propounded in 400 B.C by the Greek physician, Socrates. He believed that, there were four
main types of temperaments, which were biologically determined by four corresponding
body fluids or humors. Although modern physiology has discredited the theory on the
basis that it tends to categorize people into static types which may not be so in reality, this
classification is still in use today.

The type theory of personality

S/N Temperament Body humor/ fluid Character

1 Sanguine Blood Active , hopeful.

2 Choleric Yellow bile Irritable, quick to anger.

3 Phlegmatic Phlegm Calm, temperamentally

sluggish.
4 Melancholic Black bile Depressed, slow
and pessimistic.

Other type theories were proposed by Carl Jung

(1923). He identified two opposing characteristic types in man; introversion and
extroversion. Ernest
Kretschmen, a German Psychiatrist and William Sheldon, an American surgeon came up
with the constitutional type. William Sheldon’s constitutional theory had been briefly
presented under personality factors.

Trait Theories
Trait and type theories are related in that they both
developed out of the most basic impulses to categorize and label the behaviour of others.
Trait may be defined as a property within the individual that accounts for his unique but
relatively stable reaction to the environment. Raymond Catell was probably the most
influential of the trait theorists. For Catell, traits are more than descriptive epithets, they
are basic components of personality in much the same way that molecules are

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compounds of matter. Trait theory studies have attempted to introduce order into the
description of human behaviour. Catell’s trait scale, tests for 16 different traits in order of
their statistical value; personality factor ‘A’ being the most significant factor contributing
to individual differences. It accounts for most of the person’s unique personality. Factors
further down the list contribute progressively less to individual differences. Another
outstanding trait psychologist was Gordon Allport. He posited that traits are determining
tendencies or predispositions to respond to stimulus.

Psycho-dynamic Theories
The psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud is a psycho-dynamic theory.
Freud’s theory of personality, otherwise known as psychoanalytic theory of
personality was the first formal theory of personality and till today remains unique among
other later theories. Almost all the later theories of personality owe a debt to Freud’s
ideologies. His theory has inspired other viewpoints and they have either built on it or
refined it by their criticisms. The Freudian movement – psychoanalysis, was both a
complex school of thought and a therapeutic procedure of treating emotional
disturbances. His revolutionary idea attracted other theorists of human behaviour, some
of whom amplified and extended his own ideas – the neo Freudians-Carl Jung, Erich
Fromm, Erik Erikson, Alfred Adler etc. Others broke away and established systematic
theoretical formulations of their own (post Freudians) phenomenological theory of Gordon
Allport, Carl Rogers, Lewin’s field theory etc.
The word psychoanalysis, comes from two words namely ‘psyche’ which
means ‘soul’ and ‘analysis’ which implies ‘taking part’ – taking soul apart = psychoanalysis.
His theory grew out of his practice and encounter with individuals who had psychosomatic
illness.

UNIT 4. BRIEF HISTORY OF SIGMUND FREUD, STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY BY

SIGMUND FREUD AND PSYCHO SEXUAL STAGES
Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in Monrovia, what is
today called Czechoslovakia. He was the oldest son of his father’s second wife. His father
was a poor wool merchant. His mother had him at the age of twenty and her lovely and
protective care of Freud contributed to his sexual attachment to her.
Freud showed high intellectual ability at an early stage in life. He read medicine in
the University in Vienna in 1873 and graduated in 1880. In 1881, he started private practice
as a clinical neurologist. In 1897, when Freud was 41years old, he conducted his most
creative work developing the core of his theory of personality. He died of cancer of the jaw
in 1939. Before his death, he made marked contributions in his psychoanalytical theory.

Freud’s View of Human Nature

Freud believes that man is controlled by irrational forces,

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unconscious motivations, biological and instinctual drives. According to Freud, instincts
are the motivating forces of all human behaviour. He grouped instincts into two
categories: 1) Life Instincts 2) Death Instincts.
Life Instincts (Eros): These serve the purpose of satisfying the individual’s need for
food, water, air and sex. The form of psychic energy manifested by life instincts is called
Libido, which are oriented towards growth, development and creativity of the individuals
concerned. Life instincts include all pleasurable acts and avoidance of painful situation.
Death Instincts (Thanatos):
This is associated with aggressive tendencies in man. The aggressive drive compels us to
destroy, conquer and kill. Freud saw the process of living and nature of man as the
continuous effort to cope with a central conflict – how to satisfy one’s instincts (life and
death) without infringing on society’s rules and without suffering much personal shame
and guilt.

The Structure of Personality

Freud’s structure of personality is based on
three levels of mental processing: the conscious, the pre-conscious and the unconscious.

The conscious: is all that we are aware of in ourselves and environment. He

considered the conscious to be small and limited aspect of our personality because a
small proportion of our thoughts, sensations and memories exist in conscious awareness
at any point in time. The unconscious:
encompasses those events, wishes, desires and impulse that have been repressed from
the conscious mind. It contains the major driving power behind our behaviour and is the
repository of forces we cannot see or control.
The pre-conscious: mediates between the conscious
and unconscious. This is a store house of all memory perceptions and thoughts which we
are not consciously aware of at the moment but which we can easily bring into
consciousness, if not, it will be repressed into unconscious. By 1923, Freud revised this
notion and introduced the basic structure of personality, the ‘Id’, the ‘ego’ and the
‘super-ego’.

The Structure of Personality

The ‘Id’: is the seat of all drives and instincts which focus
primarily on alleviation of hunger, always seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. The ‘Id’ is
without reason, logic, values, morals, ethics, or reality. It seeks immediate gratification of
some basic needs of hunger, sex and need for money.

Ego: Ego is the seat of rational thoughts and largely conscious. It mediates between the
demands of the ‘Id’, the realities of the world and the demands of the super ego. The ego

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operates within the reality principles. The job of the ego is to keep the ‘Id’ in check by
rejecting its primitive and amoral forces.

Super ego: This is equivalent to conscience. It represents the internalized values and
morals of the society, taught to the child by the parents and significant others. The ‘super
ego’ seeks moral judgement and strives for perfection. An individual whose super ego
dominates his behaviour is highly moralistic while the individual who is dominated by ‘Id’
tends to be impulsive in his/her behaviour. The ‘Id’ seeks pleasure, ‘ego’ tests reality and
‘super ego’ strives for perfection. Frustrations that may be due to conflicting demands is
resolved through the ego-defense mechanisms.
Ego-defense mechanisms help individuals to cope with anxiety and defend
the wounded ego. They operate at an unconscious level. Ego defense mechanisms
consist of special kinds of effort to cope with the psychological stress that arouse from
the conflicts between the demands of the ‘Id’ and ‘super-ego’. For example, one way we
deal with the inevitable issue of dying is to avoid thinking or speaking about the subject
most of the time i.e. repression or denial. Other ego-defense mechanisms are:
1) fantasy;
2) compensation;
3) identification;
4) projection;
5) repression;
6) reaction formation;
7)
displacement;
8) emotional insulation;
9) sublimation;
10) regression; and
11) rationalism.

Freud Psycho-Sexual Stages of Personality Development

Freud believes that a person’s unique character develops during childhood from the nature
of parent- child interaction. He believes that adult personality was solidly crystalised by the
fifth year of life. In each of the stages, this is a conflict that must be satisfactorily resolved
before the child can move to the next stage, otherwise, the individual becomes ‘fixated’ at
that stage of development. Fixation is caused by too great an intensity of the inevitable
conflict experienced at each stage of development. The
Pre-genital stage
psycho-sexual stages of personality development involve five main stages namely:
Oral stage - Birth- 1 yr)
(Post genital stage)
Anal stage - 1-3 yrs)
(puberty and
Phallic stage - 3-5 yrs)

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 Latency stage - 5-12 yrs)
Genital stage - 12-18 yrs.
and
older)

Oral Stage
There are two modes of activities during this stage namely:
1) oral incorporative behaviour ; and
2) oral aggressive or sadistic behaviour.
These early behaviours are considered to be the proto-types of some later adult behaviour.
The oral incorporative occurs first and it involves pleasurable
simulations on the mouth regions. E.g. sucking the mother’s breast. Adults now exhibit
excessive oral incorporative need, such as eating, chewing, talking, smoking, kissing,
drinking are said to be ‘fixated’ orally i.e. they did not experience smooth oral development,
hence, their adult personality was affected.
As the infant begins to teeth, the oral aggressive period begins, eruption of teeth is
a painful process and the child begins to bite the mother’s nipple with the teeth. The infant
in reaction to the pain starts viewing his/her mother with mixed hatred and love. Adults
who exhibit excessive adult aggressive need like sarcasm, hostility, aggression, gossip are
said to be fixated. The oral stage ends at the time of weaning the child.

Anal Stage: The experiences of a child during this stage have a profound influence on his
later adjustment in life. During this stage, the manner of elimination which in the past
occurred automatically is now controlled. As the child develops, the parents begin to
toilet-train even before the child develops proper muscular control and use of language.
The method of toilet training and parent’s feelings, attitude and reaction towards the child
can have a far-reaching effect in the formation of his adult personality. The child who did
not have satisfactory toilet training may develop an aggressive personality. This is the
basis for all form of hostile and sadistic behaviour in adult life e.g. cruelty, destructive
uncontrollable temper, stinginess, selfishness, stubbornness etc.

Phallic Stage: At this time, there is a shift from the anal region towards the genital
erogenous zone. At this stage, children of both sexes begin to receive pleasurable
sensations from simulations of the genital area. Most children masturbate at this age. The
most important event that occurs during the phallic stage is the oedipal conflict. This
conflict centres on the unconscious, incestuous desire that children develop for the parent
of the opposite sex, along with the wishes to possess the parent of the opposite sex,
come the unconscious wishes to replace or even destroy the parent of the same sex.
Freud used two concepts to describe the conflict that takes place at this period
1) Oedipus complex

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 2) Electra complex

Oedipus complex: This is when a boy desires his mother and rejects the father to the point
of wanting to destroy him.
Electra complex: this is when a girl desires the father and rejects the
mother to the point of destroying her. This is usually resolved at marriage. In both boys
and girls, unresolved conflicts from the phallic stage may result in homosexuality,
authority problems and an inadequate sense of gender identity.

Latency Stage: The oral, anal and phallic periods altogether are known to as a pre-genital
period. A major characteristic of this period is a narcissistic orientation or an inward and
self centered pre-occupation. During the latency period, new interests replace infantile
sexual impulses. Freud believes that after the phallic stage, there is a sort of resting period
before the next major change in the child’s development, hence, the term ‘latency’. In most
cases, when the child starts school, the sexual drive is sublimated and replaced with
school curricular and extra curricular activities, e.g. reading, sports. This period prevails
until the onset of puberty for most children, which starts at 11 or 12 years.

The Genital Stage: This stage coincides with adolescent period. Adolescents typically
develop interest in the opposite sex and begin to assume adult responsibilities. They
develop the capacity to be interested in others welfare and are not self-centred. They love
to work hard and desire satisfaction from it.

UNIT 5. Educational Implications on Freud’s Personality Development

At every developmental stage, the child should
be made to know how to care for the different parts of the human body and also guided to
understand their importance and proper function early in life. Children should be exposed
to graded lessons in sex education at various stages of their development. Parents and
teachers should know the role of unconscious motives as it affects individual behaviour.
Opportunities should be provided for children to recreate and interact with each other to
use excess energy for constructive activities. Teachers and counseling
psychologists should relate present behaviour of a growing child to his/her past
experiences. A faulty personality may be as a result of fixation during the childhood years,
for example, anti-social behaviour could be traced to early home training. Parents and
teachers should therefore act as role models to growing children to modify their behaviour.
The knowledge of this theory
will help us to understand individuals that are neurotic, have severe psychological disorder
and the normal individuals. It draws one’s attention to individual differences among
children and the need for timely intervention.

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Conclusion
This chapter has dwelled on personal development. The term personality was introduced,
the factors that affect the development of personality discussed and the various theories
of personality were succinctly highlighted.

Revision Question
1) What is personality?

2) Discuss the factors that affect the development of personality.

3) a) Discuss in full, the trait and type theories of personality.

b) Advance criticisms of these theories.

4) What constitutes the structure of personality in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?

5) What do you understand phenomenological theory to mean? Discuss the self- concept
theory of personality by Rogers.

6) How would you create personality change through your knowledge of the self-concept
theory?

References

Allport, G.W. (1961) Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.

Alutu, A.N.G. (1998) Student’s Conduct and Discipline: A Joint Enterprise of Parents,
Teachers and Counsellors. Paper delivered during the Teacher’s Seminar at the Federal
Government Girls College, Benin-city, Nigeria.

Bowlby, J. (1958) Maternal Care and Mental Health. Geneva; World Health Organisation.
Erikson, E.H. (1963) Childhood and Society. London: Penguin Books Limited.

Havighurst, R. (1952) Development Tasks and Education. Longman Green N.Y.

Rogers, D. (1969) California Wadswiskh Publishing Company Inc. Belmont.

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