RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)

An Internship Report on
“OVERVIEW OF ALL INDIA RADIO”
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by,
VOONNA KAMALNADH
(203J1A04F8)

Internship carried out at

ALL INDA RADIO

(VISAKHAPATNAM)

Department Of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Raghu Institute Of Technology, Visakhapatnam
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 2023-2024
RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering

Certificate
Certified that the internship work entitled “OVERVIEW OF ALL INDIA RADIO” is a bonafied work
carried out by VOONNA KAMALNADH (203J1A04F8) of Raghu Institute Of Technology, and this
report is submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor Of Engineering in Electronics and
Communication Engineering during the year 2023-2024.

Signature of the Incharge Signature of the HOD

Dr. M.S.S.S.SRINIVAS Dr.P.Satish Rama Chowdary
Assistant professor Prof. & HOD.
Dept.of ECE Dept.of ECE

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Prof.P.S.R.Chowdary, Head of the Department, Electronics and

Communication Engineering, for providing us permission and with the required facilities
for the completion of the industrial training work.

We are very much thankful to the Principal and Management, Raghu Institute Of
Technology, for their encouragement and cooperation to carry out this work.

We would like to express our deep gratitude to Dr. M.S.S.S.SRINIVAS, Assoc. Professor
of ECE, for his/her guidance. I express my thanks to industrial training coordinator, all
teaching faculty of Department of ECE, for their encouragement helped us in
accomplishment of our industrial training.

We would like to thank our parents, friends, and classmates for their encouragement
throughout our industrial training period. At last but not the least, we thank everyone for
supporting us directly or indirectly in completing this industrial training successfully.

VOONNA KAMALNADH
(203J1A04F8)

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CERTIFICATE FROM INDUSTRY

iv
v
vi
 CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…....................................................................................................................XII

LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................VIII

LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................X

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS….............................................................................................XI

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION.................................................00

1.1 Introduction…....................................................................................................01
1.2 Analog signals…...............................................................................................02
1.3 Digital signals…................................................................................................03
1.4 Block Diagram of Communication System…...................................................04
1.5 Modulation and its Types…...............................................................................05
1.5.1 AM Modulation…....................................................................................05
1.5.2 FM Modulation…....................................................................................06
1.6 Introduction to Satellite Communication…........................................................08
1.7 Uninterruptible Power Supply….......................................................................09
1.7.1 Online UPS...............................................................................................09
1.7.2 Offline UPS..............................................................................................10
CHAPTER 2 STUDIO CUM OFFICE................................................................................11
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................12
2.2 Music Studio........................................................................................................13
2.3 Talk Studio...........................................................................................................13
2.4 Playback Studio…................................................................................................13
2.5 Block Diagram of Studio…..................................................................................14
2.6 Control Room Studio Console.............................................................................14
2.7 Studio Unit…........................................................................................................15
2.8 Studio Transmitter Link(STL).............................................................................16
2.8.1 Types Of STL............................................................................................16
2.8.2 Salient Features of STL…..........................................................................17

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 2.9 Block Diagram OF STL.........................................................................................19
CHAPTER 3 FM STEREO-RDS MODULATION............................................................20
3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................21
3.2 Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis.............................................................................22
3.3 RDS.........................................................................................................................22
3.4 FM Stereo Multiplex.................................................................................................23
3.5 Demodulation on V9300….....................................................................................24
3.6 Broadcast Audio Processor….................................................................................25
3.7 Block Diagram of Falcon XT…..............................................................................26
3.8.1 Falcon XT Front Panel…............................................................................27
3.8.2 Falcon XT Rear Panel….............................................................................28
CHAPTER 4 KFG 6K AMPLIFIER...................................................................................30
4.1 Introduction….........................................................................................................31
4.2 Front View..............................................................................................................32
4.3 Rear View…...........................................................................................................32
4.4 Internal Views…....................................................................................................33
4.4.1 Top View.....................................................................................................33
4.4.1 Bottom View..............................................................................................33
4.5 User Menu…..........................................................................................................34
4.6 Programmer Menu..................................................................................................35
CHAPTER 5 100W DIGITAL FM EXCITER…................................................................36
5.1 Introduction…..........................................................................................................37
5.2 Front View...............................................................................................................38
5.3 Rear View…...........................................................................................................,38
5.4 Flow Diagram….......................................................................................................40
5.5 Idle Page...................................................................................................................41
5.6 Settings Menu….......................................................................................................41
5.7 Measures Menu…....................................................................................................41
5.8 Configuration Menu….............................................................................................41
CONLUSION........................................................................................................................42

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Page No
Fig 1.1 classifications of signals
Fig 1.2 Voltage vs time analog signal
Fig 1.3 Graph representing continuous signal in nature
Fig 1.4 Digital signal
Fig 1.5 Block diagram of communication system
Fig 1.6 Graphical representation of frequency modulation
Fig 1.7 Block diagram of satellite communication
Fig 1.8 Block diagram of UPS system
Fig 1.9 Block diagram of OFFLINE-UPS system
Fig 2.0 Block diagram of studio
Fig 2.1 Control room studio console
Fig 2.2 Studio Unit
Fig 2.3 Block diagram of Transmitting station,aganampudi
Fig 3.1 Frequency Modulation
Fig 3.2 RDS signal flow chart
Fig 3.3 FM stereo multiplexing
Fig 3.4 FM stereo demodulation
Fig 3.5 Broadcast Audio processor
Fig 3.6 Block diagram of FALCON XT
Fig 3.7 FALCON XT front panel
Fig 3.8 FALCON XT Rear
panel Fig 4.1 KFG 6K amplifier
Fig 4.2 KFG 6K amplifier front view
Fig 4.3 KFG 6K amplifier Rear view
Fig 4.4 KFG 6K amplifier internal top view
Fig 4.5 KFG 6K amplifier internal bottom view
Fig 4.6 KFG 6K amplifier programmer menu
Fig 5.1 100W Digital FM exciter
Fig 5.2 100W Digital FM exciter front view
Fig 5.3 100W Digital FM exciter Rear view

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Fig 5.4 100W Digital FM exciter internal view
Fig 5.5 FM exciter flow diagram
Fig 5.6 FM exciter idle page
Fig 5.7 FM exciter events menu

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 LIST OF TABLES

Page No
Table 1.1 ITU Designated different types of amplitude modulation in 06
1982
Table 3.1 FALCON XT General front panel functional description 27
Table 3.1 FALCON XT General Rear panel functional description 28

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 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

CLU Control Logic Unit

FWD Forward power
GUI Graphical User Interface
LAN Local Area Network
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
PA Power Amplifier
RFL Reflected power
RF Radio Frequency
TEMP Temperature
UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
VPA Voltage of Power Amplifier module

xii
 ABSTRACT

All India Radio (AIR), also known as Akash Vani is the national public broadcaster of India,
which offers a variety of programmes on news, music, culture, sports, health, education, and
more. AIR Visakhapatnam is one of the oldest and most popular radio stations in Andhra
Pradesh, which serves the listeners in the region with quality broadcasting services.

The main aim of this industrial training is to understand and learn about the technicalities,
communication and infrastructure required in production, recording, editing, satellite downlink,
and broadcasting that happens in ALL INDIA RADIO STATION ,VISAKHAPATNAM.

In this industrial training, the training covers the overview of the station and its role in
broadcasting quality programmes to the listeners in the region. The training will also include
visits to various departments and studios like music studio, talk studio , playback studio,
control room console studio of the station of AIR and interaction with the staff members. And
also ,this training covers functions of the station such as production, engineering,
administration and various programmes and formats of the station, such as news, music,
educational, cultural, sports, and entertainment of the radio station

The training aims to enhance the knowledge and skills of the trainees in the field of
broadcasting and to learn about ;-

 The technical aspects of the station, such as studios, microphones, mixers, recorders,
editors, satellite downlink, transmitters,antennas.
 The studio equipment and facilities used for recording, editing, mixing, and transmitting
radio programmes.
 The organizational structure and functions of AIR and AIR Visakhapatnam
 The satellite communication and transmission system used for receiving and sending
radio signals
 The role and responsibilities of radio professionals such as announcers,
producers, engineers, technicians, etc.

xiii
CHAPTER-1

0
 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
1.1 Introduction

The transmission of information from one end to the other is known as communication. In
electronics system, the data is transmitted through the channel present between the transmitting
end and the receiving end. The additional devices are used with communication channel to
prevent the signal from external disturbances. The data is present in the form of analog signal,
which is a form of energy.

The essential concept of the analog communication is modulation. It helps in removing the
noise or external disturbances from the data, which may deteriorate the quality of the signal
being transmitted. We will discuss the concept of modulation later in the tutorial.

Signals

The signal is an electromagnetic wave that carries information from one point to another. It can
travel through different mediums, such as air, vacuum, water, and solid. In electronics, the
signal is defined as a current, voltage, or wave carrying information and traveling long
distances. The speed of a signal wave is equal to the speed of light.

There are two types of signals, analog and digital. Analog refers to the data transmission in
analog or continuous form, while digital refers to the data transmission in the form of bits. The
bits are represented by 0 (LOW) and 1 (HIGH).

1
1.2 Analog signals

Analog signals are continuous time-varying signals. It means that these signals are the function
of time.

Or

An Analog signal is a signal whose characteristics, such as voltage, amplitude, or frequency,

vary with time. The common shape of an analog signal is the sinusoidal wave. It is shown
below:

Examples of analog signals are electrical signals, light signals, speech signals, etc. Radio
signals are also categorized as analog signals. Every signal requires a medium to propagation.
For example,

Electrical signals require cables to propagate from one place to another.

Speech signals or voice requires free space to propagate. We can also say that speech signal
uses air as a propagation medium. But, noise and distortion in analog signals during
transmission are greater than digital signals.

Example: The distance of a car travelling with constant time with a specific time can be
considered as an example of an analog signal. The graph representing will be an inclined line,
as shown below:

It is continuous in nature.
2
1.3 Digital Signal

Digital signals are the signal that represents the data in the form of discrete values. It takes only
two values 0 and 1, which is known as bits. The data is transmitted in the form of these bits.
For example,

01000110

It is an 8-bit or 1 byte data.

A common example of the digital signal is shown below:

Let's consider another example of a digital signal.

Example: The average marks of the 30 students in a classroom in five subjects can be
considered as an example of a digital signal. The graph is shown below:

3
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
below figure shows the block diagram of a general communication system, in which the
different functional elements are represented by blocks.

1. The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of an originator.

2. The description of that image, with a certain measure of precision, by a set of oral
visual symbols.
3. The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over a
physical medium of interest.
4. The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination.
5. The decoding and reproduction of the original symbols.
6. The recreation of the original thought pattern or image, with a definable degradation
in quality, in the mind of recipient.

1.5 MODULATION AND IT’S TYPES

What is modulation?
Two signals are involved in the modulation process. Message signals are also known as
baseband signals. Baseband signals are the band of frequencies representing the original signal.
This is the signal to be transmitted to the receiver. The frequency of such a signal is usually
low. The other signal involved in this is a high-frequency sinusoidal wave. This signal is called
the carrier signal. The frequency of the carrier signals is almost always higher than that of the
baseband signal. The amplitude of the baseband signal is transferred to the high-frequency
carrier. Therefore, modulation can be defined as

The process of superimposing a low-frequency signal on a high-frequency carrier signal.

or,
The process of varying the RF carrier wave in accordance with the information in a low-
frequency signal

4
Such a higher frequency carrier wave can travel farther than the baseband signal. But that’s not
the only advantage of modulation. In the next section, we will discuss the various advantages
of modulation.

There are three types of modulation:

 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation

Types of modulation
 AM Modulation
 FM Modulation
1.5.1 AM Modulation:
Amplitude modulation, or just AM, is one of the earliest modulation methods that is used in
transmitting information over the radio. This technique was devised in the 20th century at a
time when Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden were conducting experiments using a
radiotelephone in the 1900s. After successful attempts, the modulation technique was
established and used in electronic communication.

In general, amplitude modulation definition is given as a type of modulation where the

amplitude of the carrier wave varies in some proportion with respect to the modulating data or
the signal.

As for the mechanism, when amplitude modulation is used, there is a variation in the amplitude
of the carrier. Here, the voltage or the power level of the information signal changes the
amplitude of the carrier. In AM, the carrier does not vary in amplitude. However, the
modulating data is in the form of signal components consisting of frequencies either higher or
lower than that of the carrier. The signal components are known as sidebands, and the sideband
power is responsible for the variations in the overall amplitude of the signal.

The AM technique is totally different from frequency modulation and phase modulation, where
the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in the first case and in the second one, the phase is
varied.

5
 Designations by ITU
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated different types of amplitude
modulation in 1982. They are as follows:

Designation Description

A3E Double-sideband a full-carrier

R3E Single-sideband reduced-carrier

H3E Single-sideband full-carrier

J3E Single-sideband suppressed-carrier

B8E Independent-sideband emission

C3F Vestigial-sideband

Lincompex Linked compressor and expander

1.5.2 FM Modulation
frequency modulation is a technique or a process of encoding information on a particular signal
(analogue or digital) by varying the carrier wave frequency in accordance with the frequency
of the modulating signal. As we know, a modulating signal is nothing but information or
message that has to be transmitted after being converted into an electronic signal.

Much like amplitude modulation, frequency modulation also has a similar approach, where a
carrier signal is modulated by the input signal. However, in the case of FM, the amplitude of the
modulated signal is kept, or it remains constant.

6
The frequency modulation index is mostly over 1, and it usually requires a high bandwidth at a
range of 200 kHz. FM operates in a very high-frequency range, normally between 88 to 108
Megahertz..

Graphical Representation of Frequency Modulated Wave

7
1.6 INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to another using a
communication satellite in orbit around the Earth. Watching the English Premier League every
weekend with your friends would have been impossible without this. A communication satellite is
an artificial satellite that transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a channel between the
transmitter and the receiver at different Earth locations.

Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use satellite communications.
Believe it or not, more than 2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around in space above your
heads.

Satellite Communication Block Diagram:

The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us bounce signals such as
radio, internet data, and television from one side of the earth to another. Three stages are involved,
which explain the working of satellite communications. These are:

 Uplink
 Transponders
 Downlink
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage, the signal from the
television broadcast on the other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the
ground station on the earth. This process is known as uplink.

The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters.
These transponders boost the incoming signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing
signals are not altered. Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.
8
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the receiver on the
earth. It is important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.

1.7 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY(UPS)

TYPES OF UPS:
 Online ups
 Offline ups
1.7.1 ONLINE UPS:
On-line UPS abbreviated as OUPS is a type of UPS that uses a combination of rectifier and
inverter circuits in order to provide continuous power to the load from the supply source without
any interruption. From continuous power here we mean that power is supplied to the load in case
of availability from the source and power outage as well with zero transfer time.

On-line UPS is sometimes also known as double-conversion system. The reason for calling it so
because, within an online UPS system, power conversion occurs twice as the circuit includes a
rectifier and an inverter.

9
1.7.2 OFFLINE UPS

off-line UPS, sometimes called standby ups is equipment that offers uninterruptible power supply
immediately to the connected device through the battery when detects electric supply failure
within the circuit. An offline ups offers the most basic type of power protection to the appliances.

Basically, in offline ups, ac power to the load is directly supplied from an ac source in normal
condition. However, in case of a power outage, the inverter is used to supply ac power to the load
through the battery which acts as a backup.

We have mentioned at the beginning itself that offline ups are the ones that offer one of the basic
levels of power protection to the equipment. From one of the basic levels, we mean that this type
of ups shows suitability towards small and non-critical loads. In such loads, protection is needed
against momentary power loss or surges, like to prevent data loss of personal computers when
electric supply disrupts.

10
CHAPTER-2

11
 STUDIO CUM OFFICE COMPLEX, SIRIPURAM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A broadcasting studio is a room in studio complex which has been specially
designed and constructed to serve the purpose of originating broadcasting programs.
Whenever any musician sings and we sit in front of a performing musician to listen to
him, we enjoy the program by virtue of the superb qualities of our sensory organs
namely ears. However, when we listen to the same program over the broadcast chain at
our home through domestic receivers, the conditions are entirely different. These
changes that we experience is because of the audio processing that are performed in a
broadcasting studio.
There are three studios at AKASHVANI, SIRIPURAM studio complex. They are:

 MUSIC STUDIO
 TALK STUDIO
 PLAYBACK STUDIO

Music and talk studio are together known as RECORDING STUDIO. A Recording
studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and the
monitoring spaces are specially designed by an acoustician to achieve optimum acoustic
properties (acoustic isolation or diffusion or absorption of reflected sound that could
otherwise interface with the sound heard by the listener).
Recording studios may be used by recording musicians, voice over dialogue
replacement in film, television or animation, Foley or to record their accompanying
musical sound tracks.The typical recording studio consists of a room called “Studio” or
“Live room”, where instrumentalists and vocalists perform; and the “Control room”,
where sound engineers operate professional audio for analog or digital recording to
route and manipulate the sound.

Following equipment are generally provided in a recording/dubbing room:

i) Console tape recorders
ii) Console tape decks
iii) Recording/dubbing panel having switches jacks and keyset.
The above equipment can be used for the following purpose

 For recording of programmes originating from any studio.

 For recording of programmes available in the switching.
 Consoles in control room.
 For dubbing of programmes available on cassette tape.
 For editing of programmes.
 For mixing and recording of programmes.

12
We can brief the studio arrangements at AIR-Thrissur as follows:

13
2.2 MUSIC STUDIO

The MUSIC STUDIO is an acoustically treated room attached to a control room.

The studio consists of five microphones and sufficient musical instruments. The control
room consists of workstations/computers and a control console for adjusting and
checking the quality of the program. These arrangements together are used for
producing musical programmes. Live musical programmes can be also conducted here.
SONYSOUND FORGE is the software which is commonly used for processing the
raw version of the recorded program. The processed version of the recording is saved to
the server and then it is made available for broadcasting by scheduling it to the program
list using the software VIRTUAL STUDIO.

2.3 TALK STUDIO

The TALK STUDIO is similar to a music studio with an acoustically treated LIVE
ROOM and a CONTROL ROOM. The live room consists of only two microphones. It
is equipped with a telephone connection which is a user-friendly attribute for recording
Phone-in programs. The control room consists of an additional Phone-in console for
conducting Phone-in programs. The acoustics of the talk studio is entirely different
from a music studio. It is constructed in such a way that the reverberation time is
minimised and no echo is experienced. The recording produced and processed at the
talk studio is then forwarded to the playback studio for transmission. Talk studio can be
also used to produce live chat programs.

2.4 PLAYBACK STUDIO

A PLAYBACK STUDIO is entirely different from all other studios. It consists of

transmission console, microphones, two workstations/computers (Master & Standby).
Its main function is co-ordinating the programs, announcements and advertisements. All
the recorded programs will be available in the workstations used and the programs are
sent to the control room for broadcasting as per the schedule. Before transmission of the
first program a tone of 1 kHz and signature tone will be aired. A GPS clock is used both in
the studio complex and transmitting section, to avoid time delays.

STUDIO IMAGES

14
2.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF STUDIO

CONTRO L
ROOM TALK STUDIO

SWITCH ER

PLAYBA CK STUDIO DUBBING

/EDITTIN G

CONTRO L ROOM SERVER

MUSIC STUDIO

2.6 CONTROL ROOM STUDIO CONSOLE

15
 The Studio console is the major equipment used in the STUDIO CONTROL
ROOM. It is with the help of this device the different programmes that are produced and
those that are received from other stations routed to air. The various inputs to the
console are the programmes from various studios, the programmes that are received
using a C BAND receiver which is broadcasted from Delhi and the programmes that are
received via an ISDN link from Calicut and Thiruvananthapuram. The Outputs from the
console is taken through two master amplifiers among which one is active at a time.
This output is directed to the STUDIO TRANSMITTER LINK (STL).

2.7 STUDIO UNIT SIRIPURAM

16
2.8 STUDIO TRANSMITTER LINK:
The programs produced at the Studios are not transmitted from the same
complex with intention of preventing the problems due to interference and radiation.
Instead, the programs are transmitted from the transmission complex which is situated
at Aganampudi. The high-quality sound programmes from AIR studio centre are
normally transported to the AIR transmitting centre with the help of a transmission link
named as the STUDIO TRANSMITTER LINK (STL).

What is STL:
� As Medium wave transmitters and studios are non-co-cited, we require studio
transmitter link to send audio from studios to transmitter.

� Earlier Non-Exchange lines of Department of Telecommunications were in use.

� Later on, these were replaced by VHF-FM transmit/receive system

� During 80’s AIR introduced microwave studio transmitter link for better reliability
and quality.

2.8.1 Different types of STL:

� 1.Digital Microwave Multi Channel Link
� 2.Point to Point Link
� 3.IP based communication using CODECs at both ends.

Digital Microwave Multi Channel Link:

Radio and television broadcast companies originate their signals in studios, but
must get them to the transmitter site. In many cities, a nearby hill or mountain holds
most of the transmitters. A microwave studio transmitter link (STL) delivers the signal
without wires. Positioned at a fixed location and using radio waves, a microwave transmitter
sends those waves across space to be received by a microwave receiver at another fixed
location. Microwave is broadband, so it can transmit a substantial amount of
information
17
from point to point, for use in cell phone and wireless Internet service, with no need for
any other equipment between the two fixed locations.
� AIR has been allocated 1427 to 1525MHz band in the L-band for STL operation.
� AIR Visakhapatnam frequency:
� Tx Fr: 1474.5MHz
� RX Fr: 1523.5MHz

2.8.2 Salient features of STL:

STL is a full duplex point-to-point digital radio system known for its efficient data
transmission capabilities. Operating within a narrow frequency range, it can
astonishingly deliver up to 2048Kbits of data using just 400KHz of channel bandwidth.
Notably, this system follows a digital open architectural modular design, enabling
flexibility and adaptability in various applications. Remarkably versatile, it offers data
rates ranging from 64kbps to 34Mbps, allowing users to select their preferred
bandwidth from 25kHz to 7MHz. This system achieves a high spectral efficiency
through the implementation of user-selectable 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM), demonstrating its advanced modulation techniques for
optimal data transmission.

Point to Point Link:

Point-to-Point Link communication plays a crucial role in the operations of All India
Radio (AIR). This technology enables reliable and efficient communication between
specific transmitter and receiver locations across the vast expanse of India. By
establishing direct links between these points, AIR ensures the seamless transmission of
broadcast content, news, and other important information.
Utilizing a digital radio system, AIR's Point-to-Point Link communication employs
advanced modulation techniques, such as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), to
optimize data transmission. This technology allows for high data rates, ranging from
64kbps to 34Mbps, while offering flexibility in selecting bandwidth within the 25kHz to
7MHz range. This adaptability is especially valuable in a country as diverse and
geographically varied as India.
The architecture of the Point-to-Point Link system adopted by AIR is digital and open,
designed to accommodate evolving needs and technological advancements. This modular
approach facilitates upgrades and expansions, ensuring that the communication
infrastructure remains up-to-date and efficient.
In essence, the Point-to-Point Link communication system utilized by All India Radio
empowers nationwide connectivity, enabling the efficient dissemination of broadcast
content and critical information to audiences across the entire country.
18
IP based communication using CODECs at both ends.

IP-based communication using CODECs (Coder-Decoder) technology has become an

integral part of All India Radio's (AIR) broadcasting infrastructure. This system
leverages the capabilities of CODECs at both ends of the communication link to enable
efficient and high-quality transmission of audio content over Internet Protocol (IP)
networks.
In this setup, each location, whether it's a studio or a broadcasting station, is equipped
with a CODEC. These devices encode the analog audio signals into digital data packets,
which are then transmitted over IP networks. At the receiving end, another CODEC
decodes the digital data packets back into analog audio, ensuring that the original sound
quality is maintained.
The utilization of IP networks provides several advantages for All India Radio. Firstly,
it enables cost-effective communication over long distances without the need for
dedicated point-to-point connections. This is especially beneficial in a geographically
extensive country like India. Additionally, IP-based communication allows for greater
flexibility and scalability, making it easier to adapt to changing broadcasting
requirements.
The CODECs used in this system play a critical role in ensuring audio fidelity. They
employ advanced compression algorithms to efficiently transmit audio while
minimizing data loss and maintaining high sound quality. Various audio compression
formats, such as AAC (Advanced Audio Coding) or MP3, might be employed based on
the specific needs of the broadcast. By implementing IP-based communication with
CODECs at both ends, All India Radio can facilitate real-time, high-quality audio
exchanges between different locations. This technology enhances collaboration, enables
remote broadcasting, and contributes to the overall efficiency and modernization of
AIR's broadcasting operations.

19
2.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSMITTING STATION,
AGANAMPUDI

Over all description of STL:

The Studio-Transmitter Link (STL) is organized into two distinct sections, each serving
a crucial role in the transmission process. The first section is the RF (Radio Frequency)
segment, which comprises two Digital Radio units (NXE1) intricately integrated with
the transfer panel unit TP128, all functioning within a Hot Standby configuration.
Within this setup, the transfer unit TP128 assumes the responsibility of continuously
assessing the operational status of both NXE1 units. In the event that the active unit
encounters a malfunction or disruption, the transfer unit swiftly executes an automatic
switchover to the secondary unit, ensuring uninterrupted transmission. This dynamic
redundancy mechanism enhances the reliability of the RF section, contributing to the
seamless and reliable flow of broadcasting signals.

20
CHAPTER-3

21
 Introduction to FM-Stereo-RDS Modulation

3.1 Introduction
Frequency modulation (FM) has a long history of its application and is widely used in radio
broadcast. To transmit stereo music, FM is enhanced by stereo multiplexing which carries both
L and R audio channel content. With the digital age, Radio Data System (RDS) enables FM to
carry text information such as traffic, weather, and radio station information which can be
displayed on the end-user’s device interface. Currently, growing number of mobile phones and
consumer mobile devices will have an integrated FM receiver feature. The FM transmitter
feature is also becoming popular for allowing users to transmit audio content from their mobile
devices through their car radio. To make sure the FM-related functions work well, the FM
mono, FM stereo, and FM RDS functions need to be tested in production. In this paper, we will
discuss FM theory, FM stereo multiplexing and the RDS mechanism. The FM demodulation in
V93000 will also be briefly introduced.

Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation is realized by varying signal frequency in accordance with the
modulating signal or message, as in Figure 1.

An important concept in the understanding of FM is “frequency deviation”. For a transmitter,

the frequency deviation of the carrier is directly proportional to the amplitude of the applied
modulating signal. Thus an FM transmitter has modulation sensitivity, Kf, which is frequency
deviation/V. The relation between frequency deviation from the carrier (dfc) and the original
signal is: = mfc tSKdf )(* (1) where Sm(t) is the signal before modulation, which can also be
called the modulating signal, because this signal will modulate the carrier.

22
A somewhat complex mathematical analysis will yield an equation for the instantaneous
voltage of an FM wave of the form: ( ) = c {2cos π c + ⋅ 2sin π mtfmtfAts Where Ac is the
carrier peak amplitude, fc and fm represent the carrier and modulating frequencies, and m is the
index of modulation. This equation represents a single low-frequency sine wave, (fm),
frequency modulating another high-frequency sine wave (fc). As can be seen from the equation,
m is equal to the peak deviation caused when the signal is modulated by the frequency of the
modulating signal. Since in (2) the frequency deviation is integrated into phase deviation, m is
a function of both the modulating signal amplitude and frequency. Furthermore, m can take on
any value from 0 to infinity.

3.2 Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis

In FM, the noise increases with modulation frequency. To compensate for
this effect, FM communication systems have incorporated a noise-combating system of pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis. Pre-emphasis provides increased amplitude to the higher
modulating frequencies prior to modulation under a well-defined pre-emphasis (high-pass
filter) curve. This added amplitude will serve to make the higher frequencies more immune to
noise by increasing their index of modulation. De-emphasis is just the opposite operation
(using a low-pass filter) and it is done at the receiver.

3.3 FM Radio Data System (RDS)

Radio Data System is a communications protocol standard from the European Broadcasting
Union for sending small amounts of digital information using conventional FM radio
broadcasts. The RDS system standardizes several types of information transmitted, including
time, track/artist info and station identification. RDS has been standard in Europe and Latin
America since the early 1990s and is now used throughout many parts of the world.
Baseband Modulation RDS baseband modulation is a kind of differentially-coded BPSK as in
Figure

23
The sub-carrier is suppressed. This method of modulation may alternatively be thought of as a
form of two-phase phase-shift-keying (PSK) with a phase deviation of ± 90 degree. The basic
clock frequency is obtained by dividing the transmitted RDS sub-carrier frequency (57 kHz) by
48. Consequently, the basic data-rate of the system is 1187.5 bits/second. The source data at the
transmitter are differentially encoded. The power of the data signal around the 57 kHz sub-
carrier is minimized by coding each source data bit as a binary-phase symbol. The principle of
the process of generation of the shaped binary-phase symbols is shown schematically
3.4 FM Stereo Multiplex
FM stereo broadcasting was introduced during the early 1960s. The scheme that was adopted
was chosen to be compatible with the monaural FM radios that were in existence at the time.
Essentially, the system performs the multiplexing of two signals and further combines them
into a complex baseband signal that modulates the FM carrier. Figure 3 shows a block diagram
of the typical analog-stereo generator used to drive an FM transmitter.

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3.5 Demodulation on V93000
This section presents the demodulation used in the Verigy V93000 software and demonstrates
how to demodulate a FM Stereo signal. For TX tests, the RF output from the DUT is captured
by the V93000 RF subsystem. The captured data are then fed into the V93000 demodulation
engine. The FM-stereo part of processing flow of this engine for is as Figure 8.

Although we show some details of our signal processing flow, it can be used as a black box.
The only input is just sample rate Fs and captured IQ array. FM demodulation engine outputs
multiple results such as Stereo Multiplexed BB wave, L/R wave, modulation deviation, etc. the
Figure 8 shows the FM spectrum, stereo spectrum, audio wave, and audio spectrum in V93000
Signal Analyzer.

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 3.6 FALCON XT BROADCAST AUDIO PROCESSOR

Main Description: Falcon XT is a Digital Audio Processor, a Stereo Generator and an RDS
encoder, all in a single device, specifically designed for the market of broadcast FM radio, Web
Radio and Satellite.
The Falcon XT audio processor is based on DSP dedicated technology, with a 5-band audio
processing architecture. The Stereo Generator is fully digital, and can create a perfect Multiplex
signal. Falcon XT, can be completed with a RDS Encoder also fully digital DSP-based. Falcon
XT allows to create your own sound print, unique and unmistakable. Be recognized today in
the crowded world of broadcasters in FM, DVB-T or in the boundless world of the web has
now become very complicated, in a market where competition does not forgive mistakes. If the
broadcaster does not want to have the same sound print of all radio stations, Falcon XT is the
tool that stands out in this tangle of media. Falcon XT provides the broadcaster even more
demanding, extremely sophisticated audio features and high-level standard: 5-band control
compression, dual-band power AGC, three-band EQ and Brightness control. The parameterized
Stereo Enhancer command provide to the radio station sound, the spacing effect and large
stereo horizon openings. The control of the phases of mono audio signals, makes the voice
sound more natural, the Expander control allows to minimize the background or unwanted
noise, while the Overdrive and the SuperBass dealing to make the sound more important on
low and very low frequencies, creating an impressive effect of loudness. In addition, the Super
Bass Harmonizer controls the distortion of the bass sound/low frequency, compared to their
clipping, creating a sound impact unmistakable, increasing the energy transmitted by the low
frequency and making listening much more pleasant than other audio processors. The two
distinct Final Limiter drive, one broadband and one dedicated only to low frequencies,
maximize the presence of the sound, always maintaining a pleasant audio listening. The sound
print of each broadcaster can be created from one of ten preset audio files already on Falcon
XT, from rock to classical, country, talk show, or preset audio while preserving the original
sound, enhance the character and the unique details.

26
3.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FALCON XT

27
 3.8 FALCON XT –GENRAL DESCRIPTION
3.8.1 FALCON XT FRONT PANEL:

s.no CONTROL NAME FUNCTION

1 DEVICE Plate stating product name and description

NAMEPLATE
2 LCD-1 Three-line LCD that displays the status and operation mode
of the Falcon XT. It displays all the technical parameters
for each menu.
3. JOG-SHUTTLE Dial to access the various navigation menus and make changes.
Press the JogShuttle to confirm selection. Accessing this
(or JogShuttle)
menu allows you to configure certain operating parameters
for work. All the parameters can also be set via the Axel
Universal Software Remoter monitoring, configuration, and
control software
4 LCD-2 This LCD displays the statuses and operation mode of the
audio processor, double AGC, 5-band compressor,
multiband limiter, and the analog, digital, and MPX inputs
and outputs featured on the Falcon X
5 HEADPHONE Headphone socket on the front panel set to 6.3 mm jack, for
SOCKET listening to the Falcon XT audio process. You can listen to
the original audio inputted into the processor (bypass) or
the audio outputted by the Falcon XT processor. You can
also listen to the test tone generated by the internal DSP
with variable frequency and intensity. The headphone audio
output is parallel to the analog output; changing the Analog
Out level also changes the headphone output level.

28
 3.8.2 FALCON XT – REAR PANEL

S.no CONTROL FUNCTION

NAME
1 “DIGITAL” This section contains the connections for AES / EBU digital inputs and
UNIT outputs on the balanced XLR connection. Digital Input 1 is marked as 1C
while Input 2D is the Sync AES/EBU. The output is an AES/EBU format
male XLR connector
2 “USB” PORT USB -B type data communication port. This port is used to remotely
control the device using a standard PC. Before connecting this port, it is
necessary to connect the device control software contained in the box; USB
drivers are installed at the same time as the software.

3 SERIAL -1 The Falcon XT features two serial ports for device control via the remote
RS232 SERIAL control software. In this case, Serial-1 is the port selected. The control
PORT 1 features are the same as for the USB control port. Using the Axel Universal
Software Remoter control software, you can change the operating
parameters, levels, and compression, as well as the audio
process/processing. Using Axel Universal Target Address Manager you can
set the machine’s individual address in UECP format, set RDS to work in
UECP-compatible mode or extended mode, and reset any or all of the RDS
service datasets.
4 “GPIO” PORT HD 15-pin female interface on SubD connector. This shows the logic status
of the Falcon XT. The GP outputs are Open Collector outputs, while the GP
inputs are opt couplers. The status of the GP inputs and GP outputs can be
viewed on the front panel, in the right-hand section of the first LCD screen

5 ANALOG 5 ANALOG audio output of the Falcon XT audio processor. Electronically

OUTPUT balanced output on XLR connector (type: stereo / mono

6 ANALOG ANALOG INPUT –A) ANALOG audio input of the Falcon XT audio
INPUT processor, with electronically balanced XLR connection.

29
 “MPX OUTPUTS” unit: this contains the two output MPX lines. These
MPX outputs are buffered and totally independent of each other, and the
levels of the MPX output (but not of the individual Audio, Pilot, and RDS
carriers) can be set individually via remote control software or directly on
the front panel. The level of the subcarrier components cannot be altered on
one output only. “MPX INPUTS” unit: this section contains two auxiliary
MPX UNIT broadband inputs (AUX or SCA), which are added directly to the MPX-
7 MPX OUTPUTS OUT -1 and/or the MPX-OUT -2. The signal from AUX-1 can be sent to
MPX INPUTS MPX-OUT -1 and also to MPX-OUT -2 at the same time, or just to MPX-
OUT -2. The same can be done for the signal from AUX-2, sending it to
MPX OUT1 and to MPX-OUT -2 at the same time as, or just to MPX-OUT
-2.

8 POWER The power supply unit features a switch to switch on the device and a
SUPPLY UNIT power socket. For the change of the fuse, see the relevant chapter. The fuse
is located inside the device, near the switching power supply unit. The fuse
is of the slow blow type, 230 V a.c. and 2,000 A, equal to 2000 mA

9 SERIAL -2 The Falcon XT features two serial ports for device control via the remote
RS232 SERIAL control software. In this case, Serial-2 is the port selected. The control
PORT 2 features are the same as for the USB control port. Using the Axel Universal
Software Remoter control software, you can change the operating
parameters, levels, and compression, as well as the audio
process/processing. Using Axel Universal Target Address Manager you can
set the machine’s individual address in UECP format, set RDS to work in
UECPcompatible mode or extended mode, and reset any or all of the RDS
service datasets.

10 ETHERNET Falcon XT is fitted with an Rj45 Ethernet port for LAN/WAN-type

PORT connections, to monitor and control the device. This port also provides an
integrated web server, so the Falcon XT can be controlled remotely using a
standard web browser. The same port also features an SNMP agent, and an
ASCII Parser

30
CHAPTER-4

31
 KFG 6K AMPLIFIER
4.1 INTRODUCTION:

The KFG 6K Amplifier is a product of DB Broadcast and is part of their KFG series of
FM amplifiers, designed to operate in the whole 87.5 – 108 MHz frequency range for FM radio
broadcasting. The KFG 6K Amplifier has a power output of 6000 watts and is available in two
models: the KFG 6k/1x, which comes in a single 19" x 4U cabinet, and the KFG 6k/2x, which
comes in a 19" x 19U cabinet.
The KFG series of amplifiers uses GREEN RF™ technology, which is the latest evolution of
the world-famous patented COLD-FET™ technology. This technology offers high RF
efficiency (>70%), higher safety, higher reliability, lower heating, and lower AC power
consumption. All FM amplifiers in the KFG series over 5kW can be equipped with an optional
hot-plug system to instantly extract the amplifier modules with the amplifier in full power. This
allows for on-air maintenance or replacement without disconnecting any cable and without
interrupting the transmitter operation.
The KFG series also features an intelligent protection circuit that reduces the output
power without on-air interruption, keeping the RF devices always within safe operating
parameters in case of load mismatching, environmental over-temperature, cooling failure,
failure in one or more amplification modules, or failure in power supply modules.

32
4.2 FRONT VIEW:
Its front view consists of:

1. RF Monitor connector
2. Status leds (ALARM / WARNING / ON)
3. LCD Display
4. Front panel control push buttons (ESC / ENTER / ▲ / ▼)
4.2 REAR VIEW:
It’s rear view consists of:

1. Fan SAN ACE 172 – 9SG5748P5H01

2. RF output (EIA 7/8” flange) hot plug coaxial connection
3. Fuses 25A 250V
4. AC input + RF input + I/O connector (hot plug).

33
4.4.1 INTERNAL VIEWS TOP:

1. 6 ways input splitter

2. RF modules
3. 6 ways output coupler
4. RF 800W load resistors
5. Measure and protection board inside + DC/DC power supply + AC/DC Switching power
supply
6. Fans
7. Output directional couple
4.4.2 INTERNAL VIEWS:BOTTOM

1. Display board
2. AC-DC switching power supply

34
4.5 USER MENU:
ALARM EVENT:
In case an alarm appears on the amplifier unit, the following message will appear on the display.

In case a system alarm appears on the amplifier unit, the following message will appear on the
display:

This alarm will appear intermittently with the above OVERTEMPERATURE, REFLECTED,
OVERDRIVE alarms depending on the one which generates the system failure.
Maintaining pressed the ESC button, press at the same time the ENTER button to exit from the
SYSTEM ALARM status and remove the cause of the alarm checking the amplifier unit. Press
ESC to return to the normal menu.

35
4.6 PROGRAMMER MENU:
HOW TO ENTER

To enter this menu it is sufficient to maintain pressed the ESC button and pressing at the same
time the ENTER button.
▸ PROGRAMMER MENU: AVAILABLE SUB-MENUS
SELECT POWER SET ALC: The power setting in ALC mode (available only if the
amplifier is set in ALC LOCAL mode)

SELECT POWER SET MLC: The power setting in MLC mode (available only if the
amplifier is set in MLC mode)

SELECT ALC MODE: The selection of the ALC LOCAL/MLC/ALC REMOTE mode
SELECT REFL THR: The setting of the threshold for the reflected alarm intervention
SELECT FWD ADJUSTMENT: to change the Forward power reading on the display

SELECT REFL ADJUSTMENT: to change the Reflected power reading on the display

SELECT RS 485 ADDRESS: The address setting for RS 485 connector

SELECT REMOTE ENABLE: to allow the remote commands for the unit (in case of remote
option installed)
SELECT 3dB THRESHOLD: to set the threshold for the WARNING indication in case of
decrease of the output power.

SELECT DERATING POWER: setting up the value in Watts for the desired derating output
power. The amplifier power will change to the set value when the pin AUX IN is short-
circuited to the ground on the rear connector
36
Chapter 5

37
 100W DIGITAL FM EXCITER
5.1 INTRODUCTION:

A 100W digital FM exciter is a device that generates a radio frequency signal that is
modulated by an audio signal. It is used to broadcast FM radio signals. One example of such a
device is the FM-100 by Broadcast Solutions Electronics.

The FM-100 is a compact, solid-state FM broadcast transmitter with an RF output in

excess of 250W in the FM broadcasting band (87.5MHz to 108MHz). The unit is housed in a 19-
inch rack mount case occupying only a 2U space. The Exciter features a range of customer options
including a built-in, high-quality stereo coder.

Another example of a 100W digital FM exciter is the BROADCAST E100 by Broadcast

Eletec. This device is also a compact, solid-state FM broadcast transmitter with an RF output of 0-
100W in the FM broadcasting band (87.5MHz to 108MHz). It features a frequency stability of
±2.5ppm and a synthesizer step of 100KHz. The BROADCAST E100 also has low spurious and
harmonic emissions, and high stereo separation.

▸100W Compact FM Exciter

▸ Green RF technology:
▸ High RF efficiency
▸ Lower heating
▸ Higher total reliability
▸ Lower AC consumption
▸ Same high quality of the signal
User friendly front panel interface with graphical display
▸ High frequency stability (low drift oscillator TCXO)
▸ Reduced maintenance / very high MTBF

38
5.2 FRONT VIEW:

1. RF Monitor connector
2. LCD Display
3. Navigation keys (UP / DOWN / RIGHT / LEFT / OK)
4. Status leds (ON/OFF, ALARM, LOC/REM) and command keys (ON/OFF, Local/Remote)

5.3 REAR VIEW:

1. AC input with fusible 15. MPX IN BNC connector

2. GND 16. SCA 1 BNC connector
3. Cooling FAN 17. SCA 2 BNC connector
4. RF output connector (N) 18. Right XLR connector
5. RDS DB9 connector 19. Left XLR connector
6. LAN connector for Management 20. TLC/TLS DB25 connector
7. Optical connector
8. USB connector
9. AES/EBU XLR connector
10. 1PPS BNC connector
11. 10MHZ BNC connector
12. PILOT BNC connector
13. AUX BNC connector
14. MPX OUT BNC connector

39
5.4 INTERNAL VIEW:

1. Digital FM modulator board

2. Auxiliary AC/DC power supply
3. Front panel control board
4. RF amplifier module
5. Main AC/DC power supply
6. AC Mains input

40
5.4 FLOW DIAGRAM:

5.5 IDLE PAGE:

1. Top line (presence of Alarm messages like missing INTERLOCK)

2. Working Frequency
3. Forward and Reflected power values
4. Deviation level
5. RF ON/OFF – internal RDS ON/OFF – LOCAL/REMOTE mode
6. Alarm messages

41
5.6 SETTINGS MENU:
•RF OUTPUT
• INPUT
• LIMITER
• BOARD
• RX FRONT END MENU
• MODE ID MENU
• RDS MENU

5.7 MEASURES MENU:

•RF OUTPUT
• INPUT
• BOARD
• RX FRONT END MENU
5.8 CONFIGURATION MENU:
• ETHERNET
• TIME MENU
• CONTROL MODE SET MENU
• SAVE CONFIG MENU
• LOAD CONFIG MENU
• RESTART MENU
EVENTS MENU:

42
CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, my two-week internship experience at All India Radio has been an

invaluable journey of learning, growth, and immersion into the world of broadcasting. This
opportunity provided me with a unique insight into the intricate workings of one of India's most
esteemed media institutions. Throughout my time here, I had the privilege of observing and
participating in various aspects of radio production, programming, and operations.
The internship allowed me to witness the dedication and expertise of the
professionals at All India Radio who tirelessly work behind the scenes to deliver quality
content to millions of listeners. I was able to grasp the significance of effective communication,
meticulous planning, and teamwork in the creation of engaging and informative broadcasts.
The exposure to state-of-the-art equipment and techniques further enriched my
understanding of the technical facets of radio production. Hands-on experiences, such as
scriptwriting, voice modulation, and sound editing, have not only enhanced my skill set but
also provided me with a platform to explore my creative potential.
Beyond the technical skills, this internship offered me a broader perspective on the
role of media in shaping public opinion, disseminating information, and fostering cultural
exchange. The commitment of All India Radio to unbiased reporting and diverse programming
has inspired me to consider the profound impact that media platforms can have on society.
As I reflect on these two weeks, I am grateful for the mentorship and guidance
provided by the seasoned professionals at All India Radio. Their willingness to share their
knowledge and experiences has been instrumental in shaping my perspective and aspirations.

43