1. INTRODUCTION 2. CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 3. NEURON 4. NEUROLGIA 5. CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF NERVE FIBRE 6. ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY 7. ACTION POTENTIAL 8. NERVE IMPULSE 9. RECEPORS 10. SYNAPSE 11. NEUROTRANSMITTERSThe nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. The nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. > THE NERVOUS SYSTEMIS CLASSIFIED IN TWO MAIOR CLASS I. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM II. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM I. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM * The central nervous system consist of brain present in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord present in the vertebral column. * The spinal cord has 32 segments and the brain consists of the brain stem, diencephalon, cerebellum, and cerebrum. 1. Brain 2. Spinal cord Il. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM * Peripheral nervous system is to connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body and the external environment* Reception or production, conduction and transmission of messages in the form of an electrical signal. é * STRUCTURE OF NEURONS 1, Cell body or soma * The cell body is the core section of the neuron. * The cell body contains genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities. 2. Axon * An axonisa long, tail-like structure. * Itjoins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon hillock. * Many axonsare insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. * Myelin helps axons to conduct an electrical signal. Neuron Some_ _Dendrites Axon, Axon terminals ay: yo 3. Dendrites * Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. * Like antennae, dendrites receive and process signals from the axons of other neurons. * Neurons can have more than one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees.* Closely associated with neurons, more numerous but smaller in size. * They are the support of neurons and have other important and unique functions * The neuroglia comprises 6 cell types, depending on location, structure and function: v 4types in the CNS v 2typesin the SNP _ Periphere! Nervous, ‘Sytem Histologically - as myelinated or non-myelinated Functionally - as afferent (sensory) or efferent(motor). Based on diameter and conduction velocity which is known as Gasser and Erlanger’s classification. Based on the type of neurotransmitter released from their terminals as adrenergic, cholinergic, dopaminergic, etc. Unmyelinated fiber A:> PROPERTIES OF NERVE FIBER Excitability - When a stimulus is applied, the nerve fiber demonstrates a change in its electrical activity from its resting state. “ Conductivity - It is the ability of the nerve fiber to transmit impulses all along the whole length of axon without any change in the amplitude of the action potential. Refractory period - It is the duration after an effective stimulus, when a second stimulus is applied, there will be no response for the second stimulus. “> All or none law - when the tissue is stimulated with threshold or more than threshold strength, the amplitude of response will remain the same but for a stimulus of less than threshold strength, there will not be any response. The resting membrane potential changes suddenly, quickly, transitorily, and propagative when an action potential occurs. An action potential can be generated only by neurons and muscle cells, a property known excitability . Nerve signals originate from action potentials. The neurons generate and conduct these signals along their processes in order to transmit these signals to the target tissues. A stimulus will either activate them in some way, inhibit them, or modulate them.An electrical signal that travels along a nerve fiber in response to a stimulus and serves to transmit a record of sensation from a receptor or an instruction to act to an effector “+ STEPS OF NERVE IMPULSE 1. Polarized - Resting neuron * Inside membraneis slightly * Outside membrane is slightly. * Most membrane channels are closed, there is some normal diffusion of K or Na between cell and the environment through the sodium/potassium pump (active transport)stimulus occurs. 2. Depolarization - Active neuron * Sodium (Na+) channels open allowing Nat to diffuse into the cell quickly 3. Repolarize- Normalizing * K+ gates open in order to allow K+ to diffuse out of the cell +35 My o4 Depolarization Action = potential 55 ee eee ep te @ L typerpotanzation Resting membrane potential Time ——> @Biological transducers that convert energy from both external and internal environments into electrical impulses. + TYPES OF RECEPTORS 1, CHEMORECEPTORS * It is known as chemosensor, is a specialized sensory receptor cell which transduces a chemical substance to generate a biological signal. 2. THERMORECEPTORS + A thermoreceptor is a non-specialised sense receptor, or more accurately the receptive portion of a sensory neuron. 3. MECHANORECEPTORS * Mechanoreceptors are a type of somatosensory receptors which relay extracellular stimulus to intracellular signal transduction through mechanically gated ion channels. 4. PHOTORECEPTORS * Photoreceptors contain proteins that turn light energy into electrochemical signals, allowing cells in our nervous system to make sense of the visual world 5. SENSORY RECEPTORS * Sensory receptors comprise specialised cells close to neurons or neuron endings, which are a part of the afferent neurons and send signals to the central nervous system and brain for processing and integration. > Typesof Sensory Receptors + Free nerve endings or dendrites + Encapsulated nerve endings * Specialised receptor cellsFree nerve endings Encapsulated ve ending Cantrat process * An synapse isa junction between neuronal cells that permits communication between them. A chemical messenger called a neurotransmitter transmits messages from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron. 1. CHEMICAL SYNAPSE * A chemical synapse is formed when neurotransmitters, or chemical messengers are released by presynaptic neurons . 2. ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE Synaptic Vesicle * As voltage changes occur Presynaptic between the presynaptic cell Membrane and postsynaptic cell . — Neurotransmitter <——— Receptor* Our bodies are filled with chemical messengers known as | neurotransmitters \| Functions the brain regulates with neurotransmitters are Digestion, Sleep cycle, Appotite, Mood, Breathing, Heart rate | : * NEUROTRNSMITTERS | v Excitatory neurotransmitter - Target cells are stimulated to act by neurotransmitters v Inhibitory neurotransmitter reduces the likelihood that the target cell will act v Several neurons can be sent messages by modulatory neurotransmitters at the same time 1, Excitatory neurotransmitter * Target cells are stimulated to act by neurotransmitters ~ Examples of Excitatory neurotransmitter v Glutamate - Glutamate is typically synthesized within neurons from glutamine and is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain. It is an excitatory neurotransmitter and binds to four different receptors * NMDA receptors * AMPA receptors + Kainate receptors v Aspartate - Aspartate stimulates NMDA receptor though not as strongly as the amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate does or -urotransmitte v GABA - GABA is synthesized from giutamate and is an inhibitory neurotransmitter within the CNS. It binds to two different receptors: * GABA Areceptors * GABAB receptorsv Glycine \| * Glycine is an amino acid which is used at the majority of inhibitory synapses in the spinal cord and _ brainstem. It binds to ionotropic receptors which are permeable to chloride and bicarbonate ions. v Dopamine * Dopamine system plays a central role in several significant medical conditions, including Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction. 3. Both inhibitory neurotransmitter and excitatory neurotransmitter v Acetylcholine (ACh) * ACh is used both in the central and peripheral nervous system, in particular at the NMJ. It is synthesised in neurons from choline and acetyl-CoA. + ACh is an excitatory neurotransmitter and binds to two different receptor types Y Nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) v¥_ Muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs) v Noradrenaline * Noradrenaline widely is classified as a sympathomimetic receptor and function on both CNS and ANS. v Serotonin oo Tt is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Its biological function is complex and multifaceted, modulating mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes such as vomiting and vasoconstriction.1. INTRODUCTION 2. VARIOUS PARTS AND FUNCTION OF CNS 3. REFLEX OF ACTIVITY * The central nervous system consist of brain present in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord present in the vertebral column. * The spinal cord has 32 segments and the brain consists of the brain stem, diencephalon, cerebellum, and cerebrum. * The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. * The nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. * The central nervous system consist of o— brain present in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord present in the vertebral Brain column. | ann Pore 1. Brain | Lcarebetum i. Forebrain ii. Midbrain end iii. Hindbrain 2. Spinal cord1. BRAIN It is one of the largest organs in the body, and coordinates most body activities It is the center for all thought, memory, judgment, and emotion. Each part of the brain is responsible for controlling different body functions, such as temperature, regulation and breathing. >» VENTRICLES OF BRAIN * The ventricles of the brain are a communicating network of cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and located within the brain parenchyma “> Types of ventricles * Lateral ventricles - Lateral ventricles are two c-shaped cavities one on each side of cerebral hemisphere * Third ventricle - The third ventricle is one of the four ventricles in the brain that communicate with one another * Fourth ventricle - The fourth ventricle is a cavity of hindbrain connected to the third ventricle by a narrow cerebral aqueduct.> Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid found in your brain and spinal cord. It fills the brain ventricles, cisterns, and sulci. It also fills the central canal of the spinal cord. It is produced by specialized ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses. It is produced daily at a rate of about 25 ml per hour The cerebrospinal fluid is primarily comprised of water (99%). It also contains small quantities of glucose, protein, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and chloride. Function of Mechanical cushion to brain Source of nutrition to brain Excretion of metabolic waste products Intra-cerebral transport medium Control of chemical environment Auto regulation of intracranial pressure D ITS FUNCTION I. Cerebrum a. Right cerebral hemisphere b. Left cerebral hemisphere II. Cerebellum Il. Iv. Brain stem a. Medulla b. Pons c. Mid brain Diencephalon a. Thalamus b. Hypothalamus c. Epithalamus & Pineal glandI. CEREBRUM * Itisthe largest section of the brain. * It islocated in the upper portion of the brain and is the area that processes thoughts, judgment, memory, problem solving, and language, imaginations. The cerebrum is sudivided into the left and right Both hemisphere are connected by a bridge of nerve fibers that relay information between 2 hemisphere called corpus callosum . » Cerebral cortex * The superficial layer of the cerebrum is gray mater & thisis 2-4 mm thick called Cerebral cortex contains billions neurons. * During embryonic development when the brain size increases rapidly, the gray mater of the cortex enlarges much faster than deeper white mater soas result cortical region roles & fold upon itself. ** LOBES OF CEREBRUM v Frontal lobe * Most anterior portion of the cerebrum (under forehead) central sulcus it separate the frontal & perital lobe. controls motor function, personality, and speech Like Center of reasoning, Planning, some parts of speech, movement, Emotions, problem solving. ¢ Also called as motor cortex Y Parietal lobe The most superior portion of the cerebrum Receives and interprets nerve impulses from sensory receptors and interprets language. Receives sensory input from the skin. Also called as sensory cortex Y Occipital lobe * The most posterior portion of the cerebrum. * Receives input from the eyes & controls vision. * Also called as visual cortex.Y Temporal lobe * The left and right lateral portion of the cerebrum . * Controls hearing and smell * Also called Auditory cortex ** FUNCTIONS OF CEREBRUM | * Motor functions like control of voluntary movements. | * Sensory functions like perception of pain, temperature, touch, hearing, taste, & smell. * Control of intelligence, speech, memory & learning etc. * Occipital lobe primary visual center of brain. * It also controls subconscious contraction of skeletal muscle CEREBELLUM Second largest portion of the brain * Located beneath the posterior part of the cerebrum * A deep groove known as transverse fissure separates cerebrum to cerebellum. IN * Aids in coordinating voluntary body movements and maintaining balance and equilibrium. * The external surface of cerebellum, called cerebellar cortex, look like butterfly, constricted area called vermis > Divisions & layers of cerebellum * Anterior lobe and Posterior lobe both regulate subconscious aspects of skeletal muscle movements. * Flocculonodular lobe - on the inferior surface maintain equilibrium and balance. * Superficial layer of cerebellum called cerebellar cortex consist of gray mater, series of slender & parallel folds called folia. * Deep to gray mater white mater called arbor vitae resemble to branch of tree.+ Functions of cerebellum * Coordinate contractions of skeletal muscles * May play a role in cognition/learning from experiences & language processing. One major function of the cerebellum is to coordinate the timing and force of these different muscle groups to produce fluid limb or body movements. Sensory input from the skin, Viscera, special sense organ and pressure is relayed to thalamus before redistribution to the cerebrum. 3 BRAIN STEM + The brainstem is the posterior stalk-like part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. Mid brain * The midbrain or mesencephalon extends from the pons to the diencephalon & about 2.5 cm long. * It acts as a pathway for impulses to be conducted between the brain and the spinal cord. * associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation. * Anterior part of the midbrain called cerebral pedunclesand Posterior part called “Tectum”v Functions of mid brain * The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing. + Dopamine produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area plays a role in excitation, motivation. “> Pons Pons means bridge—connects the cerebellum to the rest of the brain. Like medulla it also sensory tract and motor tract. Contains nuclei that deals with respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, eye ball movements, facial expressions etc. v Function of Pons + Relays sensory information to cerebellum. * Connects forebrain to hindbrain. + Regulates breathing. + Involved in control of sleep cycle. * Medulla oblongata * Lowermost part of the brain stem & continuation of the superior portion of spinal cord. HUMAN BRAIN Situated at the base of the skull/ starts from foramen magnum & frmolbbe extends to the inferior border of the pons, a distance of about 3 cm. The ascending & descending sensory & motor white mater tracts (nerves) connecting brain to spinal cord pass through medulla oblongata. Porital lobe || | * The midbrain helps to relay information for vision and hearing. | Occipital lobev Function of Medulla oblongata . It plays an essential role in passing messages between your spinal cord and brain. . The cardiovascular center: regulate the heart rate, force of heartbeat & diameter of blood vessels. . The medullary rhythmicity center - responsible for maintaining basic rhythm of breathing . The vasomotor center - regulate blood pressure. . Others - vomiting, swallowing, cough, hiccupping & sneezing etc. . 5 pairs of cranial nerves originates from the nuclei located in medulla oblongata. 4. DIENCEPHELON | Diencephalon is posterior part of the forebrain that connects the midbrain with the cerebral hemisphere. Thalamus Thalamus means inner room in Greek, as it sits deep in the brain at the top of the brainstem. The thalamus is called the gateway to the cerebral cortex, as nearly all sensory inputs pass through it to the higher levels of the brain. Important relay station for all Incoming sensory nerves from periphery/ spinal Cord with different impulses of pain, temperature, Touch, pressure are conveyed to thalamus first than Go to cerebrum. (1) Median geniculate nucleus—related to hearing (2) lateral geniculate nucleus—related to vision (3) Ventral posterior nucleus—related to taste & somatic | sensations like touch, pain, pressure, cold, heat, vibrations etc. Diencepusion Right thetemus Lon natamueHypothalamus * The hypothalamus sits under the thalamus at the top of the brainstem. Although the hypothalamus is small, it controls many critical bodily functions * The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. v Functions of hypothalamus * One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. * Controls autonomic nervous system. * Regulates body temperature. * Regulates food intake and Controls endocrine system. * Regulates water balance and thirst and Controls sleep wake cycles. * Controls CVS regulation Heart rate & BP The hypothalamus is shaded blue. The pituitary gland extends from the hypothalamus. Epithalamus & Pineal gland Epithalamusisa small region superior & posterior to the thalamus. to ~ * It consist of pineal gland * Pineal gland is about the size of the pea & protrudes from posterior midline of the 3" ventricle. It's a endocrine gland secrets hormone Melatonin. * Darkness stimulates the pineal gland to secrets melatonin it promotes sleepiness. v Functions of epithalamus & Pineal gland * The function of the epithalamus is to connect the limbic system to other parts of the brain. * The main function of the pineal gland is to receive and convey information about the current light-dark cycle from the environment and, consequently produce and secrete melatonin cyclically at night .> Effector + It is the part of the body that responds to the motor nerve impulses such as muscle or gland Its action is called as reflex. * If the effector is skeletal muscle, the reflex is called as somatic reflex. * If the effector is smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or gland the reflex is called autonomic reflex. 2. SPINAL CORD * The spinal cord is a long bundle of nerves and cells that extends from the lower portion of the brain to the lower back. * It carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body. * External Anatomy of Spinal cord Y Cervical enlargement + Superior enlargement extends from the 4th cervical vertebrae to the 1 thoracic vertebrae; nerves to and from the upper limbs arises from the cervical enlargement. v Lumbar enlargement + Inferior enlargement extends from the 9th to the 12thoracic vertebrae; nerves to and from the lower limbs arise from lumbarg enlargement. Y Posterior root or dorsal root * The dorsal or sensory root contains sensory nerve fibers which conducts the nerve impulses from periphery to the spinal cord. Y Anterior rootor ventral root * The ventral or motor root contains motor neurons conducting nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the periphery.Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord Anterior median fissure * Deep grove on anterior (ventral) side Y Posterior median sulcus * Shallower groove on posterior (dorsal) side. XS Anterior or ventral horns * Somatic motor nuclei provide nerve (grey) impulsesfor contraction of skeletal muscles. Y Posterior or dorsal grey horns It contains somatic or autonomic sensory nuclei, Anterior (ventral) white columns Posterior (dorsal) white columns Lateral white columns Division of Spinal Nerves Y Cervical nerves: 8 pairs Y Thoracic nerves: 12 pairs v Lumbar nerves: 5 pairs Y Sacral nerves: 5 pairs Y Coccygeal nerves: 1 pair > Functions of afferent and efferent nerve tracts ¥ Autonomic Sensory Neuron (afferent) * These neurons are associated with interoceptors which are sensory receptors located in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles. * Sensory neurons are responsible for receiving information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. ¥ Autonomic Motor Neuron (Efferent) * These regulate visceral activities by either increasing or decreasing on going activities in their effector tissues * The autonomic nervous system is divided into two divisions. Sympathetic (Thoraco lumbar outflow) division Parasympathetic (Carnio sacral outflow) divisionThis system is further into two branches: the sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system. The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system regulates the flight-or-fight responses. The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system helps maintain normal body functions and conserves physical resources. The two divisions have both structural and functional differences. They normally work in the opposite manner Each division has two motor neurons, 1utonomic ganglia and effector organs Pre-ganglionic neurons Post-ganglionic neurons The autonomic ganglion is the collection of cell bodies outside the CNS Areflex are isa flat, autonomic, unplanned sequence of actions that occurs in response to a particular stimulus. When integration takes place in the spinal cord grey matter, the reflex is called as spinal reflex. If integration occurs in the brain stem it is called as cranial reflex. When there is contraction of skeletal muscles it is called as somatic reflexes. When there is contraction of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands it called as autonomic reflex. The pathway followed by nerve impulses that produce a reflex is called as reflex arc. Reflex Arc Areflex are includes the following five functional components Sensory receptors Sensory neuron Integrating centre Motor neuron Effector