Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates Classification of Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are organic compounds Monosaccharides

(saccharides-starches and sugars) composed of
 or simple sugars are the simplest form of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen;
carbohydrates
- hydrogen and oxygen usually occur in ratio of
 they are sweet and since they require no digestion,
2:1 as in H2O
they can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream
 They are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones which
from the small intestine
vary from simple sugars containing from 3 to 7
carbon atoms to very complex polymers Glucose
 They provide the major source of energy for the
- Dextrose or Blood Sugar
body or as much as 80 to 100% of calories
 It is the principal form in which carbohydrate is
Carbohydrate Deficiency used by the body
 It is abundant in fruits, sweet corn, and corn syrup.
 Insufficient supply of carbohydrates combined with
It is a moderately sweet sugar found naturally
accelerated breakdown of fat can budge the body's
preformed in few foods but is mainly created in the
energy metabolism in an unsafe direction
body from starch digestion
- With less available carbohydrate for energy,
 The liver stores 1/3 of the body's total glycogen and
more fats may be broken down, but not all the
liberates glucose as needed. Muscle cells can also
way to energy
store glucose as glycogen but they amass most of
- Instead, fat fragments combine with each other
their supply using it just for themselves during
and form ketone bodies
exercise
- Muscle and other tissues can use ketone bodies
 Glucose fuels the work of the body's cells. Its stores
for energy but when their production exceeds
last only for hours
their use, they can mount up and cause ketosis,
 Only glucose can provide energy for the brain,
a state that disturbs the body's normal acid-base
other nerve cells, and developing red blood cells
balance
 When a person does not reload used up glycogen
Excess Carbohydrate Intake stores, body proteins are dismantled allowing
glucose to fuel these special cells. This process in
 If more carbohydrates are consumed than what is
which protein is converted to glucose is called
needed, the body must find a way to store excess
gluconeogenesis
glucose
- The liver breaks it into smaller molecules, Fructose
putting them together to form fat
- Levulose
- The fat then travels to the fatty tissues of the
 It is the sweetest of simple sugars
body for storage
 It is found in honey, most fruits, and some
- The fat cells can store limitless quantities of
vegetables
fat, unlike the liver which can store only half a
day's worth of glycogen  It is converted into glucose in the body
Galactose  It is not found free in foods. It is produced by
hydrolysis of starch and is converted into glucose
 It is not found free in foods
in digestion
 It is produced from lactose (milk sugar) by
 It occurs in malt products and in germinating
digestion and is converted into glucose in the body
cereals. It can be found in certain infant formulas,
 Some infants are born with an inability to
beer, and malt beverage products
metabolize galactose, a condition called
 It is less sweet compared to glucose and sucrose
galactosemia
Polysaccharides
Disaccharides Or Double-Sugars
 They are composed of many molecules of simple
 They are made up of monosaccharides
sugars
 They are sweet and, unlike monosaccharides, they
 They are commonly known as complex sugars
must be changed to simple sugars by hydrolysis
before they can be absorbed Starch

Hydrolysis is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of  It is the most significant polysaccharide in human
water breaks one or more chemical bonds nutrition
 Its major food sources include cereal grains,
Sucrose
potatoes and other root vegetables, and legumes
- Ordinary table sugar-granulated, powdered, or  It is converted entirely into glucose upon digestion;
brown is more complex than sugars; and requires a longer
 It is processed from cane and beet sugar time to digest. Thus, it supplies energy over a
 It is found in fruits, vegetables, syrups, and sweet longer period of time
food production and is converted into glucose and
Dextrins
galactose upon digestion
 It is composed of glucose and fructose  They are not found free in foods
 They are formed as intermediate products in the
Lactose
breakdown of starch
- Milk Sugar
Cellulose
 It is found in milk and milk products except cheese
 It is converted into glucose and galactose in  It forms the framework of plants found in unrefined
digestion and is less soluble and less sweet than grains, vegetables, and fruits
sucrose  It is nondigestible by humans; no specific enzyme
 It remains in the intestine longer than other sugars is present and provides important bulk in the diet
and encourages the growth of certain useful which helps move digestive food mass along and
bacteria stimulates peristalsis
 It forms approximately 40% of milk solids. Cow's
Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that
milk contains 4.8% lactose while human milk has
move food through the digestive tract
7%. It favors calcium and phosphorus assimilation
 Main sources are stems and leaves of vegetables,
Maltose
seed and grain coverings, skins, and hulls. Fibers
are the structural parts of plants
  They are non-digestible because digestive enzymes - an enzyme of the saliva, secreted by the parotid
are unable to break them down glands, acts on starch to begin its breakdown to
 They lower the blood glucose levels of people with dextrins and maltose
diabetes mellitus  Action
 They may be classified into: - usually, however, the food does not stay in the
- Soluble: found in fruits and legumes, barleys, mouth long enough for much of this change to
and oats which delay gastrointestinal transit be completed, so that food is conveyed into the
and glucose absorption, and lower blood stomach mostly in starch form
cholesterol.
Stomach
- Insoluble: found in wheat brans, corn brans,
whole grain breads, cereals, and vegetables  Enzyme
which accelerate gastrointestinal transit, - none for the carbohydrates
increase fecal weight, slow down starch  Action
hydrolysis, and delay glucose absorption - none; above action by ptyalin may continue to
a minor degree
Pectins
Small Intestine
 They are non-digestible, colloidal polysaccharides
having a gel quality  Enzyme
 Sources include mostly fruits and are often used as - pancreatin enzyme, amylopsin, converts starch
base for jellies into dextrins and maltose
 Pectins are also used to treat diarrhea as they  Intestinal Juice
absorb toxins and bacteria in the intestine. They - contains three disaccharides-sucrose, lactose,
bind cholesterol reducing the amount the blood can and maltose (which act on their respective
absorb disaccharides-sucrose, lactose and maltose to
produce monosaccharides-glucose, galactose,
Glycogens
and fructose)
- Animal Starch
 They are formed from glucose and stored in liver
Functions of Carbohydrates
and muscle tissues
Major Source of Energy
 Food sources include mainly meats and sea foods
 They are converted entirely into glucose upon  it must be supplied regularly and at frequent

digestion. The hormones glucagons help the liver intervals to meet the energy needs of the body

convert glycogen into glucose every time the body  although fat/ glycogen is also a fuel, it is primarily

needs energy a storage form, and the body may function without
it in the diet
Digestion of Carbohydrates  the amount of carbohydrates held in the body is
relatively small. A total of approximately 365 gm is
Mouth
stored in the liver and the muscle tissues and is
 Enzyme: Amylase present in the circulating blood sugar

Carbohydrates Exert a Protein-Sparing Action

  if insufficient carbohydrates are available in the  Glucose has specific influences; it is indispensable
diet, the body will convert protein into glucose in for the maintenance of the functional integrity of
order to supply energy the nerve tissue and it is the sole source of energy
for the brain. Thus, a constant supply of glucose
The Presence of Carbohydrates Is Necessary for Normal
from the blood is essential for the proper
Fat Metabolism
functioning of these tissues
 If there is insufficient carbohydrate, larger amounts
of fats are used for energy than the body is Sources of Carbohydrates
equipped to handle, and oxidation is incomplete
 Whole grains rich in iron, thiamine, niacin, and
 The amount of carbohydrates present determines
other nutrients are important sources of
how much fat will be broken down. Therefore, it
carbohydrates
affects the formation and the disposal rates of
- In the manufacture of wheat flour and refined
ketones
cereal, the germ and outer layers of the grain
- Ketones are intermediate products of fat are removed resulting in the significant losses
metabolism, which are normally broken down of iron and B complex vitamins. These are
to fatty acids enriched specifically with the addition of
- However, in extreme conditions such as thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron

starvation and uncontrolled diabetes in which  Sweet potatoes and white potatoes are important
the amount of carbohydrates is inadequate and contributors to carbohydrate intake from the
unavailable, these ketones accumulate and vegetable and fruit groups because they are daily
produce a condition called ketosis or acidosis items in many diets. Some fruits such as bananas
- Thus, the anti-ketogenic effect of carbohydrate and dried fruits and some vegetables such as corn
prevents the damaging effects of ketone and lima beans are also relatively high in
formation and accumulation carbohydrate content
 Milk is unique in that it is the only dietary source of
When ketones build up in the blood, they make it more
lactose. Each cup contains 12 gm. Cheese contains
acidic High levels of ketones can poison the body. When
only traces of lactose
levels get too high, you can develop Diabetic Ketoacidosis
 Sugars and sweets are important sources of
Cellulose and Closely Related Insoluble, Indigestible carbohydrates next to breads and cereals, and cane
Carbohydrates Aid in Normal Elimination and beet sugars, honey, maple syrup, jellies, jams,
and candies. "Empty calories" are foods which
 They stimulate the peristaltic movements of the
do not contain any amount of other nutrients aside
gastrointestinal tract and absorb water to give bulk
from carbohydrates.
to the intestinal contents

Other Functions of Carbohydrates Health Effects of Starch and Fibers

 They Also Supply Significant Quantities of Weight Control

Proteins, Minerals, And B Vitamins
 Fibers rich in complex carbohydrates tend to be low
 Lactose remains in the intestine longer than other
in fat and added sugars and can promote weight
disaccharides, and this encourages the growth of
loss.
the beneficial bacteria, resulting in a laxative action
Heart Disease
  High-carbohydrate diets, rich in whole grains, can  High-carbohydrate, low-fat diets help control
protect an individual against heart disease and weight
stroke
Gastrointestinal Health
Cancer
 Dietary fibers enhance the health of the large
 High-carbohydrate diets can help prevent many intestine
types of cancer

Diabetes

Case Study

Case  arugula salad with cranberries, walnuts, lemon

juice, balsamic vinaigrette, and a light sprinkling of
Lily has been diagnosed to have diabetes. She is overweight Parmesan cheese
and had been placed on a 1,200-calorie diet by her  1 cup of Greek yogurt with honey, berries, and
physician. She finds it really hard to follow the diet. She is almonds
often hungry  almond butter on a whole grain English muffin

What should she include in her daily meals?  1 avocado with salsa
 roast beef sandwich with low calorie mayonnaise,
- People on a 1,200-calorie diet must eat
lettuce, and tomato on whole wheat bread
nutrient-dense foods to avoid hunger and
malnourishment. Lean proteins are high in Dinner
nutrients and low in calories. White
 2 ounces (oz) salmon cooked in vegetable oil, with
carbohydrates, on the other hand, have more
pepper or lemon juice
calories and less nutrients
 avocado toast on whole wheat bread with a side of
Breakfast green beans
 sweet potato with margarine and 4 oz grilled
 ½ cup shredded wheat cereal with 1 cup 1% milk
chicken
 reduced fat yogurt with blueberries
 ½ cup brown rice with 1 cup steamed vegetables
 berry and banana smoothie
and low-fat cottage cheese
 hardboiled egg
 1 cup whole wheat pasta with marinara sauce and
 1 slice whole grain toast with peanut butter
three turkey or soy meatballs
 1 cup fat free cottage cheese with pineapple or
strawberries Write two goals for Lily related to her diet and blood

 1 cup of oatmeal with berries or a banana sugar

 ½ an avocado with 1 cup fat free cottage cheese Desired Outcomes

Lunch  Client will display weight loss with optimal

maintenance of health
 A can or pouch of tuna, flavored with lemon juice
 Client will demonstrate stabilized weight toward
or pepper
usual/desired range with normal laboratory values
Write a nursing diagnosis for Lily hinder weight loss, and cause diabetes and heart
disease
 Imbalance Nutrition: More Than Body Requirement
Carbohydrate-rich foods are an important element of a
What sources of carbohydrates would help Lily lose
healthy diet. Carbohydrates supply the body with glucose,
weight and maintain blood sugar?
which is turned into energy for physiological processes and
 Some sources of carbohydrates that would help Lily physical activity. However, carbohydrate quality is
to lose weight and maintain her blood sugar are essential.
carbohydrates from unprocessed or slightly
What matters most is the type of carbohydrate the person
processed whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and
consumes, because some sources are healthier than others.
beans since it supports overall health by providing
The amount of carbohydrate in the diet – whether high or
vitamins, minerals, fiber, and a variety of essential
low – is less significant than the type of carbohydrate in the
phytonutrients
diet.
 Lily should not eat white bread, pastries, sodas, and
other highly processed or refined meals since It is more essential to eat carbohydrates from nutritious
they are all unhealthy sources of carbohydrates. foods than to stick to a strict diet that limits or counts the
These foods contain easily digestible number of grams of carbohydrates taken.
carbohydrates, which may lead to weight gain,

Estimated Calorie Requirement

 From the Greek word protos meaning primary,

ranking first, or occupying the first position
Proteins  Similarly, protein is the first substance recognized
as a vital part of a living tissue
PROTEINS
  It contains nitrogen aside from the basic carbon, - Nucleoproteins are combination of simple
hydrogen, and oxygen proteins and nucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic
 Proteins are more complex compounds of high nucleoproteins are necessary for the synthesis
molecular weights and structured in specific of proteins in the cytoplasm
arrangements and numbers of their simpler building - Mucoproteins and glycoproteins are
units, amino acids combination of a protein and large quantities of
 They are organic substances that, upon digestion, complex polysaccharides such as mucin found
yield these amino acids in secretion from gastric mucous membranes.
- Lipoproteins are compounds of a protein and a
Classification of Proteins triglyceride or other lipids such as
phospholipids or cholesterol found in cell and
Simple Proteins
organelle membranes
 Are those which yield only amino acids upon - Phosphoproteins are compounds of phosphoric
hydrolysis acid joined in ester linkage to protein found in
 They include the following; casein of milk
- Albumins are soluble in water and coagulated - Chromoproteins are compounds of proteins and
by heat non-protein pigments found in flavoproteins,
- Globulins are insoluble in water, soluble in hemoglobin, and cytochromes
dilute salt solution, and coagulated by heat. - Metalloproteins are compounds or metals (Cu,
- Glutelins are insoluble in neutral solvents but Mg, Zn, and Fe) attached to proteins found in
soluble in weak acids and alkalis; they are ferritin, hemosiderin, and transferin.
coagulated by heat
Derived Proteins
- Prolamins are soluble in 70% to 80% alcohol
but insoluble in absolute alcohol, water, and  These are products formed in the various stages of
salt solutions hydrolysis of a protein molecule
- Albuminoids are insoluble in all neutral
solvents and in dilute acids and alkalis
Chemical Stages of a Protein
- Histones and protamines, which are basic
 As indicated by its name, an amino acid has a chemical
polypeptides, are soluble in water but not
structure that combines both acid and base (amino)
coagulated by heat; they are found in the nuclei
factors
of cells.
- This important structure gives amino acids a
Compound Proteins unique buffering capacity
- This acid-base nature of amino acids also
 Conjugated Proteins or Proteids
enables them to join one another to form the
 These are combinations of simple proteins and
characteristic chain structure of protein
some other non-protein substance called a
- The amino (base) group of one amino acid
prosthetic group attached to a molecule
joins the acid (carboxyl) group of another. This
 They perform functions that a constituent could not characteristic chain structure of amino acids is
properly perform by itself called a peptide linkage. Long chains of amino
 These proteins include the following: acids that are linked in this manner are called
polypeptides.
 Essential And Non-Essential Amino Acids Incomplete Proteins

Essential Amino Acids  are those deficient in one or more of the essential
amino acids
 It cannot be synthesized by the body and are
 Examples
necessary in the diet
- plant origin-grains
 Examples:
- legumes
- Threonine
- seeds
- Lysine
- nuts
- Leucine
- Methionine Digestion of Protein
- Isoleucine
- Phenylalanine Mouth

- Valine
 Enzyme
- Tryptophan
- none
Non-Essential Amino  Action
- only mechanical mastication
 It can be manufactured by the body and therefore,
are not necessary for consideration in the diet Stomach

 Examples:
 Enzyme
- Glycine
- pepsin, produced first as inactive precursor to
- Cystine
pepsinogen, then activated by the hydrochloric
- Alanine
acid
- Tyrosine
 Action
- Aspartic acid
- converts protein into proteoses and peptones
- Serine
 In infants, enzyme rennin converts casein into
- Glutamic acid
coagulated curd
- Arginine
- Proline Small intestine (Alkaline)
- Histidine
 Pancreas
- Hydroxyproline
- Trypsin
 Complete And Incomplete Proteins
o produced first as inactive precursor
Complete Proteins trypsinogen and then activated by
enterokinase
 are those that contain all the essential amino acids
o it converts proteins, proteoses, and
in sufficient quantity and ratio to supply the body's
peptones into polypeptides and
needs
peptides
 Examples
- Chymotrypsin
- animal origin-meat
o produced first as inactive precursor
- milk
chymotrypsinogen and then activated
- cheese
by active trypsin
- eggs
 o it converts proteoses and peptones into  Complete protein foods
polypeptides and dipeptides; also - Meat
coagulates milk - Fish
- Carboxypeptidase - Poultry
o it converts polypeptides into simpler - Egg
peptides, dipeptides, and amino acids - Cheese
 Intestine  Legumes, nuts
- Aminopeptidase converts polypeptides into  Breads and cereals
peptides and amino acids
- Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into amino
Requirement for Human Nutrition
acids
1. Quality of protein fundamental to health and life
2. General daily recommendation of the Food and
Functions of Proteins
Nutrition Board
 Proteins are used in repairing worn-out body tissue - Adult: 0-9 g/kg BW
proteins (anabolism) caused by the continued wear
and tear (catabolism) going on in the body
- Children: Growth needs vary according to age
and growth patterns
 Proteins are used to build new tissue by supplying
the necessary amino acid building blocks - Pregnancy: Rapid growth requires an increase

 Proteins are a source of heat and energy. One gram of 30 g over that of a non-pregnant woman

of protein contains 4 calories - Lactation: It requires an increase of 20 g

 Proteins contribute to numerous essential body
secretions and fluids, enzymes, and proteins Measures of Protein Quality
- Some hormones have protein or amino acid Biologic Value (BV)
components
 It measures the effectiveness of protein quality in
- Mucus and milk are largely protein
supporting the body's needs
- Sperm cells are likewise largely protein as is
Net Protein Utilization (NPU)
the fluid in which the sperm cells are contained
 Proteins are important in the maintenance of normal  It also measures how capably a protein is used by
osmotic relations among the various body fluids the body
 Proteins play a vital role in the resistance of the  The difference is that NPU measures retention of
body to diseases food nitrogen consumed while BV measures food
- Antibodies to specific diseases are found as nitrogen absorbed
part of the plasma globulin, especially in what
Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)
is known as the gamma globulin fraction of
plasma  It measures the increase in weight of a growing
 Dietary proteins furnish the amino acids for a animal and compares it with the intake
variety of metabolic functions
Health Effects of Protein
Sources of Protein
Heart Disease
  Foods rich in animal protein tend to be rich in  Acute PEM
saturated fats - occurs in children who are thin for their height
 Chronic PEM
Cancer
- occurs in children who are short for their age
 Studies suggest a relationship between high intake
Two Forms Of PEM
of animal protein and some types of cancer like
cancer of the prostate gland, pancreas, kidneys, Marasmus
breast and colon
 Severe deprivation of food over a long period of
Osteoporosis time characterized by insufficiency of protein and
energy intake
 Calcium excretion rises as protein intake increases
Kwashiorkor
Weight Control
 This condition reflects an abrupt and recent
 Protein-rich foods are also rich in fat which can
deprivation of food which develops rapidly as a
lead to obesity with associated health risks.
consequence of protein deficiency or an illness like
Kidney Diseases measles

 Excretion of end products of protein metabolism

depends on a sufficient fluid intake and healthy
kidneys
 A high-protein diet increases the work of the
kidneys

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

 Protein-energy malnutrition is a condition resulting

from insufficiency of protein or energy or both in
the diet