z

w y
l
x
Consider a small elemental volume dv
❑ 2 2
I xx =∭ v ( y + z ) ρdv
❑ 2 2
I yy =∭v (x + z ) ρdv
❑ 2 2
I zz =∭ v (x + y ) ρdv
❑
I xy =∭ v xyρdv
❑
I xz =∭ v xzρdv
❑
I yx =∭v yxρdv
❑
I yz =∭ v yzρdv
❑
I zx =∭ v zxρdv
❑
I zy =∭ v zyρdv

Applying the limits of h,l,w in terms of z axis, axis, x axis. dv=dxdydz

h l w
I xx =∫ ∫ ∫ ( y + z ) ρdxdydz
2 2

0 0 0

h l w
I yy =∫ ∫ ∫ ( x + z )ρdxdydz
2 2

0 0 0

h l w
I zz =∫ ∫ ∫ (x + y ) ρdxdydz
2 2

0 0 0

h l w
I xy =∫ ∫ ∫ xyρdxdydz
0 0 0

h l w
I xz =∫ ∫∫ xzρdxdydz
0 0 0

h l w
I yx =∫ ∫ ∫ yxρdxdydz
0 0 0
 h l w
I yz =∫ ∫ ∫ yzρdxdydz
0 0 0

h l w
I zx =∫ ∫ ∫ zxρdxdydz
0 0 0

h l w
I zy =∫ ∫ ∫ zyρdxdydz
0 0 0

h l w
I xx =∫ ∫ ∫ ( y + z ) ρdxdydz
2 2

0 o 0

h l
I xx =∫ ∫ ( y + z ) ρwdydz
2 2

0 0

( )
h 3
l
I xx =∫
2
+ z l ρwdz
0 3
3 3
l h hl
I xx =( + )ρw
3 3

( )
2 2
l h
I xx = ρwlh +
3 3

Volume (v )=w× l× h

( )
2 2
l h
I xx = ρv +
3 3

mass (m)
density (ρ)=
volume (v )
mass ( m )=density (ρ)× volume (v)

( )
2 2
l h
I xx =m +
3 3
m 2 2
I xx = (l + h )
3
Similarly

m 2 2
I yy = (w +h )
3
m 2 2
I zz = (w +l )
3
 h l w
I xy =∫ ∫ ∫ xyρdxdydz
0 0 0

h l 2
w
I xy =∫ ∫ ρydydz
0 0 2

h 2 2
w l
I xy =∫ × dz
0 2 2ρ
2 2
w l
I xy = × × ρ × h
2 2
wl
I xy =ρwlh( )
4
m
I xy = wl
4
Similarly
m
I xz = wh
4
m
I yx = lw
4
m
I yz = lh
4
m
I zx = hw
4
m
I zy = hl
4
I =[ I xx I xy I xz I yx I yy I yz I zx I zy I zz ]

Principal inertia

I =[ I xx 0 0 0 I yy 0 0 0 I zz ]

Trace=I xx + I yy + I zz
 R
Z

❑ 2 2
I zz =∭ v (x + y ) ρdv
h
2 2π R

I zz = ∫ ∫ ∫ ( x 2 + y 2) ρrdrdθdz
−h 0 0
2

2 2 2
x + y =r
h
2 2π R

I zz =∫ ∫ ∫ r 3 ρdrdθdz
h 0 0
2

h
2 2π
R4
I zz =∫ ∫ × ρ × dθdz
h 0 4
2

h
2
R4
I zz =∫ × ρ ×2 π ×dz
h 4
2

4
R
I zz = ×2 π × ρ ×h
4
2
Volume=π R h
2
R
I zz = ρv ×
2
2
mR
I zz =
2
Similarly
 2 2
mR m H
I xx =I yy = +
4 12

Lagrangian Mechanics
The lagrangian L is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy K and potential energy
P of a system.
L=K-P

The kinetic and potential energy of the system may be expressed in any convenient coordinate
system that will simplify the problem. it is not necessary to use Cartesian coordinates. The
dynamics equations, in terms of the coordinates used to express the kinetic and potential energy,
are obtained as
d ∂L ∂L
F i= −
dt ∂ q̇ i ∂ q i
--------------------------I
where q iare the coordinates in which the kinetic and potential energy are expressed, q̇ i is the
corresponding velocity, and F i the corresponding force or torque. F; is either a force or a
torque, depending upon whether q i is a linear or an angular coordinate. These forces, torques,
and coordinates are referred to as generalized forces, torques, and coordinates.

𝜽𝟏

𝒎𝟏

𝒎𝟐
𝜽𝟐

To clarify the problem, Iet us proceed immediately to an example. Consider the two link
manipulator shown in Figure 1. The mass of both links m 1and m 2 is represented by point masses
at the end of the links. The links are of length d 1 and d 2, respectively. The manipulator hangs
straight down in a gravity field of acceleration g. The generalized coordinates are chosen as θ1
and θ2 , as shown in the figure1.
We first compute the kinetic energy. To do we this we need expressions for the velocity squared
1 2
of the masses as K= mv The kinetic energy of mass m 1 can be written directly as
2
1
K 1= m d 1 θ˙1
2
2
--------------------1
The potential energy is related to the vertical height of the mass expressed by the y coordinate
and may be written directly as

P1=−m1 g d 1 cos (θ1 ) -----------------2

In the case of the second mass we will first write expressions for the Cartesian position
coordinates and then differentiate them in order to obtain the velocity

x 2=d 1 sin ( θ1 ) +d 2 sin(θ1 +θ 2)----------------3

y 2=−d 1 cos ( θ 1 )−d 2 cos (θ1 +θ2) --------------------4

The Cartesian components of velocity are the

x˙2=d 1 cos ( θ1 ) θ̇1 +d 2 cos(θ1+ θ2)( θ˙1+ θ̇2) ---5

ẏ 2=d1 sin ( θ1 ) θ̇1 +d 2 sin(θ1 +θ 2)( θ̇1 + θ̇2 ) ---6
The magnitude of the velocity squared is then.
˙ 2
v 2=d 1 θ̇ 1+ d 2 ( θ̇1+ 2 θ˙1 θ̇2 + θ˙2 ) +2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ1 ) cos (θ1 +θ2 )( θ̇1 + θ̇1 θ̇2) +2 d 1 d˙2 sin ( θ1 ) sin(θ 1+ θ2)( θ˙1+ θ˙1 θ˙2)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

------7
v 2=d 1 θ̇ 1+ d 2 ( θ̇1+ 2 θ˙1 θ̇2 + θ˙2 ) +2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ2 ) ( θ̇1 + θ̇1 θ˙2)------8
2 2 2 2 2 ˙ 2 2

and the kinetic energy is

˙
K 2= m2 d θ̇12+ m2 d ( θ̇21 +2 θ˙1 θ̇2 + θ˙22) +m2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ2 ) ( θ˙21+ θ˙1 θ˙2)-------9
2 2
1 1
2 1 2 2

the potential energy is then

P2=−m2 g d 1 cos ( θ1 )−m2 g d 2 cos (θ1 +θ2 )------10

K=K 1+ K 2

P=P1 + P2

The Lagrangian L=K −Pis then obtained from Equations 1,2,9,10

2
1 2 2 1
L= ( m1 +m2 ) d 1 θ˙1 + m2 d ( θ̇1 +2 θ˙1 θ̇2 + θ˙2) +m2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ2 ) (θ˙1+ θ˙1 θ˙2 ) + ( m1+ m2) g d 1 cos ( θ1 ) +m2 g d 2 cos (θ1 +θ2
2 2 2
2 2 2

--------11
The Dynamics Equations:
In order to obtain the dynamics equations we now differentiate the
Lagrangian L according to Equation I
∂L
=( m1+ m2 ) d 1 θ̇1 +m2 d 2 θ̇1 +m2 d 2 θ̇2 +2 m2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ1 ) θ˙1+ m2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ2 ) θ̇2 --------12
2 2 2

∂ θ̇1

d ∂L
=¿ ------------13
dt ∂ θ˙1

∂L -----14
=−( m1+ m2) g d 1 sin ( θ1 )−m2 g d 2 sin(θ 1+ θ2)
∂ θ1

Substitute equation 13&14 in equation I will get joint1 torque.

T 1=¿ -------------15

We now proceed to obtain the equation for the torque at joint 2 by performing the
differentiation of the Lagrangian with respect to θ1 and θ2
∂L ˙
=m2 d 2 θ̇1+ m2 d 2 θ̇2 +m2 d 1 d˙2 cos (θ 2) θ̇1 -------------------16
2 2

∂ θ̇2

d ∂L
=m2 d 2 θ¨1+ m2 d 2 θ¨2+ m2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ 2 ) θ¨1−m2 d1 d 2 sin(θ2 ) θ˙1 θ̇2 -----17
2 2
˙
dt ∂ θ 2

∂L
=−m2 d 1 d 2 sin (θ2 ) θ̇1 θ2−m2 g d 2˙sin( θ1+ θ2) ---------------18
∂ θ2

The torque is then

T 2=[ m2 d 22+ m2 d 1 d 2 cos ( θ 2 ) ] θ̈1 +m2 d 22 θ̈2−2 m2 d1 d 2 sin ( θ2 ) θ˙1 θ˙2−m2 d 1 d 2 sin ( θ 2 ) θ˙21+ m2 g d 2 sin (θ1 +θ2 )
----------19
Let us rewrite Equations 15 and 19 in the form
T 1=D11 θ̈1 + D12 θ̈2 + D111 θ̇21+ D 122 θ̇22 + D 112 θ̇1 θ˙2+ D 121 θ˙2 θ˙1 + D 1 ---------------------------------
20
T 2=D12 θ¨1 + D22 θ¨2+ D 211 θ˙1+ D 222 θ̇2 + D212 θ̇1 θ˙2+ D221 θ̇2 θ˙1+ D 2---------------------------21
2 2

In these equations, a coefficient of the form Dii is known as the effective inertia at joint i,
as an acceleration at joint i causes a torque at joint i equal to D ii θ̈ i A coefficient of the
form Dij is known as the coupling inertia between joints i and j, as an acceleration at
joint i or j causes a torque at joint j or i equal to Dij θ̈i or Dij θj¨ respectively, A term of
the form D ijj θ̇2j is the centripetal force acting at joint ¢ due to a velocity at joint i. A
combination of terms of the form DijK θ̇ j θ̇k + Dikj θ˙k θ˙ j is known as the Coriolis force. acting
at joint i due to velocities at joints j and k. Finally, a term of the form Di represents the
gravity forces at joint i. By comparing Equations 15 and 19 with 20 and 21, respectively,
we obtain values for the coefficients as:
effective inertias
D11 =¿
2
D22=m2 d 2

coupling inertia
2
D12=m2 d 2+ m2 d 1 d 2 cos (θ2 )

centripetal acceleration coefficients

D111=0

D112=−m2 d 1 d 2 sin (θ2)

D211=−2 m2 d 1 d2 sin(θ 2)
D222 =0

Coriolis acceleration coefficients

D112=D 121=−m2 d 1 d 2 sin(θ 2)

D212 =D221 =m2 d 1 d 2 sin (θ2 )

gravity terms
D1=( m1 +m2 ) g d 1 sin ( θ1 ) + m2 g d 2 sin (θ1 +θ2 )

D2=m2 g d 2 sin(θ1+ θ2)

Generalized Lagrangian equation is given by

6 i i T 6 6
1 ∂ Hi ∂ Hi 1
L= ∑ ∑ ∑ Trace ( )q m qn + ∑ I ai q i +∑ mi g H i ⃗
2 T
. Ji . ri
2 1 m =1 n=1 ∂ qm ∂q n 2 i=1 i=1

Lagrangian Euler formation of Dynamics equation is

6 6 6
F i=∑ Dij q̈ j + I ai q̈i + ∑ ∑ Dijk q̈ j q̈ k + Di
j=1 j=1 k=1

Where
 ( )
6 T
∂Hp ∂ HP
Effective inertia Dij = ∑ Trace .J p.
maxi , j ∂qj ∂q i

( )
6 2 T
∂ Hp ∂HP
Coriolis Forces Dijk = ∑ Trace . J p.
max i , j ,k ∂ q j ∂ qk ∂ qi
6
∂Hp
Gravitational Force Di=∑ −m p g
T
⃗
r
p=i ∂ qi p

Inertial terms and gravity terms affects servo stability and positioning
accuracy.
 Trajectory Planning
A path is defined as the collection of a sequence of configurations a robot makes to go from one place
to another without regard to the timing of these configurations. if a robot goes from point
(configuration) A to point B to point C, the sequence of the configurations between A and B and C
constitutes a path. A trajectory is related to the timing at which each part of the path must be attained.
As a result, regardless of when points B and C the path is the same, whereas depending on how fast
each portion of the path is traversed, the trajectory may differ. Therefore, the points at which the robot
may be on a path and on a trajectory at a given time may be different, even if the robot traverses the
same points.

Third-Order Polynomial Trajectory Planning

the initial location and orientation of the robot are known and, using the inverse kinematic equations,
the final joint angles for the desired position and orientation are found. However, the motions of each
joint of the robot must be planned individually. Therefore, consider one of the joints, which at the
beginning of the motion segment at time ti is at ui, and which we want to move to a new value of uf at
time tf. One way to do this is to use a polynomial to plan the trajectory such that the initial and final
boundary conditions match what we already know, namely that ui and uf are known and
the velocities at the beginning and the end of the motion segment are zero (or other known values).
These four pieces of information allow us to solve for four unknowns (or a third-order polynomial) in
the form of:
2 3
θ ( t )=c 0 +c 1 t +c 2 t +c 3 t ---------------------------1
Where
θ ( t i )=θi

θ ( t f ) =θ f

θ̇ ( t i )=0

θ̇ ( t f ) =0

Taking the first derivative of the polynomial of Equation 1

θ̇ ( t )=c 1 +2˙ c 2 t + 3 c3 t ---------------------------------2

2

Substituting the initial and final conditions into Equations 1 and 2 yields

θ ( t i )=c 0 =θi
2 3
θ ( t f ) =c 0 +c 1 t f + c 2 t f + c 3 t f 3

θ̇ ( t i )=c 1=0
2
θ̇ ( t f ) =c 1 +2 c2 t f +3 c 3 t f =0

By solving these four equations simultaneously, we get the necessary values for the constants. This
allows us to calculate the joint position at any interval of time, which can be used by the controller to
drive the joint to position. The same process must be used for each joint individually, but they are all
driven together from start to finish. Obviously, if the initial and final velocities are not zero, the given
values can be used in these equations. Therefore, applying this third-order polynomial to each joint
motion creates a motion profile that can be used to drive each joint. If more than two points are
specified, such that the robot will go through the points successively, the final velocities and positions
at the conclusion of each segment can be used as the initial values for the next segments. Similar
third-order polynomials can be used to plan each section. However, although positions and velocities
are continuous, accelerations are not, which may cause problems.