Chapter 5 o Sesamoid bones are a type of short

The Skeletal System bone that form within tendons (patella)

o Examples:
 Carpals (wrist bones)
The Skeletal System  Tarsals (ankle bones)
 Parts of the skeletal system  Irregular bones
o Bones (skeleton) o Irregular shape
o Joints o Do not fit into other bone classification
o Cartilages categories
o Ligaments o Examples:
 Two subdivisions of the skeleton  Vertebrae
1. Axial skeleton  Hip bones
2. Appendicular skeleton

Structure of Bone
Functions of the Bones
 Support the body  Long bone anatomy
 Protect soft organs o Diaphysis (shaft)
o Skull and vertebrae protect brain and  Makes up most of bone’s length
spinal cord  Composed of compact bone
o Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs o Periosteum
 Attached skeletal muscles allow movement  Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Store minerals and fats  Fibrous connective tissue membrane
o Calcium and phosphorus  Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure
o Fat in the internal marrow cavity periosteum to underlying bone
o Epiphysis (ends)
 Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
 Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed
by thin layer of compact bone
Classification of Bones o Articular cartilage
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones  Covers the external surface of the
 Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue epiphyses
1. Compact bone  Made of hyaline cartilage
 Dense, smooth, and homogeneous  Decreases friction at joint surfaces
2. Spongy bone o Epiphyseal line
 Small needlelike pieces of bone  Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
 Many open spaces  Seen in adult bones
 Bones are classified on the basis of shape o Epiphyseal plate
into four groups  Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young,
o Long growing bone
o Flat  Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone
o Short o Endosteum
o Irregular  Lines the inner surface of the shaft
 Long bones  Made of connective tissue
o Typically longer than they are wide o Medullary cavity
o Shaft with enlarged ends  Cavity inside the shaft
o Contain mostly compact bone; spongy  Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in
bone at ends adults
o All of the bones of the limbs (except  Contains red marrow for blood cell
formation in infants until age 6 or 7
wrist, ankle, and kneecap bones) are
 Bone markings
long bones
o Sites of attachments for muscles,
o Examples:
tendons, and ligaments
 Femur
o Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Humerus
 Flat bones  Categories of bone markings
o Thin, flattened, and usually curved o Projections or processes—grow out
o Two thin layers of compact bone from the bone surface
 Terms often begin with “T”
sandwich a layer of spongy bone
o Depressions or cavities—indentations
between them
o Examples:  Terms often begin with “F”
 Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone
 Most bones of the skull
o Composed of small, needlelike pieces of
 Ribs
 Sternum bone called trabeculae and open spaces
 Short bones o Open spaces are filled by marrow, blood
o Generally cube-shaped vessels, and nerves
o Contain mostly spongy bone with an  Microscopic anatomy of compact bone
o Osteocytes
outer layer of compact bone
 Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix response to two factors
o Lacunae 1. Calcium ion level in the blood
 Cavities in bone matrix that house determines when bone matrix is to be
osteocytes broken down or formed
o Lamellae 2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the
 Concentric circles of lacunae situated skeleton determines where bone matrix
around the central (Haversian) canal is to be broken down or formed
o Central (Haversian) canal  Calcium ion regulation
 Opening in the center of an osteon o Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
(Haversian system)  Released when calcium ion levels in blood
 Runs lengthwise through bone are low
 Carries blood vessels and nerves  Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying
o Osteon (Haversian system) cells)
 A unit of bone containing central canal and  Osteoclasts break down bone and release
matrix rings calcium ions into the blood
 Structural and functional unit of compact o Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium
bone levels) prompts calcium storage to
o Canaliculi bones by osteoblasts
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system connecting all Bone Fractures
bone cells to a nutrient supply  Fracture: break in a bone
o Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal  Types of bone fractures
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal o Closed (simple) fracture is a break that
 Carries blood vessels and nerves does not penetrate the skin
 Bone is relatively lightweight and resists o Open (compound) fracture is a broken
tension and other forces bone that penetrates through the skin
 Organic parts (collagen fibers) of the bone  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
make bone flexible and have great tensile strength immobilization
 Calcium salts deposited in the bone make o Closed reduction: bones are manually
bone hard to resist compression coaxed into position by physician’s
hands
o Open reduction: bones are secured with
Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling pins or wires during surgery
 Bone formation and growth  Healing time is 6–8 weeks
o Ossification is the process of bone  Repair of bone fractures involves four major
formation events
o Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or o Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or
fibrous membranes bruise) is formed
o Long bone growth involves two major o Fibrocartilage callus forms
phases  Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen
 Two major phases of ossification in long fibers splint the broken bone
bones o Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage
1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) cover callus
hyaline cartilage model with bone matrix  Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in
2. In a fetus, the enclosed cartilage is o Bone remodeling occurs in response to
digested away, opening up a medullary mechanical stresses
cavity
 By birth, most cartilage is converted to bone
except for two regions in a long bone Axial Skeleton
1. Articular cartilages
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
2. Epiphyseal plates
 Divided into three parts
 New cartilage is formed continuously on
1. Skull
external face of these two cartilages
2. Vertebral column
 Old cartilage is broken down and replaced
3. Bony thorax
by bony matrix
 Appositional growth
o Bones grow in width Skull
o Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone  Two sets of bones form the skull
matrix to the outside of the diaphysis 1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
o Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove 2. Facial bones
bone from the inner surface of the  Hold eyes in anterior position
diaphysis  Allow facial muscles to express feelings
 Bone growth is controlled by hormones,  Bones are joined by sutures
such as growth hormone and sex hormones  Only the mandible is attached by a freely
 Bones are remodeled throughout life in movable joint
 8 cranial bones protect the brain o Transverse processes
1 Frontal bone o Spinous process
2 Occipital bone o Superior and inferior articular processes
3 Ethmoid bone Thoracic Cage
4 Sphenoid bone
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair)  Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair) organs of the thoracic cavity
 Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
 14 facial bones  True ribs (pairs 1–7)
1, 2 Maxillae (pair)  False ribs (pairs 8–12)
3, 4 Palatine bones (pair)  Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) 3. Thoracic vertebrae
7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair)
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)
11 Vomer bone
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair)
14 Mandible
 Paranasal sinuses Appendicular Skeleton
o Hollow portions of bones surrounding  Composed of 126 bones
the nasal cavity o Limbs (appendages)
o Functions of paranasal sinuses o Pectoral girdle
 Lighten the skull o Pelvic girdle
 Amplify sounds made as we speak
 Hyoid bone
o Closely related to mandible and Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
temporal bones  Also called pectoral girdle
o The only bone that does not articulate  Composed of two bones that attach the
with another bone upper limb to the axial skeletal
o Serves as a movable base for the 1. Clavicle
tongue 2. Scapula
o Aids in swallowing and speech  Light, poorly reinforced girdle
 Allows the upper limb a exceptional
flexibility
Vertebral Column (Spine)
 Vertebral column provides axial support
Bones of the Upper Limbs
o Extends from skull to the pelvis
 Humerus
 26 vertebral bones are separated by o Forms the arm
intervertebral discs
o Single bone
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o Proximal end articulation
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
 Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of
region
the scapula
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with
o Distal end articulation
the lower back
 Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the
o Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5
bones of the forearm
vertebrae)  The forearm has two bones
o Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 1. Ulna—medial bone in anatomical
vertebrae) position
 Primary curvatures  Proximal end articulation
o Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and  Coronoid process and olecranon articulate
sacral regions with the humerus
o Present from birth 2. Radius—lateral bone in anatomical
o Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns position
 Secondary curvatures  Proximal end articulation
o Spinal curvatures of the cervical and  Head articulates with the capitulum of the
lumbar regions humerus
o Develop after birth  Hand
o Form an S-shaped curvature in adults o Carpals—wrist bones
 Parts of a typical vertebra  8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in
o Body (centrum) each hand
o Vertebral arch o Metacarpals—palm bones
 Pedicle  5 per hand
 Lamina o Phalanges—fingers and thumb
o Vertebral foramen  14 phalanges in each hand
 In each finger, there are 3 bones
 In the thumb, there are only 2 bones o One transverse

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle Joints

 Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones  Joints are articulations
 Composed of three pairs of fused bones o Occur where two or more bones meet
1. Ilium  Functions of joints
2. Ischium o Hold bones together securely
3. Pubis o Allow for mobility
 Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum  Two ways joints are classified
 Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx o Functionally
 The total weight of the upper body rests on o Structurally
the pelvis
Joints
 Pelvis protects several organs
o Reproductive organs  Functional joint classifications
o Urinary bladder o Synarthroses
o Part of the large intestine  Immovable joints
 The female’s pelvis o Amphiarthroses
o Inlet is larger and more circular  Slightly movable joints
o Shallower, on the whole, and the bones o Diarthroses
are lighter and thinner  Freely movable joints
o Ilia flare more laterally  Structural joint classifications
o Sacrum is shorter and less curved o Fibrous joints
o Ischial spines are shorter and farther  Generally immovable
apart; thus, the outlet is larger o Cartilaginous joints
o Pubic arch is more rounded because the  Immovable or slightly movable
angle of the pubic arch is greater o Synovial joints
 Freely movable
 Fibrous joints
Bones of the Lower Limbs o Bones are united by fibrous tissue
 Femur—thigh bone o Types
o The heaviest, strongest bone in the  Sutures
body  Immobile
o Proximal end articulation  Syndesmoses
 Head articulates with the acetabulum of the  Allow more movement than sutures but still
coxal (hip) bone immobile
o Distal end articulation  Found on the distal ends of tibia and fibula
 Lateral and medial condyles articulate with  Gomphoses
the tibia in the lower leg  Immobile
 The lower leg has two bones  Found where the teeth meet the facial
1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially bones
oriented  Cartilaginous joints
 Proximal end articulation o Bones are connected by fibrocartilage
 Medial and lateral condyles articulate with o Types
the femur to form the knee joint  Synchrondrosis
 Distal end articulation  Immobile
 Medial malleolus forms the inner part of the  Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long
ankle bones
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the  Symphysis
tibia  Slightly movable
 Has no role in forming the knee joint  Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral
 Distal end articulation joints
 Lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the  Synovial joints
ankle o Articulating bones are separated by a
 Foot joint cavity
o Tarsals—7 bones o Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
 Two largest tarsals are the: o Four distinguishing features of synovial
 Calcaneus (heel bone) joints
 Talus 1. Articular cartilage
o Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of 2. Articular capsule
the foot 3. Joint cavity
o Phalanges—14 bones form the toes 4. Reinforcing ligaments
 Arches of the feet  Synovial joints (continued)
o Bones of the foot are arranged to form o Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
three strong arches  Lined with synovial membranes
o Two longitudinal  Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
o Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
 Types of synovial joints based on shape
o Plane joint
o Hinge joint
o Pivot joint
o Condylar joint
o Saddle joint
o Ball-and-socket joint

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Birth to adulthood
o First “long bones” of a fetus are hyaline
cartilage
o Earliest “flat bones” of the fetal skull are
fibrous membranes
o As fetus grows, all bone models are
converted to bone
 Fetal skull
o Fontanels are fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones
 Known as “soft spots”
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later
pregnancy and infancy
 Usually ossify by 2 years of age
 Growth of cranium after birth is related to
brain growth
o Increase in size of the facial skeleton
follows tooth development and
enlargement of the respiratory
passageways
 Size of cranium in relationship to body
o 2 years old—skull is three-fourths the
size of adult skull
o 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult in
size and proportion
o Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows
out from the skull
 Skeletal changes
o At birth, the head and trunk are
proportionately much longer than the
lower limbs
o During puberty:
 Female pelvis broadens
 Entire male skeleton becomes more robust
o By the end of adolescence:
 Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified
 Older adults
o Osteoporosis
 Bone-thinning disease afflicting:
 50 percent of women over age 65
 20 percent of men over age 70
 Disease makes bones fragile, and bones
can easily fracture
 Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also
known as “dowager’s hump”)
 Estrogen aids in health and normal density
of a female skeleton