Subject Name: Control systems

Subject Code: EC-4005

Semester: 4th
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Unit 3
Syllabus: Frequency response analysis
Correlation between time and frequency response, Polar plots, Bode Plots, all-pass and minimum-phase
systems, log-magnitude versus Phase-Plots, closed-loop frequency response.
Frequency domain stability analysis, Nyquist stability criterion, assessment of relative stability using Nyquist
plot and Bode plot (phase margin, gain margin and stability).

3.1: Correlation between time and frequency response

For the higher order control system analysis, it is quite difficult to analyze the systems in the time domain,
therefore for the higher order systems, frequency domain analysis is used.
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady state response.
We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The frequency response of a system is defined
as the steady-state response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal. The sinusoid is a unique input signal,
and the resulting output signal for a linear system, as well as signals throughout the system, is sinusoidal in
the steady-state; it differs from the input waveform only in amplitude and phase.

3.2: Polar Plot

The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the phase angle of � � by
varying ω from 0 to ∞. The polar graph sheet is shown in the figure 3.2.1 below.
This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and 90

radial lines. The concentric circles and the radial

135 45
lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles
respectively. These angles are represented by
positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly,
we can represent angles with negative values in 180 0
0
clockwise direction. For example, the angle 270 in
anti-clock wise directio is e ual to the a gle −9 0 in
clockwise direction.
345
225

270

Figure 3.2.1 Polar Graph

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.
 Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
 Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of � � .
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of � � by substituting ω= . So, the pola plot
starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Find the ending magnitude and the phase of � � by substituting � = ∞, so, the polar plot
ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term of � �
equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term of � � equal
to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 Now find the magnitude and phase of � � by considering the other value(s) of ω.

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Example 3.1 Draw the Polar Plot for the closed loop transfer function
�� �� =
� �+ �+

Solution: Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.
� � =
+ +

Step 1 − Su stitute, = � in the open loop transfer function.

� � =
� �+ �+
Magnitude
| � � |=
�√� + √� +
Phase angle �=− − tan− � − tan− �/

Step 2 − The following table shows the magnitude and the phase angle of the open loop transfer function at
� = rad/sec and � = ∞ rad/sec.
Frequency(rad/sec) Magnitude Phase Angle
0 ∞ −
∞ 0 −
√ 10/3 −

So, the polar plot starts at ∞, − and

ends at (0,− 7 ). It intersects the real axis
0

at
(√ , − . The first and the second
terms within the brackets indicate the
magnitude and phase angle respectively.
The required polar plot is shown in figure
ex 3.1.

Figure ex 3.1 Polar Plot

3.3: Bode Plot

The Bode plot o the Bode diag a o sists of two plots −
 Magnitude Vs. Frequency plot
 Phase Vs. Frequency plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, y axis represents the
magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and the phase angle (linear
scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -
= �| � � |
The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -
�=∠ � �

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Basic of Bode Plots

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms present in the
open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.

Slope Phase angle

Type of term �� �� Magnitude (dB)
(dB/dec) (degrees)
Constant K 0 20logK 0
Zero at origin jω 20 logω 90
n zeros at
jω n
20n logω 90n
origin
Pole at origin /jω − − logω −9 o 7
n poles at
/ jω n
− − logω −9 o 7
origin

(i) � � =�
Consider the open loop transfer function =
Magnitude = �
Phase angle � = degrees
If K=1, then magnitude is 0 dB.
If K>1, then magnitude will be positive.
If K<1, then magnitude will be negative.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

M (dB) φ (degrees)

K>1
20 log K

K=1 ∞ <K< 1

0 log ω 0 log ω
-20 log K
0<K<1

Figure 3.3.2.(a) Magnitude Vs. Frequency Figure 3.3.2.(b) Phase Vs. Frequency

The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself is the
magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal line will shift 20logK
dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line will shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB
line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all the positive values of K.

(ii) � � =�
Consider the open loop transfer function = .

Magnitude = ��
Phase angle � =
At ω= . rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.

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At ω= rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.

At ω= ad/se , the ag itude is dB.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

M(dB) φ (degrees)

20

9
0
0 .1 1 10 Log ω
-20 0 log ω

Figure 3.3.3.(b) Phase Vs. Frequency

Figure 3.3.3.(a) Magnitude Vs. Frequency

The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started at ω= . rad/sec having
a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is touching 0 dB line at ω= rad/sec. In this
case, the phase plot is 900 line.

(iii) � � = + ��
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H s = +sτ.
Magnitude = � √ + � � dB
−
Phase angle � = �� degrees
For ω< /τ, the ag itude is dB a d phase a gle is deg ees.
For ω> /τ, the ag itude is logωτ dB and phase angle is 900.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
φ (degrees)
M(dB)
20 dB/dec 20 dB/dec
20 90

0 1/ τ 10/ τ log ω 0 1/ τ 10/ τ log ω

Figure 3.3.4.(a) Magnitude Vs. Frequency

Figure 3.3.4.(b) Phase Vs. Frequency

The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB up to ω= /τ rad/sec. From ω= /τ rad/sec, it is having a

slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees up to ω= /τ rad/sec and
from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot is called the asymptotic Bode plot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode plots resemble
the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have simple curves instead
of straight lines.

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Example 3.2 Draw the Bode Plot for the system whose open loop transfer function is given as
� � =
� �+ �+�

Solution: Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.
= =
+ + + + .
therefore
=
+ + .
This is a type 1 system with K=5. Put = �
therefore
� � =
� + � + . �
1. The corner frequencies are
� = = /

� = = /
.
2. Starting frequency
Starting frequency is taken as the lower than the lowest frequency. As the lowest frequency is 1 rad / sec,
the starting frequency will be 0.1 rad / secs.

3. Initial Slope
Since the type of the system is one, the initial slope will be − / .

4. Intersection with 0db axis

For type 1 system,
�= = /
The initial slope will continue from � = . / to next corner frequency � = / .

5. Next slope
The next corner frequency � = / is due to the denominator term / + � , therefore the slope
will change by − / . The new slope will be now − / , and it will continue up to the
next corner frequency.

6. Next slope
The next corner frequency � = / is due to the denominator term / + � , therefore the slope
will change by − / . The new slope will be now − / , and it will continue for the all
frequencies greater than � = / .

7. Phase Angle
The Phase Angle � = ∠ � � for the frequencies between � = . / to � = / is
calculated by
�=∠ � � =− − tan− � − tan− . �
Therefore all the details can be summarized in the table below
Factor Corner Frequency Slope Angle
(rad/seconds) (db/decade) (degree)
_ − / −
�
/ − / − tan− �
+ �

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/ − / − tan− . �
+ . �

For plotting the phase curve, the total angle is given by

�=∠ � � =− − tan− � − tan− . �
Therefore the phase angles � for different values of � are given in the table below:

� 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 5 10
� − . − . − . − − . − . − .

The Magnitude curve and the phase curve are plotted in the diagram given below:

Figure ex 3.2 Bode plot for the Ex. 3.2

From the magnitude curve, the gain cross over frequency is 2.2 / , i.e. �� = . / .
From the phase curve, the phase cross over frequency is 2 / , i.e. �� = / .
∴ � = − log | ( �� ) ( �� )| = −
�ℎ � = +∠ ( �� ) ( �� ) = −
Since both the Gain Margin and Phase Margin are negative, therefore the system is unstable.

3.4: Stability Conditions:

1. If both the gain margin and phase margin are positive, then system is stable.
2. It both gain margin and phase margin are zero, then the system is marginally stable.
3. If any of them is negative, system is unstable.
In terms of frequency:
1. The system will be stable if �� > �� .
2. The system will be marginally stable if �� = �� .
3. The system will be unstable if �� < �� .

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3.5: All-pass and minimum-phase systems

(a) All Pass System:
If the zeros of the system are located symmetrically to the poles in right half of S plane, then system is called
All Pass System.

Figure 3.4.1 All Pass System

All pass system is used for phase shifting. Magnitude of transfer function of All Pass System is unity, i.e.
−
=
+
All pass system is also known as Non-minimum phase system.

(b) Minimum Phase System

Minimum phase system is a system, which contains all of its close loop poles and zeros in the left half of the
S plane.
For example,
+ +
=
+ + +

(c) Non-Minimum Phase System

Minimum phase system is a system, which contains all of its close loop poles in the left half of the S plane
and one or more than one zeros in the right hand side of the s plane.
For example,
−
=
+ +

3.6: Nyquist Stability Criterion

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P poles and Z
ze os a e e losed y the s pla e losed path, the the o espo di g plane must encircle the
origin P−) ti es. So, we a w ite the u e of e i le e ts N as,
=�−
 If the enclosed S plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the encirclement in
the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed closed path in the S plane.
 If the enclosed S plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the encirclement in
the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the S plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the S plane by selecting it as a closed
path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function
are in the left half of the S plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are nothing but the roots

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of the characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the
roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic equation as follows.
 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop transfer
function.
 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop transfer
function.
We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the right half of the S
plane.
I.e. P = 0 ⇒ N = −)
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right half of the
S plane.
i.e., Z = 0 ⇒ N = P
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0) must be equal
to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in
the right half of the S plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the characteristic equation plane.

3.5.1 Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots

Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.
 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s) H(s) in S plane.
 Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0, then
varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero (0− if any pole or
zero present at s=0).
 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros at origin. The
infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the polar plot ends. And
this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar plot starts.
After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system using the Nyquist
stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement, then the closed loop control
system is absolutely stable.

3.5.2 Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots

From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or unstable
based on the values of these parameters.
 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
 Gain margin and phase margin

3.5.3 Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 180 0) is known as
the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ��� .

3.5.4 Gain Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain cross over
frequency. It is denoted by ��� .
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency and gain cross
over frequency is listed below.
 If the phase cross over frequency ��� is greater than the gain cross over frequency ��� , then the
control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ��� is equal to the gain cross over frequency ��� , then the control
system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ��� is less than gain cross over frequency ��� , then the control system
is unstable.

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3.5.5 Gain Margin

The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the phase cross over
frequency.
GM=1/Mpc
Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.

3.5.6 Phase Margin

The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
� = + ���
where, ��� is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the phase margin is
listed below.
 If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then the control
system is stable.
 If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the control
system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then the control
system is unstable.

3.5.7 Relative Stability:

A transfer function is called minimum phase when all the poles and zeros are LHP and non-minimum-phase
when there are RHP poles or zeros.
The gain margin (GM) is the distance on the Bode magnitude plot from the amplitude at the phase crossover
frequency up to the 0 dB point. GM=-(dB of GH measured at the phase crossover frequency).
The phase margin (PM) is the distance from -180 up to the phase at the gain crossover frequency.
PM=180+phase of GH measured at the gain crossover frequency.
Therefore the system will be stable if in the graph of the Bode Plot, the Gain Margin and the Phase Margin,
both are positive. If both are zero, then the system is Marginally Stable, and if any of the GM and PM are
negative, the system will be Unstable.

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