CH – 1

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The three states of matter
are solid, liquid and gas. Matters are made out of particles. The particle theory
explains the behavior of substance in these three states.

Solid:
In a solid, the particles are packed tightly together and
arranged regularly (in a regular pattern). The particles
are not free to move around and can only vibrate on fix
position.
Solids have a definite shape and volume at given
temperature, but this may change if temperature
changes. Solid’s size increases slightly if heated and
decreases if cooled. Solids cannot be compressed.

Liquid:
In a liquid, the particles are close to each other but there

are some gaps between them. And they are not

arranged
regularly (arranged randomly). The particles can move
around each other in all directions but slowly.
Liquids have definite volume but its shape varies, it will
take up shape of any container they’re put in. Like solid,
its volume may change with temperature.

Gas:
In a gas, the particles are far away from each other and
are arranged randomly. The particles can move freely in
all directions at high speed.
Gases do not have definite volume nor shape. It will take

up shape of any container they’re put in and will spread

out evenly within it.
changing state between solid and liquid:

Melting

Freezing

If a solid is heated the particles vibrate faster. (The higher the temperature, the
faster the particles move). They vibrate so fast that, the bonds/force of attraction
between particles are no longer strong enough to hold them tightly together. The
regular pattern of the structure breaks down and this makes them push their
neighboring particles further away from themselves. The particles are now able to
and free to move around. The solids melt to form a liquid. The temperature at which
the solid melts is called its melting point. The particles in liquid have more kinetic
energy than particles in solid so energy has to be applied to convert a solid liquid.
If the liquid is cooled again, the liquid particles will move around more and more
slowly. Eventually, they are moving so slowly that the forces of attraction between
them will hold them in a fixed position and the particles pack more closely together
into a solid. The liquid freezes, forming a solid. The temperature at which this occurs
is called the freezing point. When freezing, energy is taken out. Because you are
removing heat to freeze a substance.
The temperature of the melting point and that of the freezing point of a substance
are exactly the same.
changing state between liquid and gas:

Boiling

Condensing

Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated so strongly that the particles are moving fast
enough to overcome all the forces of attraction between them. The stronger the
forces of attraction between particles, the higher the boing point of the liquid. This is
because more energy is needed to overcome these forces of attraction. The
temperature at which the liquid boil is called its boiling point.
If a gas is cooled, the particles eventually move slowly enough that forces of
attraction between them start to form and hold them together as a liquid. The gas
condenses. Condensation is the process where water vapor becomes liquid. It is
the reverse of boiling, where liquid water becomes a vapor.
The boiling point and condensation point of a substance is the same temperature.

changing state between solid and gas:

Sublimation

Deposition

A small number of substances can change directly from a solid to a gas, or from a
gas to a solid, at normal pressure without involving any liquid in the process. The
conversion of a solid into a gas is known as sublimation and the reverse process is
usually called deposition.
The best example of sublimation is dry ice which is a frozen form of carbon dioxide.
When dry ice gets exposed to air, dry ice directly changes its phase from solid-state
to gaseous state which is visible as fog.
Working out the physical state of a substance at room temperature:
A substance is a solid at temperatures below its melting point. It is a liquid between
its melting point and its boiling point. And it is a gas above its boiling point.
You can decide whether a substance is a solid, a liquid or a gas at room
temperature by looking at where its melting and boiling points are in relation to room

temperature.

If you look at the picture shown above, room temperature is above oxygen’s boiling
point. So oxygen is gas at room temperature. And you can see that room
temperature is below lithium’s melting point so lithium is solid at room temperature.

Pure substances, such as elements and pure compounds, melt and boil at fixed
temperatures. For example, the melting point of water is 0°C and the boiling point is
100°C. However, mixtures usually melt or boil over a range of temperatures. The
melting point can be very useful in determining whether or not a substance is pure.
In order to determine whether your sample is pure or not you can measure the
melting point. You would record the temperature at which your sample starts to melt,
and then you would record the temperature at which it has fully melted to completely
from a liquid. For example, Aspirin is a white powder that melts at 138 °C. If the
melting point of the sample you made is 128-134 °C you can see that it is quite
impure because it melts over a wide range of temperature (below the melting point
of pure aspirin).
The presence of impurities lowers the melting point of a substance and raises the
boiling point.
 CH – 2

Matter is classified into elements, compounds and mixtures. Most of the

substances that we are familiar with from everyday life are mixtures. For example,
the air that we breath is a mixture containing elements such as nitrogen and
oxygen, and compounds such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The food that
we eat and the drinks that we drink are mixtures.

Elements; An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any
other substances. They are substances, that cannot be split into any
simpler by chemical means. An element contains only one type of atom.
Some elements exist as individual atoms, but some exist as molecules.
There
are 118 chemical elements. They are listed on the periodic table in a
specific
order.

Compounds; Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine.

The elements always combine in fixed proportions. In a compound,

elements are chemically bonded together, which makes it very difficult to
separate them. Examples compounds are water (H 2O), carbon dioxide
(CO2) and methane (CH4).

Mixture; A mixture is formed when two or more elements or compounds are present
without being chemically bonded together. Mixtures can be made from
elements and/or compounds. The various components can be in any
proportion, for example you can put any amount of sugar into your cup of tea
or coffee.

Difference between mixtures and compounds:

In water (a compound), every single water molecule has two hydrogen atoms combined
with one oxygen atom. It never varies. In a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases, the
two could be mixed together in any proportion.
Mixtures can be separated by physical means. Physical means are things like
changing the temperature or dissolving part of the mixture in a solvent such as water, in
other words, methods that don’t involve any chemical reactions.

Filtration; Filtration is a method used to separate a solid from a liquid. It’s the process
of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid, by causing the latter
to
pass through the pores of a membrane, called a filter. The most common

example is making tea. While preparing tea, a filter or a sieve is used to

separate tea leaves from the water. Through the sieve pores, only water
will pass. The liquid which has obtained after filtration is called the
filtrate,
in this case, water is the filtrate. The filter can be a paper or cloth, cotton-
wool. Filtration can also be used to separate two solids from each other if
only one of them is soluble in water.

Crystallization; Crystallization is a separation method to separate solids from a

solution. Crystallization is a natural process that occurs when the
material solidifies from a liquid. This process can be carried out by
causing a physical change such as change in temperature.
Process:

Step1: The solution is heated in an open container.

Step 2: The solvent molecules start evaporating, leaving behind the solutes.
Step 3: When the solution cools, crystals of solute start accumulating on the surface
of the solution.
Step 4: Crystals are collected and dried as per the product requirement.
Step 5: The undissolved solids in the liquid are separated by the process
of filtration.
Step 6: The size of crystals formed during this process depends on the cooling rate.
Step 7: Many tiny crystals are formed if the solution is cooled at a fast rate
Step 8: Large crystals are formed at slow cooling rates
Step 9: The crystals can now be removed from the mixture by filtration.

Simple distillation; Simple distillation can be used to separate the components of a

solution. For example, salt solution is made by adding salt into

water. The solute is the salt that is dissolved in the water, and
the
water that dissolved this solid is the solvent. In order to obtain
the pure solvent, which is water, from solution, which is salt
 water, we use simple distillation. We heat up and boil the salt
solution. The solvent, which is water, vaporizes and rises then
goes into the condenser. Temperature in the condenser is much

lower. The vapor cools down, then condenses back into liquid.
The pure liquid is collected as a distillate in the receiver. The
salt
remains in the flask.

Fractional distillation; Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of

miscible liquids with different boiling points. It is used to
separate a mixture of liquids such as ethanol (alcohol) and

water. Ethanol and water are completely miscible with

each other. That means you can mix them together
(capable of being mixed) in any proportion and they will
form
a single layer.

The boiling point of ethanol is 78°C, while that of water is

100°C so ethanol will boil/evaporate before water. As the
vapors of both liquids rise to the fractionating column, they

touch the glass beads in the column. There are many

glass
beads and they serve to provide large cool surface area
for
the vapor to condense on. In this case, at 78°C, vapor of
water that touches the glass beads will condense back as
liquid and drips back into the distillation flask. Only vapor
of
ethanol will be able to continue to rise up to the top of the
fractionating column, enters the condenser, cools and
condenses, and eventually be collected as a distillate in
the
receiver. The water, which has a higher boiling point,
remains in the flask until almost all the ethanol has been
distilled.

Paper Chromatography; Paper Chromatography can be used to separate a variety

of mixtures dissolve in the same solvent. You can also

use
chromatography to determine purity of a substance. A
pure
substance gives only one spot on a chromatogram.
Chromatogram is the result of chromatography, showing
the separated components of a sample. Process:

Step 1: Draw a line with a pencil across a piece of chromatography paper; this line
should be about 1cm from the bottom of the paper. (Do not use a pen as the
Solvent
Front
colors in the ink may move up the chromatography paper with solvent).
Step 2: Put a spot of the mixture of dyes on the pencil line and allow it to dry.
Step 3: Once the spot has dried, we dip the chromatography paper into a suitable
solvent.
Spot A It is important that the solvent is below the pencil line so that the
inks/colorings don’t just dissolve in the solvent.
Distance moved by the solvent front (from
Step 4: When the solvent has moved up the paper about 1m from the top, remove
the pencil line)
the paper from the beaker and draw a pencil line to show where the solvent
got to. The highest level of the solvent on themoved
Distance paperbyatthe
any time
spot is the
(from called the
pencil
solvent front. line)
Step 5: Leave the paper to dry so that all the solvent evaporates.

Note: Do not shake or move the set up until the solvent has travelled up almost the
end of the chromatography paper.
Pencil
Line
1cm
Rf stands for retardation factor and it is used to describe how far the spot moves.

Rf = distance moved by the spot/distance moved by the solvent front

An Rf value must be between 0 and 1. If you get a number bigger than 1 you have
probably divided the numbers the wrong way round. An Rf value has no units.

CH – 3

Atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist. Atoms can be
joined together to make molecules. A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that
are chemically bonded. The atoms that make up a molecule can be from the same
elements or different elements. For example, a hydrogen (H2) molecule consists of 2
hydrogen atoms chemically bonded together. And a water (H 2O) molecule consists
of 2 hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom chemically bonded.
Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. These particles are
sometimes called sub-atomic particles because they are smaller than an atom.
Protons carry a positive electrical charge. Electrons carry a negative electrical
charge and neutrons carry no electrical charge at all. The nucleus, the central area
of the atom consists protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The
overall charge of an atom is neutral.

proton

electron
The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is called its atomic number or proton
number. Each of the 118 different elements has a different number of protons.
atomic number = number of protons
The mass number shows the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of the atom.
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
=

mass number (protons + neutrons) 59

CO
atomic number (numbers of protons) 27

number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

Atoms are electrically neutral (they have no overall charge). The charge on a proton
(+1) is equal but opposite to the charge on an electron (-1). So, if an oxygen atom
(atomic number = 8) has 8 protons, it must also have 8 electrons.
number of electrons = number of protons
The number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons. However, the
atomic number is defined in terms of the number of protons because the number of
electrons can change in chemical reactions, for example when atoms form ions.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers. They have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. They share almost the same chemical properties, but differ in
mass and therefore in physical properties.
For example, there are three kinds of carbon atom called carbon-12, carbon-13 and
carbon-14. They all have the same number of protons (because all carbon atoms
have 6 protons, its atomic number), but the number of neutrons vary.

different mass number 12 13 14

C C C
same atomic number 6 6 6

Relative atomic mass is the average mass of an atom, taking into account the
amount of each isotope presents in a naturally occurring sample of an element. You
can calculate the relative atomic mass of an element by knowing how much of each
isotope is present in a sample (the isotopic abundances) of that element, and then
working out the average mass of an atom.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron containing 20% of 10B and 80% of 11B:
The total mass of the 20 atoms with mass 10 = 20 x 10
The total mass of the 80 atoms with mass 11 = 80 x 11
The total mass of all the atoms in the sample = 20 x 10 + 80 x 11
There is a total of 100 atoms so you can work out the average by dividing the total
mass by total number of atoms (100).

relative atomic mass = 20 x 10 + 80 x 11/100 = 10.8

relative atomic mass of boron = 10.8

CH – 5

There are two types of equations, word and symbol equations. Symbol equations
are usually called chemical equations. (All chemical equations MUST be balanced)
Example:
CaCO3 + 2HCI -> CaCI2 + CO2 + H2O

The coefficient (the big number in the front) tells you how many molecules are
there in the equation. And the subscript (the small number) tells you how many
atoms there are in each molecule. If you have () the subscript refers to everything
inside the ().
E.g., Ca(OH)2 “2” applies to both “O” and “H” which means there two “O” and “H”
atoms.
The difference between 2Cl and Cl2 :

2Cl Cl 2
2Cl is two separate chlorine atoms, while Cl2 is two chlorine atoms joined together.
 Balancing Equations:
Fe + HCl -> FeCI2 + H2 into Fe + 2HCI -> FeCI2 + H2

While balancing equations, the 1st thing you should do is “figuring out how many
atoms and molecules in each side of the equation”. Balance the equation starting
from the left to the right. It is easier to work out one element after another, instead of
trying to balance everything at once. Lastly, count the atoms and molecules AGAIN
to check if there is the same number of atoms on each side.

Fe2O3 + CO -> Fe + CO2

If you look at the equation shown above you can see that there are 2 “Fe” atoms, 4
“O” atoms and 1 “C” atom on the left side. And 1 “Fe” atom, 1 “C” atom and 2 “O”
atoms on the right side. You can start by balancing the “Fe” atoms.

= Fe2O3 + CO -> Fe + CO2

= Fe2O3 + CO -> 2Fe + CO2
= Fe2O3 + 3CO -> 2Fe + 3CO2

Answer: Fe2O3 + 3CO -> 2Fe + 3CO2

The relative formula mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms
in the numbers shown in the formula. We use the term “relative formula mass”
instead of “relative molecular mass” because it can only be applied to molecules.

Calculating relative formula mass (of CO2):

relative atomic mass: C = 12, O = 16
Mr = 1 x C + (2 x O)
= 1 x 12 + (2 x 16)
= 44

To calculate relative formula mass, you need to know the relative atomic masses of
each atom. Note: It is given in the periodic table. You can start by counting the
atoms in the equation. In the equation above, there is 1 “C” atom and 2 “O” atoms.
Now you know both the relative atomic masses and the number of atoms. To
calculate, you can start by multiplying the relative atomic masses with the number of
atoms. And then you need add up the products to get the relative formula mass.
Finding % of copper in CuO:
Mr = 63.5 + 16 = 79.5 (of this 63.5 is copper)
Percentage = 63.5/79.5 x 100
= 79.9%

To find the percentage you need to know the relative formula mass. The relative
atomic mass tells you the amount of an atom in the compound. To calculate, all you
need to do is, divide the relative atomic mass by the relative formula mass and
multiply it with 100.

Mole is a unit of the amount of a substance (like gram and kilogram). The
abbreviation of mole is mol. Mole can be used for two different meanings.

Example:
1 mole of oxygen atom (O) with a mass of 16g
1 mole of oxygen molecule (O2) with a mass of 32g

Calculating the mass of a mole/moles:

0.2 mole of CaCO3
mass =?
number of moles = 0.2
mass of 1 mole = Mr = 40 + 12 + (3 x 16) = 100
= 100 (g)
mass = number of moles x mass of 1 mole
= 0.2 x 100
= 20 (g)
0.2 mole of CaCO3 has a mass of 20g.

To calculate the mass of moles, you need to know the number of moles and the
mass of 1 mole. The number of moles will be given in the question so you don’t
need to figure that out. The mass of 1 mole is equal to the relative formula mass of
the compound. To find the mass, you need to multiply the number of moles and the
mass of 1 mole. The SI unit of the mass if gram (g).
Triangle formula: Formulas:

mass = number of moles x mass of 1 mole

jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj jjjjjjjjjj number of moles = mass/mass of 1 mole
jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj iiiiiiii iiiiiiimass of 1 mole = mass/number of moles

There are two types of formulae (formula), empirical and molecular formula. The
empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present in a
compound. And the molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each
element present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit
(ionic compound) of a compound.

Mass (g)
Working out the empirical formula:
Number Mass of
(a compound of moles 1 mole that contains 1.27g of Cu and 0.16g of O)
Cu O

mass (g) 1.27 0.16

number of moles 0.02 0.01

divide by smaller number 0.02/0.01 0.01/0.01

ratio 2 1

The empirical formula = Cu2O

To work out the empirical formula, you need to know the mass and the number of
moles. The mass will be given in the question. To find the number of moles, you
need to divide the mass by the relative atomic mass of the atom. Then you’ll need to
figure out the ratio. To figure out the ratio, you need divide the number of moles by
the small number of moles. Note: the easiest way to work out the empirical formula
is by drawing a table.

Working out the empirical formula with percentages that are given:
22.0% C, 4.6% H, 73.4% Br
C H Br

mass (g) 22 4.6 73.4

number of moles 1.8 4.6 0.92

divide by smaller 1.8/0.92 4.6/0.92 0.92/0.92

number
ratio 2 5 1

empirical formulae = C2H5Br

All you need to do here is, converting the percentage to mass. 22% is equal to 22g.
And you do the rest just like how you work out the empirical formula.

Converting empirical formula into molecular formula:

Converting C2H5
multiple of C2H5 = C4H10

Mr (of C2H5) = 29 (g)

Mr (of C4H10) = 58 (g)
find how many 29 there are in 58:
58/29 = 2
the molecular formula is C4H10

The molecular formula can be the same as the empirical formula or a multiple of
the empirical formula. To convert, you’ll 1st need to find the multiple. Then you figure
the relative formula mass of them. Lastly find out how many (the mass of empirical
formula) can fit into the (the multiple of the empirical formula).
Combustion is a chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant (a substance
that oxidizes another substance).
Easy Definition: Combustion means burning.

Calculating the formula of a metal oxide by combustion:

The formula of magnesium oxide can be found by burning magnesium in oxygen
and looking at how the mass changes.

Procedure:
Step1: Weigh the crucible with the lid.
Step2: Place a piece of magnesium ribbon about 10cm long in the crucible and
weigh the crucible and contents.
Step3: Set up the apparatus as shown below.
Step4: Heat the crucible strongly.
Step5: Lift the lid every few seconds.
Step6: When the reaction is finished, allow the crucible and contents to cool.
Step7: Weigh the crucible and contents.

Lid

Crucible

Pipeclay
triangle

Magnesium
ribbon

Heat

A white powder, is produced during the process. The lid is placed on the crucible to
prevent the white powder escaping. But the lid must be lifted every few seconds to
allow oxygen into the crucible to react with the magnesium.

Results:
Mass of empty crucible (g) 32.46
Mass of crucible with magnesium (g) 32.70
Mass of crucible with contents at the end of experiment (g) 32.86

To work out the mass of magnesium you need to subtract the mass of the crucible
from the mass of crucible with magnesium:
Mass of Magnesium = 32.70 – 32.46 = 0.24g

To work out the mass of oxygen you need to subtract the mass of crucible with
magnesium from the mass of crucible with contents at the end of experiment.
Mass of Oxygen = 32.86 – 32.70 = 0.16g

Then you need to work out the empirical formula of it.

Mg O

mass (g) 0.24 0.16

number of moles 0.01 0.01
 divide by smaller number 0.01/0.01 0.01/0.01

ratio 1 1

empirical formula: MgO

Reduction means to reduce or lose oxygen. In a chemical reaction if a molecule

losses oxygen or gain one or more electron it is referred to as reduction.
Easy Definition: Reduction means reducing.

Calculating the formula of a metal oxide by reduction:

The formula of an oxide can be found by removing the oxygen from it and looking at
Steam of
how the
Hydrogen ash changes.
gas

Procedure:
Step1: Weigh a ceramic dish.
Step2: Put about 3g of copper oxide in the ceramic dish and weigh the dishExcess
again.
Copper Oxide Hydrogen gas
Step3: Place the ceramic dish in a tube asinshown
ceramicbelow.
dish burning
Step4: Pass hydrogen gas over the copper oxide.
Heat
Step5: Ignite (to cause a fuel to burn) the excess hydrogen, which comes out of the
small hole in the boiling tube.
Step6: Heat the copper oxide strongly until the reaction is finished (pink-brown
copper metal will be seen).
And the same process as combustion is used to find the formula of Copper Oxide.
Calculating the mass of calcium oxide produced by heating 25g of calcium
carbonate:
Note: Mr of CaCO3 is 100
Mr of CaO is 56

First calculate the number of moles by the mass given:

number of moles = mass/mass of 1 mole = 25/100
= 0.25 mole
Then use the chemical equation to work out the number of moles of the substance
of your choice.
CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2
1 mole of CaCO3 will decompose to produce 1 mole of CaO. 0.25 mole CaCO3 will
decompose to produce 0.25 mol CaO.
Lastly convert the moles into mass.
mass = number of moles x mass of 1 mole
mass= 0.25 x 56 = 14g

Therefore, the reaction produces 14g of CaO.

1 mole of CaCO3 produces 1 mole of CaO.

0.25 mole of CaCO3 produces 0.25 mole of CaO
Mass of CaO = number of moles x mass of 1 mole = 0.25 x (40 + 16) = 14 g

Extracting iron
Note: Ar of Fe is 56
Mr of Fe2O3 = (2 x 56) + (3 x 18) = 160
The same method is used:
number of moles = mass/mass of 1 mole = 1000/160
= 6.25 mole
1 mole of Fe2O3 produces 2 moles of Fe
6.25 moles of Fe2O3 produces 12.5 (2 x 6.25) moles of Fe
mass = number of moles x mass of 1 mole
mass= 12.5 x 56 = 700g
Percentage yield is amount of product actually made compared with the maximum
calculated yield. For example, in an experiment, you expect to get 100g, but only get
80g, your percentage is 80%.

*Imagine* you’re doing an experiment; you’re supposed to get 12.5g of copper

sulfate but you only get 11.2g.
Theoretical yield = 12.5g
Actual yield = 11.2g

Calculating percentage yield:

Percentage yield = actual yield/theoretical yield x 100
= 11.2g/12.5g x 100 = 89.6%

Note: The percentage yield should always come out less than 100%.

A student reacted 2.40g pf copper(II) oxide (CuO) with hot sulfuric acid. She made
5.21g of copper(II) sulfate crystals (CuSO4.5H2O)

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

CuSO4(aq) + 5H2O(l) -> CuSO4.5H2O

First calculate the theoretical yield:

To calculate the theoretical yield, you need to know the number of moles
Mr of CuO = 79.5
number of moles (of CuO) = mass/mass of 1 mole = 2.40/79.5
= 0.0302 mole

From the first equation 0.0302 mole of CuO will produce 0.0302 mole of CuSO4
From the second equation 0.0302 mole of CuSO4 will produce 0.0302 of
CuSO4.5H2O.
Mass of CuSO4.5H2O = number of moles x mass of 1 mole = 0.0302 x 249.5
= 7.53g
Actual yield = 5.21g
Theoretical yield = 7.53g
Percentage yield = actual yield/theoretical yield x 100
= 5.21g/7.53g x 100 = 69.2%
 CH – 6

Cl2 NO2 H2

3 identical flasks containing different gases at the same temperature and

pressure, contains equal numbers of molecules.
(Avogadro’s law)
Note: for noble gases we use, “atoms” instead of “molecules”

Volume of gases and liquids are measured in cubic centimeters (cm3) or cubic
decimeters (dm3) or liters (l). (1 liter = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3)

Multiply by 1000

1dm3 1000cm3
1 mole of any gas contains the same
Dividenumber
by 1000 of molecules so it occupies the same
volume as 1 mole of any other gas at the same temperature and pressure. At room
temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas is
approximately 24 dm3 (24000cm3). The volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas is often
called the molar volume.

Formulas:
Volume of gas = number of moles x molar volume

Volume of Number of moles = volume of gas/molar volume

gas
Molar volume = volume of gas/number of moles
Number Molar
of moles volume

Gas: number of moles = volume (dm3)/molar mass (24 dm3)

= volume (cm 3)/molar mass(24000 cm3)
Calculating the volume of a certain number of moles:
the volume in dm3 of 0.20 mole CO2 at rtp
Note: rtp means room temperature and pressure

volume = ?
number of moles = 0.20 mole
molar volume = 24 dm3

volume = number of moles x molar volume

= 0.20 mole x 24 dm3
= 2.8 dm3

Note: in this equation we use 24dm3 because we want the volume in dm3.

Calculating the volume of a given mass of gas:

The volume in cm3 of 0.01g of H2 at rtp

mass = 0.01g
mass of 1 mole = 2
number of moles = ?
= mass/mass of 1mole
= 0.01/2 = 0.005 mole
volume = ?
number of moles = 0.005 mole
molar volume = 24000 cm3

volume = number of moles x molar volume

= 0.005 mole x 24000 cm3
= 120 cm3

Calculating the volume of CO2 produced at rtp when an excess of dilute hydrochloric
acid is added to 1.00g of calcium carbonate:
 Equation = CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

number of moles of CaCO3 = ?

= mass/mass of 1mole
= 1/100 = 0.01 mole
note: Mr of CaCO3 = 100
1 mole of CaCO3 produces 1 mole of CO2
0.01 mole of CaCO3 produces 0.01 mole of CO2

Volume of CO2 at rtp = number of moles x molar volume

= 0.01 mole x 24000 cm 3
= 240 cm 3

Concentrations can be measured in either g/dm3 or mol/dm3.

A sample of sea water has a concentration of sodium chloride of 35.1g/dm3.

Finding its concentration in mole/dm3:
1 mole of NaCl has a mass of 58.5g (Mr of NaCl)
There are 35.1g in every dm3 solution

Converting the mass into moles:

Number of moles = mass/mass of 1 mole
= 35.1/58.5
= 0.60 mole

Therefore, there are 0.60 mole in every dm3 solution. The concentration of NaCl is
0.60mole/ dm3

Calculating the concentration of 0.050 mole/dm3 solution of sodium carbonate,

Na2CO3 in g/dm3.
1dm3 of solution contains 0.050 mole/dm3 Na2CO3
1 mole of Na2CO3 weighs 106g

Mass of 0.050 mole/dm3 Na2CO3 = 0.050 x 106g

= 5.3g

1dm3 of solution contains 5.3g Na2CO3, therefore the concentration is 5.3g/dm3

Calculating the concentration in mole/dm3 of a solution containing 2.1g of sodium

hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3 in 250 cm2 of solution:
1 mole of NaHCO3 weighs 84g
number of moles of 2.1g of NaHCO3 = mass/mass of 1 mole
= 2.1/84
= 0.025 mole

This is the amount of moles in a volume of 250 cm3.

Calculating moles of NaHCO3 in the volume of 1dm3 (1000cm3):

There are 4 lots of 250 cm3 in 1000 cm3, each portion 250 cm3 contains 0.025 mole.
Therefore, mole in 1dm3 (1000cm3) = 4 x 0.025 = 0.10mole

The concentration of NaHCO3 is 0.10mole/dm3

Calculating the number of moles of NaOH in 50cm3 of 0.10 mole/dm3 solution:

Converting the volume to dm3 = 50/1000
= 0.05 dm 3
Number of moles = volume of solution (dm3) x concentration (mole/dm3)
= 0.50 x 0.10 = 0.0050 mole
 CH – 7

An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed when one atom gives up one or more
electrons to another atom. Electrons are transferred from metal atoms to nonmetal
atoms. When this occurs, ions are formed. Ions are charged particles formed when
atoms loss or gain electrons. Ions can have either a positive or a negative charge. A
positive ion is called a cation (Na+) and a negative one is called an anion (Cl-).
Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.
Ionic bonding is often shown using dot-and-cross diagrams.

Na
D Cl
D D
Na Cl
D

The atom which loses the electron become positively charged while the atom which
gains the electron become negatively charged. The elements in groups 1, 2 and 3 of
the periodic table will lose their electrons and the elements in groups 5, 6 and 7 will
gain electrons.

The difference between sulfate and sulfide:

2+ 2- 2+ 2-

copper (II) sulfide copper (II) sulfate

A name like “copper (II) sulfide” means it ONLY contains copper and sulfur. Any
“ide” ending means that there isn’t anything complicated. Once you have an “ate”
ending, it means that there is oxygen as well. As shown “copper (II) sulfate” contains
copper, sulfur and oxygen.

Finding formula (of Barium Nitrate):

Ba2+ NO3- -> Ba(NO3)2
Ba2+ NO3
 CH – 8

A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing electron pairs
between atoms. Covalent bonds are often shown using dot-and-cross diagrams.
Note: if a compound is made from a metal and a non-metal, its bonding will be ionic.
If a compound is made from two non-metals, its bonding will be covalent.

H D
H
D

Covalent bonding in a hydrogen molecule

Hydrogen atoms form diatomic molecules (two atoms that are chemically bonded)
with the formula H2. The atoms in an H2 molecule are joined together by a covalent
bond. Molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms, which are joined together
by covalent bonds. Hydrogen molecules are said to be diatomic because they
contain two atoms.

Covalent bonding in a hydrogen chloride molecule

H D
Cl D

A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell. By sharing 1 electron with a
hydrogen atom, both atoms will have the same number of electrons as the nearest
noble gas atom. If you look at the arrangement of electrons around the chlorine
atom in the covalently bonded molecule of HCl you will see that its electronic
configuration is now (2.8.8) which the same as an argon atom. Similarly, the
hydrogen now has 2 electrons in its outer shell which is the same as helium.

Note: when atoms are covalently bonded, they will have the same electronic
configuration as the nearest noble gas.
 Covalent bonding in water

Nearest noble gas of Oxygen: Neon

H D
O D
Hydrogen: Helium

H D

Oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell and it will share 2 electrons to have 8
electrons in its outer shell (to the same electronic configuration as the nearest noble
gas). In water, an oxygen atom forms 2 covalent bonds, 1 with each H atom.

A double covalent bond is a covalent bond formed by atoms that share two pairs
of electrons.

O D
O
D

Covalent bonding in oxygen molecule (double bonding)

An oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell and so if two oxygen atoms
combine, they will both share 2 electrons each, this means that each atom will have
8 electrons in its outer shell.
Diamond is a form of pure carbon. Each carbon atom has four electrons in its outer
shell and it therefore forms four covalent bonds. In diamond, each carbon bonds to
four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement (a molecular shape that
occurs when there are four bonds and no lone pairs in the molecule's central atom).

Part of the structure of diamond

D
D D
D
D D

D
Diamond has a very high melting and boiling point. This is because of its very
strong carbon covalent bonds. A lot of energy has to be supplied to break these
strong covalent bonds, therefore diamond has very high melting and boiling points.

Diamond doesn’t conduct electricity. All the electrons in the outer shells of the
carbon atoms are tightly held in covalent bonds and none are free to move around.
Diamond conducts heat very well. As one end of the crystal is heated the atoms
vibrate more.
Diamond doesn’t dissolve in water or in any other solvent. This is because of the
strong covalent bonds. For diamond to dissolved, these bonds have to be broken.

Graphite is also a form of carbon, but the atoms are arranged differently. Graphite is
a soft material. The forces holding the atoms together in each layer are very strong
but the attractions between the layers are quite weak and not much energy is
needed to break them.
Graphite has high melting and boiling points due to its very strong covalent
bonds.
Graphite conducts electricity. Graphite contains delocalized electrons (free
electrons). These electrons can move through the graphite. The movement of these
delocalized electrons allows graphite to conduct electricity.
Graphite is insoluble in all solvents.
Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon. Allotropes are different forms
of the same element.
Note: all substances with giant covalent structures are solids with high melting and
boiling points and are insoluble.

Another allotrope of carbon is C60 fullerene. C60 fullerene has a simple molecular
structure.
C60 fullerene has lower melting and boiling points than diamond and graphite
because only the relatively weak intermolecular forces of attraction are needed to be
broken. This does not require as much energy as breaking all the strong covalent
bonds.
C60 fullerene does not conduct electricity. Even though the fourth electron on each
atom can only move around within each C60 molecule, the electrons cannot jump
from molecule to molecule.
Unlike diamond and graphite C60 fullerene does dissolve in some solvents.
 CH - 9

Metallic bonding is the electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ion and
the delocalized electrons (free atoms).

Electrostatic attraction
Delocalized electron

Metals have giant structures. There are no individual molecules and all the positive
ions attract all the delocalized electrons.
Note: different metals have different arrangement of ions.

Most metals are hard and have high melting points, which means the electrostatic
forces of attraction are strong.
Metals conduct electricity because the delocalized electrons are free to move.
Metals are malleable, which means that it can be hammered or pressed into shape
without breaking or cracking. Metals can also be described as ductile which
means that it can be drawn out into a thin wire.

CH – 10
Why things conduct electricity? They conduct electricity because, they have
charged particles (electrons/ions) and these particles are free to move around. For
example: metal, metal is made out of lattice of positives ions surrounded by
delocalized(free to move around) electrons. Metals conduct electricity because, its
electrons are free to move.
Ionic compounds (sodium chloride and potassium iodide) however do not conduct
electricity. It is because, they’re solids and its ions are held tightly and aren’t free to
move around and can only vibrate. But they do conduct electricity when they’re
melted or dissolved in water. This happens because when they’re melted or
dissolved, its ions become free to move around.
Covalent compounds (hexane, methane) do not conduct electricity no matter what
state or solution they’re in. Covalent compounds consist individual molecules and
these molecules do not have any electrical charge. So there are no charged
particles that are free to move around. Also, the electrons are held tightly so they
can’t move around too.
Note: however there are still covalent compounds that do conduct electricity. These
compounds are the one which contains ions which are free to move.

Electrolysis is a chemical change caused by passing an electric current through a

compound which is either molten or in solution. An electrolyte is a liquid or solution
that undergoes electrolysis. Electrolytes all contain ions. The electricity is passed
into and out of the electrolyte through two electrodes. Carbon is frequently used for
electrodes because it conducts electricity and is chemically inert (does not react
with things/inactive). Platinum is also fairly inert and can be used instead of carbon.
The positive electrode is called the anode. The negative electrode is called the
cathode.

DC power

Carbon
Bulb

Molten
Crucible Lead(II)
bromide (the
electrolyte)

Note: the power supply can be a 6-volt battery

Heat or a power pack
Nothing happens until the lead(II) bromide melts. Then:
o the bulb lights up, showing that electrons are flowing through it.
o there is bubbling around the electrode (the anode) connected to the positive
terminal of the power source
o nothing seems to be happening at the electrode (the cathode) connected to
the negative terminal of the power source, but afterwards metallic lead is
found underneath it.
o when you stop heating and the lead(II) bromide solidifies again, everything
stops, there is no more bubbling and the bulb goes out.

Anode Cathode

Bromine gas

Molten lead

Bubble of
bromine

Lead(II) bromide is an ionic compound. The solid consists of a giant structure of

lead(II) ions (Pb2+) and bromide ions (Br-) packed regularly in a crystal lattice. The
ions are locked tightly in the lattice and aren’t free to move. The solid lead(II)
bromide doesn’t conduct electricity but when it melts, the ions become free to move
around.
When you connect it to a power source it pumps any mobile electrons away from
the left-hand electrode towards the right-hand electrode. The right will be negative
because it gains electrons and the left will be positive because it loses electrons.
The bromide ions are attracted to the positive electrode (anode) while lead(II) ions
are attracted to the negative electrode (cathode). When they get there, each lead(II)
ion picks up two electrons from the electrode and forms neutral lead atoms These
fall to the bottom of the container as molten lead. This can be shown with a half
equation. Half equations show either reduction or oxidation reactions. Electrons
are shown as “e-” in half equations.
Pb2+ + 2e- -> Pb = Reduction
Bromide ions are attracted to the positive electrode (anode)When they get to the
positive electrode, the extra electron which makes the bromide ion negatively
charged moves onto the electrode. The loss of the extra electron converts each
bromide ion into a bromine atom:
Br- -> Br + e- = 2Br -> Br2
Oxidation
2Br- -> Br2 + 2e-

Oxidation occurs when something loses electrons. Reduction occurs when

something gains electrons. You can memorize this as the “OILRIG”.
OILRIG
Oxidation
Is
Loss of electrons
Reduction
Is
Gain of electrons
If you electrolyze a molten ionic compound only containing two elements, you will
get the metal at the cathode (because metals form positive ions) and the non-metal
at the anode (because non-metals form negative ions) Reduction always occurs at
the cathode and oxidation always occurs at the anode. You can memorize this as
“AN OX” and “RED CAT”.
AN = anode RED = reduction
OX = oxidation CAT = cathode

My way of remembering:
If atom is (X)2+ equation = (X)2+ + 2e- -> (X) = Reduction
If atom is (X)3+ equation = (X)3+ + 3e- -> (X) = Reduction
If atom is (X)- equation = 2(X)- -> (X)2 + 2e- = Oxidation
If atom is (X)2- equation = 2(X)- -> (X)2 + 4e- = Oxidation

If the substance is e.g., zinc chloride, the product will be “zinc” and “chlorine”
(change the “ide” ending into “ine” ending”)

Electrolysis of solutions (sodium chlorine solution)

If the positive ion is a more reactive material than hydrogen, hydrogen will come
out as the product in cathode. Here sodium is a very reactive metal which means it
is very difficult to add an electron to it to form sodium atom. Hydrogen is less
reactive and it easier to add an electron to it and form hydrogen atom. Because of
this hydrogen come out as the product in cathode.
Equation: 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> H2(g) = reduction
If the negative ion is easier to oxidize than hydroxide, the negative ion will come as
the product in anode. If hydroxide is easier to oxidize than the negative ion, oxygen
will come out as the product. Here chlorine is slightly easier oxidize so chlorine will
come out as the product instead of hydroxide.
Equation: 2Cl-(aq) -> Cl2(g) + 2e- = oxidation

Electrolysis of solutions (copper(II) sulfate solution)

Here copper is a less reactive material than hydrogen, it is easier to add electrons to
copper ions to form copper atom. So copper come out as the product in the cathode.
Equation: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s) = reduction
Here sulfate isn’t easy to oxidize, so instead of sulfate you get oxygen at the anode.
Equation: 4OH-(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e- = oxidation

If positive ion is more reactive, product = hydrogen

If positive ion is less reactive, product = metal
If negative ion is easier to oxidize, product = ion/halogen
If negative ion isn’t easy to oxidize, product = oxygen

Reactivity series
 If metal is higher in reactivity
Potassium (Highest) than hydrogen, product =
Sodium hydrogen at cathode
Lithium  If metal is below in reactivity
Calcium than hydrogen, product = metal
Magnesium at cathode
Aluminum
Carbon  If you have halides (chloride,
Zinc bromides, iodides) product =
Iron halogen (chlorine, bromine,
Hydrogen iodine) at anode
Copper  With other negative ions
Silver (sulfate, nitrate, hydroxide)
Gold (Lowest) product = oxygen at anode

Electrolysis of solutions (dilute sulfuric acid)

Here only positive ions that are attracted to the cathode are hydrogen ions, so
hydrogen will come out as the product in cathode.
Equation: 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> H2(g) = reduction
At the anode, sulfate ions and hydroxide ions are attracted to it, but sulfate ions are
very hard to oxidize so oxygen come out as the product.
Equation: 4OH-(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e- = oxidation

CH – 11

Alkali metals; elements which are in group-1 of the periodic table are known as the
Alkali metals. The group contains:
Li Lithium melting point: 181 °C, boiling point: 1342°C, density: 0.53g/cm3
Na Sodium melting point: 98 °C, boiling point: 883°C, density: 0.97g/cm3
K Potassium melting point: 63 °C, boiling point: 760°C, density: 0.86g/cm3
Rb Rubidium melting point: 39 °C, boiling point: 686°C, density: 1.53g/cm3
Cs Caesium melting point: 29 °C, boiling point: 669°C, density: 1.88g/cm3
Fr Francium ungiven

Melting point of these elements and very low and it gets lower as you move down to
the group. But their density increases as it moves down the group. Lithium, Sodium
and Potassium are less dense than water so it’ll float on it. These elements are also
very soft and can be cut easily. It becomes softer as you move down to the group.
All these elements are extremely reactive and get more reactive as you move down
the group. They all react quickly with oxygen to form oxides and react rapidly with
water to form alkaline solutions.

There are two reasons that these elements are put in the same group:
1. because they have the same electron on their outer shell.
2. they have similar chemical properties:
-> they all react the same way to form a hydroxide with the formula MOH
-> they all react with oxygen to form oxide with the formula M2O
-> they all react with halogens to form compounds with the formula MX
-> they all form ionic compounds which contains an M+
Note: M represents the alkali metals and X represents halogens

Reactions with water:

All these react in the same way
Equation: 2M + 2H2O -> 2MOH + H2
alkali metal water alkali metal hydroxide hydrogen

The main difference between reactions is how quickly they happen.

Sodium reacting with water –
Equation: 2Na(s) + 2H2O -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

sodium will float because its less dense than water

sodium will melt into a ball because its melting point is low and a lot of heat is
produced by the reaction
there is fizzing (produce bubbles of gas and make a hissing sound) because
hydrogen gas is produced
(Note: it is better to write fizzing/bubbling than “a gas is given off”)
sodium will eventually disappear; sodium is used up in the reaction
Lithium reacting with water –
Equation: 2Li(s) + 2H2O -> 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
reaction is similar to sodium’s except lithium doesn’t melt because its melting point
is higher.

Potassium reacting with water –

Equation: 2K(s) + 2H2O -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
reaction is similar but faster than sodium’s. Enough hear is produced to ignite
(catch fire or cause to catch fire) the hydrogen which burns a lilac flame. The
reactions end with Potassium exploding.

Rubidium and Caesium reacting with water –

Their reaction is more explosive than Potassium’s. Rubidium hydroxide and
Caesium hydroxide are formed.

Reactions with air:

Equation: 4M(s) + O2(g) -> 2M2O(s)
alkali metal oxide alkali metal oxide

In each case, a white powder is formed as the product – the alkali metal oxide

-> Lithium burns with a red flame to form lithium oxide

-> Sodium burns with a yellow flame to form sodium oxide
-> Potassium burns with a lilac flame to form potassium oxide
Predictions for francium
-> is very soft
-> will have a melting point around room temperature (21°C - 27°C)
-> has density which is about 2g/cm3
-> will be a silvery metal
-> will tarnish (lose luster/color) almost instantly in air
-> will react violently with water to give francium hydroxide and hydrogen
2Fr + 2H2O -> 2FrOH + H2
-> will be more reactive than caesium
-> will be soluble in water and form a strongly alkaline solution
-> will form compounds that are white/colorless
 CH – 12

Elements which are in group-7 of the periodic table are known as halogens.
Halogens means salt – producing and when they react with metals, they produce a
wide range of salt (calcium fluoride, sodium chloride, silver bromide, potassium
iodide). Halogens are non-metallic elements with diatomic molecules (two atoms
that are chemically bonded): F2, Cl2
The melting and boiling points increase down the group. The halogens are all
covalent molecular substances and the melting and boiling points increase as the
relative molecular mass increase. As the relative molecular mass increases, the
intermolecular forces of attraction become stronger so more energy is needed to
break these strong forces of attraction. All halogens are non – metal elements, they
are poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Note: No covalent bonds are broken when they melt/boil.

F2 physical state at r.t.p.: gas color: yellow

Cl2 physical state at r.t.p.: gas color: green
Br2 physical state at r.t.p.: liquid color: red – brown liquid, orange/brown vapor
I2 physical state at r.t.p.: solid color: grey solid, purple vapor

Halogens react with water to form hydrogen halide, e.g., hydrogen fluoride,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide.
Equation: H2(g) + Br2(g) -> 2HBr(g)
Halogens are soluble in water, reacting with it to produce solutions of acids. For
example, hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water.
HCI(g) -> HCI(aq)
hydrogen chloride dissolve in water hydrochloric acid

Halogens react with alkali metals to form salts, e.g., sodium burns in yellow flame to
produce white, solid sodium chloride
Equation: 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
Sodium chloride is an ionic solid. When halogens react with metals from group 1
and 2, they form ions.
Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which one element is replaced by
another in a compound. The less reactive element will be replaced by the more
reactive element. In halogens, the reactivity decreases as you go down the group.
If you add chlorine solution (chlorine water) to colorless potassium bromide solution,
the solution becomes orange as bromine is formed:
Chlorine replaced bromine

2KBr(aq) + Cl2(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

potassium chlorine potassium bromine
bromide chloride

Chlorine is more reactive than bromine (because chlorine is above bromine in the
group) and has displaced bromine from solution.
Note: you must write “chlorine displaces bromine” not “chlorine displaces bromide”

If you add bromine solution to colorless potassium iodide solution, the solution
becomes brown as iodine is formed.
Bromine replaced iodine

2KI(aq) + Br2(aq) -> 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)

potassium bromine potassium iodine
iodide bromide

Bromine is more reactive than iodine so it displaced iodine.

No reaction would happen if

2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) : less reactive element (bromine) cannot displace more r
potassium bromine reactive element (chlorine).
chloride

In all of above reactions it wouldn’t have mattered if we had reacted chlorine with
sodium bromide or magnesium bromide. The reaction occurs between the chlorine
molecule and the bromide ion; the metal doesn’t do anything. The metal ion is called
the spectator ion (an ion that does not take part in the chemical reaction and is
found in solution both before and after the reaction).

2K+(aq) + 2Br-(aq) + Cl2(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + 2Cl- + Br2(aq)

the potassium ions are the same on each side
An equation that doesn’t include spectator ions are called ionic equations.

The reactions above are discussed in terms of oxidation and reduction. Oxidation
occurs when something loses electrons and reduction occurs when something
gains electrons. A redox reaction is one in which both reduction and oxidation are
occurring. Oxidation and reduction always occur together because if something
loses electron, something must gain it.
Loss of electrons: Oxidation
2Br-(aq) + Cl2(aq) -> 2Cl- + Br2(aq)

Gain of electrons: Reduction

In this case chlorine is acting as an oxidizing agent (something that oxidizes

something by taking away electrons). Chlorine oxidizes bromide ions by taking
electrons away from it. Bromine is the reducing agent (something that reduces
something by giving electrons) because it gave chlorine electrons. Cl 2 is reduced to
2Cl- and is 2Br- oxidized to Br2.
 CH – 13

Air is mostly gas. The air in Earth's atmosphere is made up of about 78 percent
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.09 percent of argon and 0.04 percent of carbon
dioxide.
You can measure the percentage of oxygen in the air by reacting something with
oxygen and look at how much volume has decreased after oxygen had been
removed.
Experiment 1: reacting oxygen with copper
When you’re doing this experiment, make sure that you use enough copper to react
with all the oxygen. If not, the amount of oxygen (result) would be too low as all
oxygen hasn’t been removed.
Results:
Initial volume of air (cm3) 100
Final volume of air (cm3) 79

The volume decreased because oxygen has been removed after reacting with
copper. The reaction that occurs is:
Equation: 2Cu + O2 -> 2CuO
copper oxygen copper (II) oxide

The volume of oxygen that reacted was: 100 – 79 = 21cm3

Percentage of oxygen: 21/100 x 100 = 21%

Experiment 2: using the rusting of iron

Iron rusts in damp air, using up oxygen as it does so, you can use this experiment to
determine how much oxygen there is in the air.
Total volume of air at the beginning of the experiment = 234 cm3
Total volume of air at the end of the experiment = 185 cm3
Volume of oxygen used up = 234 – 185 = 49 cm3
Percentage of oxygen = 49/234 x 100 = 21%

There could be errors in the experiment and you will not get 21% of oxygen.
Possibles errors could be:
-> the experiment wasn’t left set up for long enough, there was not enough time for
oxygen to react.
-> not enough iron was added to react with all the oxygen present.

-> magnesium burns with a bright white flame to form magnesium oxide
equation: 2Mg + O2 -> 2MgO
-> sulfur burns with a blue flame and to form sulfur dioxide/sulfur oxide
equation: S + O2 -> SO2
-> hydrogen burns with a pale blue flame to form water
equation: 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O

Properties of oxides –
Metal oxides:
-> ionic compounds containing O2- ions
-> react with acids to form salt
-> insoluble in water
-> those which are soluble in water react with it to form alkaline solutions
containing OH- ions

Non – metal oxides:

-> are covalent compounds
-> are acidic oxides that reach with alkalis to form salts
-> often soluble in water, react with it to form acidic solutions containing H+ ions
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced by carbon and organic
compounds. It is most easily made in the laboratory by the reaction between dilute
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate in the form of marble chips.
Equation: CaCO3 + 2HCl -> CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Carbon dioxide can also be obtained if metal carbonates are heated strongly.
Most carbonates split to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide when you heat
them. This is known as thermal decomposition (a chemical reaction that happens
when a compound breaks down when heated). For example:

copper (II) carbonate is a green powder which decomposes on heating to produce

black copper (II) oxide.
Equation: CuCO3 -> CuO + CO2

Carbon dioxide is also produced when fossil fuel burns. For example, coal (which is
mostly carbon) burns in excess oxygen.
Equation: C + O2 = CO2

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are gases in the earth's
atmosphere that trap heat. The greenhouse effect is the natural warming of the
earth that results when gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun that would
otherwise escape into space. The greenhouse effect occurs when ultra violet (UV)
and visible light from the sun pass through the atmosphere and warm up the
surface of earth. The surface of the earth radiates infrared (IR) radiation. This IR
radiation is absorbed by molecules such as CO 2 in the atmosphere, then give out
these energy again in all directions, heating the atmosphere. They cause climate
and they also contribute to respiratory disease from smog and air pollution. Extreme
weather, food supply disruptions, and increased wildfires are other effects of climate
change caused by greenhouse gases.
 CH – 14

Reactive materials are materials that can be hazardous (dangerous) by themselves

when caused to react by heat or by contact with air or water. Reactive interactions
require the combining of two or more materials. The reactivity series is the
arrangement of metals in the descending order of their reactivities.

Reactivity series
Potassium (Highest)
Sodium
Lithium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold (Lowest)

Displacement reactions involve a metal and the compound of a different metal. A

more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compound in a
displacement reaction. The less reactive metal is left uncombined after the reaction.
For example:
Magnesium power and copper (II) oxide powder were mixed together and heated
strongly. At the end, white magnesium oxide powder was found. The reaction that
happened:
Mg + CuO -> MgO + Cu
magnesium copper (II) oxide magnesium oxide copper

The less reactive metal, copper has been displaced its compound by the more
reactive metal, magnesium. Any metal higher in the reactivity series will displace
one lower down from a compound.
If you heated magnesium oxide with copper, nothing would happen because copper
is less reactive than magnesium so copper can’t displace magnesium from
magnesium oxide.

Oxidation and reduction meaning in terms of oxygen transfer:

If a substance has been oxidized, it has gained oxygen. Oxidation is gain of
oxygen.
If a substance has been reduced, it has lost an oxygen atom. Reduction is loss of
oxygen.
Gain of oxygen: Oxidation

Loss of oxygen: Reduction

Mg + CuO -> MgO + Cu
magnesium copper (II) oxide magnesium oxide copper

This is also known as a redox reaction where both oxidation and reduction are
occurring. Oxidation and reduction always occur together because if something
loses oxygen, something must gain it.
A reducing agent is a substance that reduce something else. In the reaction above,
magnesium is the reducing agent because it takes away oxygen from copper (II)
oxide, reducing it.
An oxidizing agent is a substance that oxidized something else. The copper (II)
oxide is the oxidizing agent because it gives oxygen to magnesium, oxidizing it.

An oxidizing agent get reduced in a chemical reaction because it oxidizes something

else by giving away oxygen. A reducing agent get oxidized because it takes away
oxygen from something else and gains it in the reaction.
Oxidation and reduction meaning in terms of electron transfer:
If a substance has been oxidized, it has lost electrons. Oxidation is loss of electrons.
If a substance has been reduced, it has gain electrons. Reduction is gain of
electrons.

Loss of electrons: Oxidation

Gain of electrons: Reducing

Mg + CuO -> MgO + Cu

magnesium copper (II) oxide magnesium oxide copper

A reducing agent is a substance that reduces something else by giving electrons to

it. Reducing agents give away electrons, that’s why they are oxidized in the reaction.
An oxidizing agent is a substance that oxidizes something else by taking electrons
from it. Oxidizing agents gain electrons, that’s why they are reduced in the reaction.

Note: there are two definitions of oxidation and reduction. If you are asked to explain

this, you can answer both, both definitions are true. But if you’re asked to
explain in ‘terms of oxygen transfer’ you have to answer the one on page 35.
And if you’re asked to explain in ‘terms of electron transfer’ you have to
answer
the one stated above.
Reaction between copper and silver nitrate solution.
Reaction occurred: Cu + 2AgNO3 -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Silver is below copper in reactivity series so copper displaced silver in the reaction.
Here, nitrate ions are spectator ions (check page 29). And the final ionic equation
looks like this:
Cu + 2Ag+ -> Cu2+ + 2Ag
The ionic half equations are:
Cu -> Cu2+ + 2e- = oxidation (gain of electrons)
Ag+ + e- -> Ag = reduction (loss of electrons)

Cu is the reducing agent (it is oxidized) because it gives electrons to Ag+ ions to
reduce them to Ag. Ag+ ion is the oxidizing agent (it is reduced) because it has taken
electrons from Cu atoms.

Reaction between metals and water:

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series, react with water produce hydrogen. If
metals react with cold water, metal hydroxide and hydrogen are produced.
Equation: metal + cold water -> metal hydroxide + hydrogen

If metals react with steam, metal oxide and hydrogen are produced.
Equation: metal + steam -> metal oxide + hydrogen

Note: metals that are under hydrogen in the reactivity series, do not react with water
 nor steam.

Reactions between alkali metals and water:

Equation: 2M + 2H2O -> 2MOH + H2
alkali metal water alkali metal hydroxide hydrogen

(Check page 25)

Calcium reacting with water:

Calcium reacts slowly and gently with cold water.
Equation: Ca + H2O -> Ca(OH)2 + H2
Products: Calcium hydroxide and hydrogen

If calcium granules (a small piece) are put into water, they sink. After about an hour,
bubbles of hydrogen are formed around them, carrying the granules back to the
surface. The mixture becomes warm as heat is produced. An insoluble white solid
calcium hydroxide is formed.

Magnesium reacting with water:

There is almost no reaction unless the magnesium is really clean. A few bubbles of
hydrogen will be formed on it, but soon the reaction stops again. It is because
magnesium become coated with magnesium with insoluble magnesium hydroxide,
which prevents any more water coming in contact with magnesium.

Magnesium reacting with steam:

Magnesium burns with a bright white flame to produce white magnesium oxide and
hydrogen gas.
Equation: Mg + H2O -> MgO + H2

Zinc reacting with steam:

Zinc reacts with steam to form zinc oxide and hydrogen gas.
Equation: Zn + H2O -> ZnO + H2
Iron reacting with steam:
Iron reacts with steam to form a complicated oxide called tri-iron tetroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Equation: 3Fe + 4H2O -> Fe3O4 + H2

Reaction between metals and dilute acid:

magnesium zinc iron copper

Results:
Metal Reactions with dilute acid

Magnesium Reacts vigorously (aggressively) with lots of fizzing (check page

26). The gas produced give a squeaky pop. A colorless solution is
formed. Heat is produced.
Zinc Steady reaction. Fizzing. Enough gas is produced to give a
squeaky pop. Colorless solution is formed. Less heat is produced.
Iron Slow reaction and fizzing. Very little gas is produced. A very pale
green solution is formed. Very little heat is produced.
Copper No change

These reactions are all exothermic (heat producing) reactions.

Metals above hydrogen react with acids to form salts
Metal + acid -> salt + hydrogen
Metal + dilute sulfuric acid -> metal sulfate + hydrogen
Metal + dilute hydrochloric acid -> metal chloride + hydrogen

Finding approximate position of a metal in reactivity series using water and dilute
acids:
Add a very small piece of metal to cold water. If there is rapid reaction, the metal is
above magnesium in the reactivity series. If there isn’t any reaction, add small
amount of metal to dilute hydrochloric/sulfuric acid. If there is still no reaction, the
metal is probably under hydrogen in the reactivity series. If there is a reaction, the
metal is between magnesium and hydrogen.
Rust is an iron oxide, a usually reddish-brown oxide formed by the reaction of iron
and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Rusting is an oxidation
reaction. Iron and steel rust when they come into contact with water and oxygen.
Formula of rust: Fe2O3xH2O
(x is a variable number, it can be called ‘hydrated iron (III) oxide’)

Ways to prevent rusting:

The most obvious way of preventing rusting is to keep water and oxygen away from
the iron. (keep the object away from moisture. Water reacts with iron to form rust, so
an environment with no moisture will not create rust). You can do this by painting it
or coating it in oil or grease, or covering it with plastic. By applying oil, grease, or
paint, the surface gets a waterproof coating and the moisture and oxygen cannot
come in contact with the iron. This coating/painting is called the barrier method.
Once the coating is broken, the iron underneath come in contact with water and air
and will rust (even bits that are not directly exposed to water and air).

Galvanizing, or galvanization, is another process to prevent rusting, where a

coating of zinc is applied to steel or iron. Galvanized iron is iron coated with zinc. As
long as the zinc stay unscratched, it serves as barrier to air and water. However the
iron doesn’t rust even when some zinc on the surface is scratched away to expose
iron. This is because, zinc is more reactive than iron so it reacts with water and
oxygen more than iron. The zinc corrodes (damaged) instead of iron.
To galvanized, you have to use a metal that is more reactive than iron so that the
more reactive metal reacts (is oxidized) with water and oxygen before iron. The
corrosion of more reactive metals prevent iron from rusting. Such blocks are called
sacrificial anodes. These sacrificial anodes have to replaced occasionally, when all
the more reactive metals have been oxidized. Galvanizing is a combination of
barrier method and sacrificial protection.

CH – 15

Metals are natural compounds found in the earth's crust, together with other
elements. The individual compounds are called minerals. Minerals are naturally
occurring crystalline compounds. While mining, normally rocks are found mixed with
other unwanted minerals. The unwanted mineral is known as gangue. Gangue is
the worthless material that surrounds, or is closely mixed with, a
wanted mineral/rock. The wanted mineral/rock is called an ore. An ore is a rock that
contains one or more valuable minerals.
Native metals are those found chemically uncombined in nature. It is found pure in
its metallic form in nature. A few very unreactive metals such as gold, are found
native. Silver and copper are also sometimes found native but much more rarely.

Methods of extraction & the reactivity series;

The reactivity series
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Copper

For metals below carbon, you can extract the metal (remove the ore) by heating it
with carbon. Iron can be extracted this way as one of the main ores of iron contains
a high percentage of iron(III)oxide.
Equation: Fe2O3 + CO2 -> 2Fe + 3CO
Since carbon is higher than iron in the reactivity series, it will take oxygen away from
the iron oxide.

Ores of metal that are higher than carbon reactivity series can’t be extracted by
heating it with carbon, instead it is extracted by electrolysis. This is because carbon
is less reactive so it cannot take away the oxygen from metal oxide. (check pg.32 for
detailed explanation of electrolysis). Aluminum can be extracted this way.
Equation: cathode reaction; Al3+ + 3e- -> Al
anode reaction; 2O2- -> O2 + 4e-

An alloy is a mixture of chemical element of which at least one is a metal. It is

usually mixed with other metals or carbon. For example, brass is a mixture of copper
and zinc and steel is an alloy of iron with carbon.
Alloys are harder than the individual pure metals which they’re made from. That is
because it an alloy, the different elements have slightly different sized atoms which
breaks up the regular lattice arrangement and makes it more difficult for the layers of
ions to slide over each other.

Steel; There are lots of alloys of iron and one of alloy of iron with carbon is steel.
Steel has a number of properties including, hardness, toughness,
elongation,
fatigue strength, malleability and etc. Steel is the world's most important
engineering and construction material. It is used in buildings, tools/weapons,
ships, trains, cars, machines/electrical appliances, furniture, and etc.
Type of steel Iron mixed with Some uses

Mild steel up to 0.25% of carbon nails, car bodies, ship buildings

High-carbon steel 0.6 – 1.2% of carbon cutting tools, masonry nails

Stainless steel Chromium (and nickel) cuttery, kitchen utensils, kitchen sinks

Why mild steel is used instead of high carbon steel in making car bodies?
It is because high carbon steel is brittle and not as malleable and ductile as mild
steel, which makes it difficult to hammered the high carbon steel into the correct
shapes for car bodies.

CH – 16

pH stands for hydrogen potentials and is a measure of a measure of how acidic or

alkaline a solution is. The range goes from 0 - 14, with 7 being neutral. pH is
defined by the following equation, pH = −log10[H+(aq)] , where [H+] represents the
molar hydrogen ion concentration. The concentration of hydrogen ions in the
solution is used to calculate it. When you’re measuring the pH, you’re actually
measuring the concentration of the H+ ions in the solution.
Remember: when writing pH, it is a small p and a capital H.

Universal indicators; A universal indicator is a pH indicator composed of a solution

of several compounds that changes color over a pH value
range from 0 to 14. It can be used as a solution or a paper.
The
most common form is known as full-range universal indicator.
It changes through a variety of colors from pH 1 to pH 14 (it
isn’t very accurate).
Any substance that has different colors depending on pH can
Acid Alkali be
used as an indicator.
Litmus Red Blue

Methyl orange Red Yellow

Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink

Universal indicator Red Blue

An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton
(hydrogen(H+) ion) to another substance. All acids contain hydrogen and when acids
react the hydrogen is replaced by something else; all acids have replaceable H.
Acids can dissolve in water and when it dissolves in water, they dissociate to
produce hydrogen ions (H+). Examples;
HCl -> H+ +Cl-
HNO3 -> H+ + NO3-

Acids react with bases/metals to form salt and water/hydrogen gas.

acid + base -> salt + water; HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O
acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen; H2SO4 + Mg -> MgSO4 + H2

A base is a substance that can neutralize the acid by reacting with hydrogen ions.
Most bases are minerals that react with acids to form water and salts. Bases include
the oxides, hydroxides and carbonates of metals. Bases are defined as proton (H+)
acceptors. Common examples of bases include metal oxides and metal hydroxides
and ammonium hydroxide.
Note: bases have pH value greater than 7.

The soluble bases are called alkalis. All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are
alkalis. Alkalis contain hydroxide (OH-) ions. Examples of alkalis are sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. When sodium hydroxide is in water, it breaks
apart to form sodium and hydroxide ions.
Equation: NaOH -> Na+ + OH-

Titration; A titration is a method where a solution of known concentration is used to

determine the concentration of an unknown solution. Usually, the titrant
(the known solution) is added from a burette (graduated glass tube with a
tap at one end, for delivering known volumes of a liquid) to a known
quantity of the analyte (the unknown solution) until the reaction is
complete.
Titration can be used to find out how much of the acid/alkali reacts with a
certain volume of acid/alkali.