School of Electrical Engineering and Computing

Department of Electrical Power and Control Engineering

Introduction to Control System

Prepared by: Urgo H.

March 2023, Adama
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 Chapter Two
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System

2
 Introduction
• Mathematical models of physical system are the key elements in the design and analysis of control systems.
• System classified into static and Dynamic system.
• The dynamic behavior of the system is generally described by Ordinary Deferential Equations.
• Dynamic systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, hydraulic, and etc. can be characterized
by differential equations.
• The response of a dynamic system to an input (or forcing function) may be obtained if these differential
equations are solved.

3
 Cont.…

• Mathematical modeling : is a set of equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately or
at least fairly well.
• The component a control system are diverse in nature and may include Electrical, Mechanical, Thermal
and Hydraulic devices.
• Differential equations describing the dynamic performance of a physical system are obtained by
utilizing the physical laws of the process.
• Differential equations relating the input to the output quantities for the control systems are obtained
using the basic law of physics .

4
 Cont.…

• The basic law of physics include balancing of force, energy and mass
• For most physical systems are classify the variables as either ‘through’ or ‘cross’ variables in the sense
that
 Through refers to a point
 Across refers Between two point

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System Through variable Across variable

Electrical Current, i Potential difference or

voltage, V
Mechanical Force ,F Relative Velocity, V
(Translational)
Mechanical Torque, T Relative angular , 𝜔
(Rotational)

Thermal Rate of flow of heat Difference in

energy, q temperature, ∆𝑇
Fluid Volumetric rate of fluid Difference in pressure,
flow, Q ∆𝑃

Table: A list of analogous variable for different system

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Laplace Transform – A review

• Let f(t) be a function of time t such that f(t) = 0 for t < 0 and S is a complex variable. We use L as a
symbolic operator to stand for Laplace integral on the quantity that is prefixed by it.
• The Laplace transform of f(t) is defined as
∞
L [f(t)]= F(s)= 𝟎
𝒇(𝒕)𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕

F(s) denotes the Laplace transform of f(t).

• The function f(t) in time domain can be found from the Laplace transform F(s) by the reverse process
known as the inverse Laplace transformation

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 Laplace transform of a common function
i. Exponential function 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒂𝒆−𝜶𝒕 for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎, 𝟎 otherwise.

∞
F(s)=L [𝑎𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ]= 0
𝑎𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
F(s)=L [𝑎𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ]= 0 𝑎𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
F(s)=L [𝑎𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ]=𝑎 0 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
F(s)=L [𝑎𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
]=
𝑠+𝛼

The exponential function in time is found to produce a pole for the complex function

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 Cont.…
ii. Step function
𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒖 𝒕 for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝒇 𝒕 = 𝟎 for 𝒕 < 𝟎
 where R is a constant and us(t) is an unit step function.
 The unit-step function has a height of unity

∞
F(s)=L [𝑅𝑢 𝑡 ]=𝐴 0
1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
F(s)=L [𝑅𝑢 𝑡 ]=𝐴
−𝑠 0
𝐴
F(s)=L [𝑅𝑢 𝑡 ]=
𝑠

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 Cont.…
iii. Ramp function
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡𝑢 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 < 0
 where R is the slope of a linear function and us(t) is an unit step function.
 The unit-step function has a height of unity

∞
F(s)=L [𝑅𝑡𝑢 𝑡 ]=R 0
𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ∞ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
F(s)=L [𝑅𝑢 𝑡 ]=𝑅 𝑡 −R 0 −𝑠
𝑑𝑡
−𝑠 0
𝑅
F(s)=L [𝑅𝑢 𝑡 ]=
𝑠2

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 Cont.…
iv.Sinusoidal function
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) for 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 < 0
Where

𝐴 ∞ 𝑗𝜔𝑡
F(s)=L [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]= 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝑗 0
𝐴 ∞ ∞
F(s)=L [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]= [ 0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
2𝑗

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 Cont.…
𝐴 ∞ 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡 ∞ −𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡
F(s)=L [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]= [ 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑡]
2𝑗
𝐴 ∞ 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡 ∞ −𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡
F(s)=L [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]= [ 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑡]
2𝑗
𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝑠𝑡
F(s)=L [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]= −
2𝑗 𝑗𝜔−𝑠 −𝑗𝜔−𝑠
𝐴𝜔
F(s)=L [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]=
𝑠 2 +𝜔2
Performing the same calculation, one can obtain

𝑨𝒔
F(s)=L [𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)]=
𝒔𝟐 +𝝎𝟐

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 Cont.…
vi. Impulse function
𝐴
𝑓 𝑡 = lim for 0 < 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇→0 𝑇
𝑓 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 > T, 𝑡 < 0

𝐴
F(s)=L [𝑓 𝑡 ] = L lim
𝑇→0 𝑇
𝐴
F(s)=L [𝑓 𝑡 ] = lim (1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 )
𝑇→0 𝑇𝑠
F(s)=L [𝑓 𝑡 ] = A

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 Properties of Laplace Transform
1. Multiplication by a constant 5. Real differentiation
L [𝑎𝑓 𝑡 ] = 𝑎L [ 𝑓 𝑡 ] = 𝑎𝐹 𝑠 𝑑
L 𝑑𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0
L [𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡)] = L [ 𝑓1 𝑡 ] + L [ 𝑓2 𝑡 ] = 𝐹1 (𝑠) +
𝑑𝑛
𝐹2 (𝑠) L 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓 0 − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓′ 0 −
𝑑𝑡 𝑛
𝑠 𝑛−3 𝑓" 0 − ⋯ − 𝑠𝑓 (𝑛−2) (0) − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0)
2. Multiplication by 𝒆−𝜶𝒕
L [𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 ] =
∞ −𝛼𝑡
𝑒 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 + 𝛼 6. Initial value theorem
0
𝑓 0 = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠→∞
3. Translation in time , 𝜶 > 𝟎 7. Final value theorem
L [𝑓 𝑡 − 𝛼 ] = 𝑒 𝛼𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 𝑓 ∞ = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠→0
8. Real integration
4. Change in time scale, 𝜶 ≠ 𝟎 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡|𝑡=0
𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡 ∞ 𝑡 L 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = +
L [𝑓 𝛼
]= 0
𝑓 𝛼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛼F(𝛼s) 𝑠 𝑠

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16
Transfer Function

• The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable, with all initial conditions
assumed to be zero.

𝑟(𝑡) 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)

𝑔(𝑡) 𝐺(𝑠)

𝑪(𝒔)
𝑮 𝒔 =
𝑹(𝒔)
• A transfer function may be defined only for a linear, stationary (constant parameter)
system. A non stationary system, often called a time-varying system, has one or more time-
varying parameters, and the Laplace transformation may not be utilized.

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 Cont.…

• When a general 𝒏𝒕𝒉 -order, linear, time-invariant differential equations are written

• Where 𝑐(𝑡) is the output, 𝑟(𝑡) is the input and the a and b and the form of the differential equations
represents the system.
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, then the solve for the input output ratio.

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Cont.…

• The transfer function of a system (or element) represents the relationship describing the
dynamics of the system under consideration.
• Furthermore, a transfer function is an input-output description of the behaviour of a
system. Thus, the transfer function description does not include any information
concerning the internal structure of the system and its behaviour.

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Cont.…

Advantage
• Transfer function is a mathematical model and it gives the gain of the system.
• Since Laplace transform is used, the terms are simple algebraic expressions and differential
terms are not present
• If transfer function of a system is known, the response of the system to any input can be
determined very easily.
• Poles and zeros of a system can be determined from the knowledge of the transfer function
of the system.

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Cont.…

Disadvantage
• Transfer function can be defined for linear systems only.
• Initial conditions lose their importance since transfer function does not take into account
the initial condition.
• No inferences can be drawn about the physical structure of a system from its transfer
function.

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Cont.…

Example
1. Find the transfer function represented by

𝑑𝑐 𝑡
a. +2𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑐 3 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑐 2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑟 2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑟 𝑡

b. +3 + +5𝑐 𝑡 = +4 +3𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
c. 𝑓 𝑡 = +5 +10 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2. Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function.
2𝑠+1
G 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 +6𝑠+1

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Electrical system

• Newton’s laws used to build mechanical systems from components. For electrical
systems, we use Kirchhoff’s laws to form differential equations for the systems.

These two laws can be very simply stated:

 Law 1 – The total current flowing into a node in the circuit is equal to the total
current flowing from that node. (i.e. there is no residual current at nodes)

 Law 2 – In a closed loop of the network, the algebraic sum of the potential
differences across each part of the circuit is equal to the applied voltage within that
loop

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

Example
1. Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) to the input voltage, 𝑉(𝑠)

25
Cont.…

Exercise
1. Find the transfer function relating the current 𝐼2 (𝑠) to the input voltage, 𝑉(𝑠)

26
Cont.…

2. Find the transfer function relating the resistor voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) to the input voltage, 𝑉(𝑠)

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Modeling of Mechanical system

Mechanical system is classified into two

1. Translational Mechanical system
2. Rotational Mechanical system
1. Translational Mechanical system
Mechanical system obey the basic law that the sum of the forces must equals to zero.
Newton's Law
‘The sum of the applied force must be equal to the sum of the reactive force’
• The three quantities characterizing elements in mechanical translational system are:
 Mass
 Elastic
 Damping

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Modeling of Mechanical system

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Example
1. Find the transfer function, 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠), for the mechanical system below

First draw the free body diagram. Then , make the sum of forces acting on the system is equal to
zero

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Cont.…

2. Find the transfer function, 𝑋2 (𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠), for the mechanical system below

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Cont.…

This drawing has two masses. For the system containing two or more masses, we
use superposition principle. i.e
1. Treat mass one fixed and the other moving.
2. Draw the free body diagram for fixed mass.
3. Treat the fixed one moving and the moving mass fixed.
4. Draw the free body diagram for the moving.
5. Draw the free body diagram sum of (2) and (4) on targeted mass.

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 2. Rotational Mechanical system
• There are many similar between translational and rotational mechanical systems
Translation Rotational
Mass (M) Inertia (J)

Damper (D) Damper (D)

Spring(K) Spring(K)

Force(F) Torque (T)

Displacement(X) Angular Displacement (𝜃)

Velocity(v) Angular Velocity(𝜔)

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Cont.…

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Example
1. Find the transfer function 𝜃2 𝑠 /𝑇(𝑠), for the rotational system shown in figure below . The
rod is supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the
left, and the displacement is measured at the right.

Physical system Schematic Diagram

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 Electro Mechanical system

• Electromechanical system: are systems which have both electrical and mechanical variable.
• It has different application areas: robot control, trackers, computer tape & disk driver, different servo
applications.
• Motor: is one of the electro mechanical system which yields a displacement output taking voltage as
an input.
• For example armature controlled DC motor: the desired speed is obtained by varying the armature
and the filed circuit but for analysis purpose, only the armature circuit considered because the filed is
excited by a constant voltage.

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Cont.…

Example
1. Determine the transfer function of an armature controlled DC motor

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Circuit Analogy between Electrical and Mechanical Systems:

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Cont.…

• It is possible to make electrical and mechanical systems using analogs. An analogous electrical and
mechanical system will have differential equations of the same form. There are two analogs that are
used to go between electrical and mechanical systems.
 Force – Current
 Force –Voltage

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Cont.…

• The analogous quantities and equations are given below.

40
Cont.…

41
Cont.…

42
Converting Between Systems

Electrical to Mechanical 1 (Force-Current)

• The important relationship when converting from a circuit to the Mechanical 1 analog is that between
Kirchoff's Current Law and D'Alemberts Law (with inertial forces included).

• One deficiency in this analogy is that it only works easily for capacitors that are grounded. This can be
seen by the analogies between energy in a capacitor and energy in a mass, and the analogy between
electrical ground (unchangeable voltage=0) and mechanical "ground" (immoveable position).

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 Conversion from Electrical to Mechanical 1 -- Visual Method

Cont.… Start with an electrical

circuit. Label all node voltages.

a
Draw over circuit, replacing
electrical elements with their
analogs; current sources replaced by
force generators, voltage sources by
input velocities, resistors with
friction elements, inductors with
springs, and capacitors (which must
be grounded) by capacitors. Each
node becomes a position.

Label currents, positions, and

mechanical elements as they were in
the original electrical circuits.

44
Cont.…

45
Cont.…

Electrical to Mechanical 2 (Force-Voltage)

• The important relationship when converting from a circuit to the Mechanical 2 analog is that between
Kirchoff's Voltage Law and D'Alemberts Law (with inertial forces included).

• One deficiency in this analogy is that it only works easily for inductors with only one current defined
through them. This can be seen by the analogies between energy in an inductor and energy in a mass.

46
Cont.…

47
Cont.…

Mechanical 1 (Force-Current) to Electrical.

• The procedure to go from Mechanical 1 to Electrical is simply the reverse of Electrical to Mechanical
1. Either a mathematical method can be used (refer to previous example,)
• Electrical to Mechanical 1, and read the table from bottom to top, or a simple visual method can be used
where force generators are replaced by current sources, friction elements by resistors, springs by
inductors, and masses by capacitors (which are grounded). Each position becomes a node in the circuit.

Draw over circuit (or over mechanical system). Swap:

 Current sources ↔ force generators;
 Voltage sources ↔ input velocities;
 Resistors ↔ friction elements;
 Inductors ↔ springs;
 Capacitors (which must be grounded) ↔ masses;
 Ground ↔ fixed reference.
 Each node becomes a position (or velocity)
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 Conversion from Mechanical 1 to Electrical Visual Method
1. Start with the mechanical system. Label all positions.

2. Draw over circuit, replacing mechanical elements with

their analogs; force generators by current sources, input
velocities by voltage sources, friction elements by
resistors, springs by inductors, and masses by capacitors
(which are grounded). Each position becomes a node.

3. Label nodes and electrical elements as they were in

the original mechanical system.

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Fluid System Building Blocks
• The basic building blocks of fluid systems are the volumetric rate of flow q and the pressure
difference.

Input Output

Volumetric rate of flow Pressure difference

• Fluid system can be divided into two types:

 Hydraulic and
 Pneumatic.

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Fluid System Building Blocks
• Hydraulic resistance is the resistance to flow of liquid as the liquid flow through valves or changes in
pipe diameter takes place.

p1  p2  Rq Where p1 - p2 is pressure difference

R is the hydraulic resistance
q is the volumetric rate of flow

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Cont.…

• Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe energy storage with a liquid where it is stored in the
form of potential energy. A height of liquid in a container is one form of such a storage. For such
capacitance, the rate of change of volume V in the container (dV / dt) is equal to the difference between
the volumetric rate at which liquid enters the container q1 and the rate at which it leaves q2.

dV
q1  q2  ; V  Ah
dt
dh
q1  q2  A
dt
A dp
q1  q2 
pg dt
( p is liquid density; g is the acceleration due to gravity)
A dp
C ; q1  q2  C
pg dt
52
 Cont.…

• Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in mechanical

systems. To accelerate a fluid and so increase its velocity a force is required.

F  F  p A  p A  ( p  p )A
1 2 1 2 1 2 F1=p1A
( p  p ) A  ma Mass m
1 2
dv dv dq
( p  p ) A  m  ALp  Lp
1 2 dt dt dt
F2=p2A
dq Lg
p p I ; I is the hydraulic inertance 
1 2 dt A L
L is the length of the block and g is the density

53
Cont.…

• With pneumatic systems the three basic buildings blocks are as with hydraulic systems, resistance,
capacitance, and inertance. However, gasses differ from liquids in being compressible.

dm p1  p2
Resistance 
dt R
dm d ( p1  p2 )
Capacitance C
dt dt
dm 1
Inertance   ( p1  p2 )dt
dt L

54
 Cont.…

• A fluid system p is the liquid density

g is the acceleration due to gravity
q is the volumetric rate of flow
q1
dp
q1  q2  C (Capacitor)
dt
p1  p2  Rq2 (Resistance)
hpg
h p1-p2  hpg ; q2 
R
hpg d (hpg ) dh pgh
q1  C A 
R dt dt R
q2

55
Thermal System Building Blocks

• There are only two basic building blocks for thermal systems:
 Resistance and
 Capacitance.
• There is a net flow of heat between two points if there is a temperature difference between them.
• The value of the resistance depends on the mode of heat transfer.

T2  T1 T T
q  Ak 2 1
R L
A : Cross sectional area of the material through w hich the heat is being conducted
L is the length of material between the points at which the temperature are T1 and T2 .
k is the thermal conductivity

56
Cont.…

• Thermal System q is the net rate of heat flow

C is the capacitance
R is the thermal resistance

T T
q L
R
T dT dT
q q1  q2  C ;q  C
dt dt
dT TL  T
C 
TL dt R
dT
RC  T  TL
dt

57
Cont.…

58
 Block diagram

• A control system may consists of a numbers of components to show the function performed by each
component, in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called block diagram.
• Block Diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component
and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various
components.
• The signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows. Thus, a block diagram of a control system
explicitly shows a unilateral property.

Input Transfer function Output

G(𝑠)

Block diagram representation

59
Cont.…

• Any linear control system may be represent by a block diagram consists of

 Blocks
 Summing points
 Branch-point (also called pick-off point): is a point from which the signal from a block
goes concurrently to other or summing points.
• Summing points : The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be
added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the
same dimensions and the same units.

Summing point 60
Cont.…

• Branch-point : A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to
other blocks or summing points.

Branch point

61
Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System

• Consider a closed loop system given below

a) Feedback block with unity feedback gain b) Feedback block with 𝐻(𝑠) feedback gain

Block diagram representation

62
Block Diagram of a open-Loop System

● Consider a closed loop system given in figure 3.4 b , the ratio of the feedback signal 𝐵(𝑠) to the
actuating error signal 𝐸(𝑠) is called the open-loop transfer function.

𝐵 𝑠
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠)
63
Cont.…

Positive feedback control system Negative feedback control system

● Has negative impact on system ● Effects on reducing o/p disturbance
performance ● Subtracts o/p signal from the input
● Add system disturbance ● Feedback is negative, gain 𝐺(𝑠) reduces by
● Results diverging oscillatory response a factor 1/[1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)]

64
Cont.…

● Forward path :- elements through which signal passes in input-output direction – transfer functions
usually designated G(s)
● Feedback path :- elements through which signal is being fed back in output-input direction – transfer
functions usually designated H(s)

65
 Cont.…

Producers for drawing a block diagram (from its mathematical model(transfer function ))
● Write the equation that describes the dynamic behavior of each component.
● Take the Laplace transform of the above equation by assuming the initial conditions
zero.
● Represent each Laplace transformed equation individually in block form
● Finally, assemble the elements into complete block diagram.

66
Cont.…

Example 3.1
1. Consider series RLC circuit, draw the block diagram representation.

67
Cont.…

2. Draw the block diagram representation armature controlled Dc motor.

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Block Reduction

• A complicated block diagram involving many feedback loops to be simplified by a step by step
rearrangement.
• In simplifying a block diagram remember the following.
1. The product of the transfer function in the feed forward direction must remain the
same
2. The product of the transfer function around the loop must remain the same.
• Rearrangement of the block diagrams ids done using the rule of block diagram algebra.

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3.2.2 Rules of Block diagram Algebra

70
Cont.…

71
Cont.…

72
Steps for block reduction

1. Combine all cascaded blocks

2. Combine all parallel blocks
3. Eliminate all minor feedback loops
4. Shift summing points to the left and take off points to the right of the major loop
5. Repeat step 1 to 4 until canonical form has been achieved for a particular point.
6. For multiple input, repeat 1 to 5 for each input as required.

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Example

1. Reduce the block diagram show below

74
Cont.…

2. Simplify the block diagram show below and obtain the closed loop system transfer function

75
Cont.…

3. Simplify the block diagram show below and obtain the closed loop system transfer function

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Signal Flow Graphs

• For complicated systems, Block diagram reduction method becomes tedious & time
consuming.
• An alternate method is that signal flow graphs developed by S.J. Mason.
• A signal flow graph consists only of branches which represent a system and nodes
which represent signals.
• In these graphs, each node represents a system variable & each branch connected
between two nodes acts as Signal Multiplier. The direction of signal flow is indicated
by an arrow.
G (s) R (s) G ( s) C (s)
R (s) C (s)

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Elements of Signal Flow Graphs

1. Nodes: while constricting an SGF, the junction point that are used to represent variable are
called Nodes.
2. Branches: the nodes are connected together by line or branches. The signal travels from one
node to other node along these branches.
3. Input node: the node which has only outgoing branches.
4. Output node [Sink]: the node which has only incoming branches.
5. Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing branches (signals).
6. Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrows. Such that no
node is traversed more than once.

78
 Cont.…
7. Forward Path: It is a path from i/p node to the o/p node which doesn’t cross any node m ore than
once.

8. Forward Path Gain: It is a product of branch gains encountered in traveling forward path.

9. Loop: it is a path which originates and terminates at same node.

10. Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered in traveling a loop.

11. Self loop: loop with only one branch is called self loop.

12. Non-Touching Loops: Loops are Non-Touching, if they do not possess any common node.

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Converting Block Diagram To Signal Flow Graphs

Step1: Identify and label all signals on the block diagram

Step2: Place a node for each signal
Step3: Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
 Maintain correct direction Label
 Branches with corresponding transfer functions
Step4: simplify

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Example

1. Convert the following block diagram to signal flow graph

81
Cont.…
2. Consider the multi-loop feedback control system shown below
a. Convert block diagram to signal flow graph
b. Obtain close-loop system transfer function

82
Mason's Gain Formula

• The relation between the i/p variable & the o/p variable of a signal flow graphs is given by the
net gain between the i/p & the o/p nodes and is known as Overall gain of the system.
• Mason’s gain formula for the determination of overall system gain is given by,

• Where,
PK = Forward Path gain of Kth forward path
Δ = Determinant of the graph.

83
Cont.…

ΔK →The value of the Δ for that part of the graph not touching the Kth forward path.

T → Overall gain of the system.

84
Steps to calculate TF using Mason’s Gain Formula:

Step1:- Determine number of forward path and find its gain

Step2:- Determine number of loops and find its gain
Step3:- Two non touching loops
Step4:- Higher order non touching loops with its gain
Step5:- Calculate determinant
Step 6:- ΔK →The value of the Δ for that part of the graph not touching the Kth forward path.
Step 7:- T → Overall gain of the system.

85
Cont.…
Example

86
 Cont.…
2. Obtain the closed loop TF, by using Mason's gain formula.

87
Cont.…

3. Obtain the closed loop transfer function using mason’s law

88
Cont.…

89
Characteristics of Feedback Control

What is the purpose of feedback control ?

• In simple terms, the use of feedback is for the purpose of reducing the error between the
reference input and the system output.
What are the effects of feedback in control system?

• The reduction of the system error merely one of the many importance effect that feedback

may have upon system.

• Feedback also has effects on a system performance characteristics such as stability,

bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity.

• Feedback exists whenever there is a closed loop sequence of cause and effect relationships.

90
 Cont.…

• A closed loop system uses a measurement of the

output signal and a comparison with the desired
output to generate an error signal that is applied
to the actuator.

• The output signal C(s) is measured by sensors H(s)which produces a FB signal B(s).
• The comparators with the reference R(S) and produces an error signal E(s). The actuating signal is
applied to produces G(s) so as to influence the output C(s) in a manner which tends to reduce the
error.

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Effect of feedback on overall gain

• Consider the transfer function of overall a negative feedback System.

• As seen from the above TF equation FB effect the gain G of a non feedback system by the factor of
1+HG.
• In practical control system, G and H are function of frequency, so the magnitude of 1+HG may be
greater than 1 in one frequency range but less than 1 in another.
• Therefore, “A feedback could increases the system gain in one frequency range but decreases in
another”

92
Effect of feedback on stability

• Stability is a notation that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input command, or
be useful in general.
• BIBO system. “ A system is unstable if its output is out of control”
• To investigate the stability of a system
𝑮(𝒔)
𝑻𝑭 =
𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

• if GH=-1, the output of system is infinite for any finite input, the system is said to be unstable.
• We may state “ FB can cause of a system that is originally stable to become unstable.”
• One of the advantages of incorporating feedback is that if can stabilize an unstable system by proper
selection of feedback gain.

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Control over System dynamics by use Feedback

● Consider an elementary system b) The closed loop transfer function

a) The open loop transfer function 𝒌
𝑮 𝒔 = , 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = −(𝑘 + 𝜶)
𝒌 𝑺+𝒌+𝜶
𝑮 (𝒔) = , 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = −𝜶
𝑺+𝜶 The response of a unit impulse 𝑹 𝒔 = 𝟏
The response of a unit impulse 𝑹 𝒔 = 𝟏 𝒌
𝐶 𝑆 =𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = ,
𝒌 𝑺+𝜶
𝐶 𝑆 =𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = ,
𝑺+𝜶 𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑒 −(𝑘+𝜶)𝒕 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝝉 = 𝟏 /(𝑘 + 𝛼)
𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑒 −𝜶𝒕 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝝉 = 𝟏 /𝛼
94
Cont.…

• For positive value of k , the effect of FB is shift the pole to – (𝜶 + 𝑲) so that the time
constant reduces to 𝝉 = 𝟏 / 𝜶 + 𝑲 . This implies as K increases the system dynamics
continuously became faster.
• Feedback controls the dynamics of the system by adjusting the location of its poles.
• However, it is important to note that a feedback introduces the possibility of instability.
• A closed loop system may be unstable even though the open loop is stable.

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Sensitivity of control System to parameter variation

• A process, represented by transfer function G(s), whatever its nature is subjected to

environmental, aging, ignorance of the exact value of the process parameters, and other natural
factors a control system.
• In open loop system, all these error and changes result in a changing and inaccurate output.
• A Closed loop system senses the change in the output due to the process change and attempt to
correct the output.
• A primary advantages of a FB control system is its ability to reduce the system sensitivity to
variation in the parameters of the forward path.

96
Cont.…

1. Parameter variation of open loop system

• Process G(s)

• New Process with parameter variation by ∆G(s)

𝑪 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑮 𝑺 + ∆𝐺 𝑠
= 𝐑𝑮 𝑺 + 𝑹∆𝐺 𝑠
= 𝐶(𝑠) + ∆𝐶(𝑠)

97
Cont.…

2. Parameter variation of closed loop system

• A good control system should be very insensitive to parameter variation but sensitive to input
command.

with out parameter variation

𝑹(𝒔)𝑮 𝒔
𝑪 𝒔 =
𝟏+𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

98
 Cont.…

with parameter variation

𝑹 𝒔 [𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 ]
𝑪 𝒔 =
𝟏 + [𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 ]𝑯(𝒔)
• The output of the closed loop parameter variation becomes

𝑪 𝒔 = 𝑪 𝒔 + ∆𝑪(𝒔)
𝑮 𝒔 𝑹(𝒔)
Substituting the value of 𝑪 𝒔 =
𝟏+𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

𝑮 𝒔 𝑹(𝒔) [𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 ]𝑹(𝒔)
𝑪 𝒔 = + ∆𝑪 𝒔 =
𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔) 𝟏 + [𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 ]𝑯(𝒔)

99
 Cont.…
• The change output ∆𝑪 𝒔 = 𝑪 𝒔 − 𝑪 𝒔

[𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 ]𝑹(𝒔) 𝑮 𝒔 𝑹 𝒔 ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 𝑹(𝒔)
∆𝑪 𝒔 = − =
𝟏 + [𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 ]𝑯(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 + ∆ 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 [𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 ]
When HG>> ∆ HG, the change in output become.

∆ 𝑮𝑹
∆𝑪 𝒔 =
(𝟏 + [𝑮𝑯])𝟐
• The change in the output of CL system is reduced by a factor [𝟏 + 𝑮𝑯] 𝟐 , which is usually much
grater than one over the range of complex frequency intervals.

100
 Definition:

• System sensitivity the ratio of the change in the system TF to change of a process TF G(s) (or
parameter) for a small increment change.
𝑪(𝒔)
• System 𝐓 =
𝑹(𝒔)

𝝏𝑻
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑻(𝒔) ∆𝑻(𝒔)
• System sensitivity = = = 𝑻
𝝏𝑮
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑮(𝒔) ∆𝑮(𝒔)
𝑮

𝑮𝝏𝑻
• 𝑺𝑮 𝑻 =
𝑻𝝏𝑮

101
 Cont.…
Example 3.5
1. Determine the sensitivity of open loop system in the effect of parameter variation.

• GH is +ve constant, +ve magnitude of sensitivity function can be made arbitrarily small by
increasing GH, provided that the system remain stable.
• The price for improvement of in sensitivity by use of FB is paid in terms of loss of system gain. The
OL system has a gain G(s), while the given of the CL system is G/(1+GH).
• Hence, by use of FB, the system gain is reduced by the same factor as by which the sensitivity of the
system to parameter variations is reduced

102
 Cont.…
2. Determine the sensitivity of FB control system.
a) The sensitivity of the system changes with gain G(s)
b) The sensitivity of the system changes with FB gain H(s)

• Which GH is Large, the sensitivity approaches unity and the change in H(s) directly affect the
output response. Therefore, it is important to the FB components that will not vary with
environmental changes or that can be maintained constant.

103
 Effect of feedback on External disturbance
• All physical system are subjected to some type of extraneous signals or noise during operation.
• In the design of a control system, consideration should be given as that the system is insensitive to
noise and disturbance and sensitive to input command .
• Consider a feedback system with input R(s) and disturbance D(s)

• From the transfer function you can see that, feedback can reduce the effect of noise and
disturbance on a system performance by the factor 1+GH
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THE END

105