Types of Loading and failure, Properties of Material

Prem Ulhas Shirodkar BTech. Automobile Engg

Mechanical Subsystem. [email protected]
Team Solarmobil

Abstract—Report on types of Loading and Failures, 3. Shear: Shear loading occurs when two forces
Properties of Materials are applied in opposite directions parallel to a
surface, causing the object to deform by sliding
A. Types of Loading along that surface. The formula for shear stress
1. Compression: Compression loading occurs (τ) is:
when a force acts to push or compress an τ=F/A
object, causing it to decrease in size along its
axis. The formula for compressive stress (σ) is: Where:
 τ is the shear stress
 F is the applied shear force
σ=F/A  A is the area over which the shear force is applied.

4. Torsion: Torsion loading involves applying a

twisting force to an object, causing it to twist
along its longitudinal axis. The formula for
torsional stress (τ) is:
τ=T⋅r/J

Where:
 σ is the compressive stress
 F is the applied compressive force
 A is the cross-sectional area of the object being
compressed.

2. Tension: Tension loading happens when a

force is applied to stretch an object, causing it Where:
to elongate along its axis. The formula for
 τ is the torsional stress
tensile stress (σ) is the same as for compressive
 T is the applied torque or twisting moment
stress:
σ=F/A  r is the radial distance from the center of the object
to the point of interest
 J is the polar moment of inertia, which is a measure
of an object's resistance to torsional deformation.

5. Bending: Bending loading occurs when an

object is subjected to asymmetric loading,
causing it to bend about an axis. The formula
for bending stress (σ) is:
σ=M⋅c/I

Where the variables have the same

meanings as in the compression formula.
Where: this point, the material experiences its
 σ is the bending stress ultimate tensile strength (UTS), which is
 M is the bending moment applied to the object the maximum force it can withstand
 c is the distance from the neutral axis (the axis that before breaking.
doesn't experience deformation) to the outermost
fiber of the object
 I is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional  Tension Failure: If the applied force
area, representing the object's resistance to bending. continues to increase beyond the UTS, the
material will eventually reach a point
where its internal structure can no longer
B. Types of Failure support the stress. At this stage, the
1. Buckling: Buckling is a phenomenon where slender material will break apart, resulting in a
structures, like columns or beams, suddenly bend or tension failure.
deflect sideways when subjected to compressive forces.
This happens when the applied force becomes too much 3. Shear Failure: Shear failure occurs when a material or
for the material to handle, and small imperfections in structure is subjected to forces that cause its internal
the structure's shape lead to bigger deformations. As layers or particles to slide against each other along
these deformations increase, they can cause the parallel planes. This type of failure is common in
structure to bend even more, eventually resulting in a materials that are weak in resisting shearing forces, like
sudden and often unexpected failure. cutting or sliding forces. Imagine pushing one layer of a
deck of cards in one direction while the layer below it is
Think of it like pushing down on a long, thin stick. pushed in the opposite direction—eventually, the cards
Initially, the stick may stay straight, but as you push may slide past each other, causing a shear failure.
harder, it might suddenly bend to the side instead of just
squishing. This sudden bending due to excessive  Shear Stress: Shear stress is a force that
compressive force is what we call buckling. acts parallel to a given surface or plane,
trying to slide one part of the material
2. Tensile Failure: Tension failure, also known as tensile past another. When shear stress exceeds
failure, occurs when a material is subjected to stretching the material's strength, shear failure can
forces that exceed its strength, causing it to break apart. occur.
Imagine pulling both ends of a piece of rope in opposite
directions. If the force you apply becomes too strong,  Internal Sliding: When external forces
the rope will eventually snap. This breaking point is a cause one layer or portion of a material to
tension failure. move sideways relative to another, it
creates internal sliding within the
 Material Stretching: When a material is material.
under tension, it experiences forces that
pull its particles apart from one another.  Weakest Planes: Most materials have
These forces cause the material to specific planes along which they are more
elongate along the direction of the applied likely to experience shear failure due to
force. their internal structure. These planes are
often referred to as shear planes.
 Elastic Deformation: Initially, most
materials will stretch elastically, which  Shear Failure: As the internal sliding
means they will return to their original continues, the material may eventually
shape when the force is removed. This is reach a point where its cohesion is
similar to stretching a rubber band—it overcome, and it fractures along the shear
stretches while you pull it, but goes back plane, resulting in shear failure.
to its original size when released.
4. Torsional Fatigue Failure: Torsional fatigue failure
 Yield Point: As the applied force occurs when a material or component experiences
increases, the material might reach a point repeated twisting or torsional forces over time, leading
where it starts to deform plastically. This to the development and propagation of cracks,
means that the material's particles start to ultimately resulting in failure. It is a type of fatigue
shift and rearrange, and the material failure that specifically occurs due to cyclic torsional
doesn't fully return to its original shape loading.
when the force is removed. This is called
the yield point, and further deformation Cyclic Torsional Loading: Torsional forces
can occur without an increase in force. involve twisting or rotating an object around its
axis. When a material or component is
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): subjected to repeated torsional loading, such as
Eventually, the applied force might alternating twists, it experiences cyclic stress
become so great that the material's changes.
structure can't hold together anymore. At
 Stress Concentration: Just like with other types  Corrosion Resistance: The ability of a
of fatigue failures, certain regions of the material to withstand degradation due to
material might experience stress concentrations chemical reactions with its environment.
due to factors like irregular geometry, surface
defects, or variations in material properties.  Atomic Number: The number of protons
in an atom's nucleus, determining its
Initiation of Cracks: With each cycle of chemical properties.
torsional loading, stress concentrations can
lead to the initiation of small cracks at  Molecular Weight: The sum of atomic
localized points on the material's surface or weights in a molecule.
within its structure. These cracks are often
microscopic and may not be immediately 3. Thermal Properties:
visible.
 Specific Heat: The heat energy required to
Crack Propagation: As the cyclic loading raise the temperature of a unit mass of
continues, these small cracks can grow and material by one degree.
propagate gradually. Each cycle of loading and
unloading encourages the cracks to extend  Refractoriness: The ability to withstand
further into the material. high temperatures without melting or
deforming.
Critical Crack Size: Eventually, the cracks can
grow to a critical size where the material can
no longer support the applied torsional loads.  Thermal Conductivity: The ability to
At this point, the material becomes conduct heat.
increasingly weakened and more prone to
sudden failure. 4. Optical Properties:
Torsional Fatigue Failure: The material reaches  Refractive Index: The measure of how
a point where the combined effects of crack much light is bent or refracted when
growth and cyclic loading cause it to fail passing through a material.
catastrophically. This failure is often
characterized by sudden and unexpected
 Absorptivity: The extent to which a
fracturing along the cracks.
material absorbs light.
C. Properties of Material
1. Physical Properties: 5. Electrical Properties:

 Shape: The external form or outline of a  Electrical Conductivity: The ability of a

material or object. material to carry electric current.

 Size: The dimensions of an object,  Resistivity: The inverse of electrical

including length, width, and height. conductivity, representing a material's
resistance to electric current.
 Density: The mass of a material per unit
volume.  Dielectric Constant: The ability of a
material to store electrical energy in an
 Porosity: The presence of pores or voids electric field.
within a material.
 Dielectric Strength: The maximum
 Color: The appearance of a material due to electric field a material can withstand
its interaction with light. without breaking down.

2. Chemical Properties: 6. Mechanical Properties:

 Acidity: The tendency of a substance to  Strength: How much force a material can handle
release hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. before breaking.

 Alkalinity: The tendency of a substance to  Hardness: Resistance to deformation, scratching,

release hydroxide ions (OH-) in a solution. or indentation.

 Composition: The specific elements and  Ductility: Ability to stretch without breaking.
compounds present in a material.
 Malleability: Ability to deform under
compression.
  Toughness: Ability to absorb energy without
breaking.

 Resilience: Ability to absorb and return energy

when deformed elastically.

 Creep Resistance: Resistance to gradual

deformation under constant load.

 Fatigue Resistance: Ability to withstand repeated

cyclic loading.

 Stiffness: Resistance to deformation under load.

 Elasticity: Ability to deform and return to original

shape.

 Plasticity: Ability to deform permanently after

elastic limit.

 Fracture Toughness: Resistance to crack

propagation.

REFERENCES
[1] file:///F:/Automobile%20Engineering%20course%20material/3rd
%20semester/Material%20Science%20and%20Metallurgy
%20(AAE2171)/Study%20Material/1st.pdf
[2] https://www.linearmotiontips.com/mechanical-properties-of-
materials-stress-and-strain/#:~:text=There%20are%20five
%20fundamental%20types,the%20material's%20cross%2Dsectional
%20area.&text=Strain%20is%20the%20deformation%20or,results
%20from%20an%20applied%20stress.