ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing

(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

1. Introduction to Microprocessor
1.1. Overview
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip capable of
performing ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) operations and communicating with other
devices connected to it.

The term microprocessor and microcontroller have always been confused each other. Both of
them are ICs and have been designed for real time application. They share many common
features and at the same time they have significant differences.

Microprocessor: is an IC which has only the CPU inside them i.e., only the processing power.
These microprocessors don’t have RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on the chip.
Microprocessor find applications where tasks are unspecific like developing software, games,
websites, photo editing, creating documents etc. in such cases the relationship between input and
output is not defined. They need high amount of resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc. the
clock speed of microprocessor is quite high as compared to the microcontroller.

Microcontroller: has a CPU, in addition with a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other
peripherals all embedded on a single chip. Sometimes it is also termed as a mini computer or a
computer on a single chip. They are designed for to perform specific tasks. Specific means
applications where the relationship of input and output is defined. Since the applications are very
specific, they need small resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc and hence can be embedded
on a single chip. This in turn reduces the size and the cost.

A microcomputer is a small relatively inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as its

Central Processing Unit (CPU). It includes a microprocessor, memory, and input/output (I/O)
facilities.

 Microcomputers become popular in the 1970s and 80s with the advent of increasingly
powerful microprocessors.

 Note: A microcontroller is a small computer on a single IC containing a processor core,

memory and programmable Input/output peripherals.

 Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices such as

automobile engine control systems, RCs etc..

 No clear distinctions between microcomputer and microcontroller, they are used 1

interchangeably.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

Basic Microcomputer system consists of a Central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and
ROM), input/output (I/O) unit and buses.

Fig 1: Block diagram of a basic Microcomputer

1.2. Why Learn Microcomputer and Interfacing?

 Why do we learn microprocessors? The following are some reasons?

– The microprocessor is the core of computer systems.

– Nowadays many communications, digital entertainment, portable devices, are

controlled by microprocessors.

– Engineer should know what types of components he needs, ways to reduce

production costs and product reliable.

– Further reasons: read the objectives of the course on the course outline.

1.3. What is Microprocessor?

A MICROPROCESSOR is a multipurpose programmable logic device that reads binary
instructions from a storage device called memory accepts binary data as input and
processes data according to those instructions and provides results as output.

The word Microprocessor comes from the combination of micro and processor.

 Processor means a device that processes whatever. In this context processor means a
device that processes numbers, specifically binary numbers, 0’s and 1’s.

 To process means to manipulate. It is a general term that describes all

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manipulation. Again in this content, to process means to perform certain
operations on the numbers that depend on the microprocessor’s design.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

 Micro is a new addition to the term Processor.

– In the late 1960’s, processors were built using discrete elements.

 These devices performed the required processing operation, but were too
large and too slow.

– In the early 1970’s the microchip was invented.

 All of the components that made up the processor were now placed on a
single piece of silicon.

 The size became several thousand times smaller and the speed became
several hundred times faster. The “Micro” Processor was born.

The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in numbers, performs on them

arithmetic or logical operations according to the program stored in memory and then
produces other numbers as a result.

 Lets expand each of the bold words:

– Programmable device: The microprocessor can perform different sets of

operations on the data it receives depending on the sequence of instructions
supplied in the given program. By changing the program, the microprocessor
manipulates the data in different ways.

– Instructions: Each microprocessor is designed to execute a specific group of

operations. This group of operations is called an instruction set. This instruction
set defines what the microprocessor can and cannot do.

– Takes in: The data that the microprocessor manipulates must come from input
devices. Data comes from what is called “input devices”. Input devices are
devices that bring data into the system from the outside world. Examples of input
devices are a keyboard, a mouse, switches, and the like.

– Numbers: Microprocessor only understands binary numbers. A binary digit is

called a bit (which comes from binary digit). The microprocessor recognizes and
processes a group of bits together.

 A group of 4 bits is called a nibble.

 A group of 8 bit is called a byte.
 A group of 16 bit is called a word. 3
 A group of 32 bit is called a long word.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

– Arithmetic and Logic Operations: microprocessors can do arithmetic and logic

operations.

 Arithmetic operations are operations such as

 Add and subtract

 Multiply and divide.

 Some new microprocessors have complex operations such as

square root.

 Logic operations are operations such as AND, OR, XOR, shift left, shift
right, etc.

– Program: A program is a sequence of instructions that bring data into the

microprocessor, processes it and sends it out.

– Stored in memory :

 When a program is entered into a computer, it is stored in memory. Then

as the microprocessor starts to execute the instructions, it brings the
instructions from memory one at a time.

 Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold. It is

measured in Kilos, Megas and lately Gigas.

 A Kilo in computer language is 210 =1024. So, a KB (Kilobyte) is

1024 bytes.

 Mega is 1024 Kilos and

 Giga is 1024 Mega.

1.4. Microprocessor Components

The basic components of a microprocessor are:

 ALU: Performs all arithmetic and logical operations. Such as addition, subtraction, AND,
OR and XOR.
 Register array: Holds the data temporarily for processing.
It is collection of registers within the microprocessor itself. These are used primarily for 4
data storage during program execution. The number and the size of these registers differ
from one microprocessor to the other.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

 Control Unit: It supervises or monitors all the operations carried out in the computer.
As the name implies, the control Unit controls what is happening in the microprocessor.
It provides the necessary control and timing signals to all operations in the
microprocessor as well as its contact to the outside world.

Fig 2: Basic components of a microprocessor

1.5. Hardware of Microprocessors

Microprocessors are made up from Integrated Circuits which are commonly known as an IC or a
chip.

 IC consists of:
– Devices such as:
 Transistors
 Diodes
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Wires
 ICs are made of the following materials
– Silicon – for making logic gates and transistors 5
– Copper – for making conductor
– Silicon Dioxide – for making insulator

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

1.6. Microprocessors Terminologies

Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor:

 Instruction Set: it is the set of instructions that the microprocessor can understand.
 Bandwidth: It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
 Clock Speed: It determines the number of operations per second the processor can
perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also known as
Clock Rate.
 Word Length: It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers, ALU, etc. an 8-
bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word length ranges from 4-bits to
64-bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
 Data Types: the microprocessor has multiple data type format like binary, BCD, ASCII,
signed and unsigned numbers.
 MIPS: stands for Millions of Instructions per Second, and is a rough measure of the
performance of a CPU.

1.7. Evolution of Microprocessors

The continued development of IC technology resulted in realization of more complicated
functions with better reliability, compactness, low cost and low power dissipation. Chips
such as counters, memory devices, etc. were developed using MSI and LSI technologies. With
passage of time, the IC technology developed at an incredible pace and all Boolean functions
could be realized on a single chip. The chip capable of processing all Boolean functions was
given the name of Processor. On the same line, the chip which processed the data in a
controlled manner was called the microprocessor.

The microprocessor age began with the advancement in the IC technology to put all
necessary functions of a CPU into a single chip. Advancement in semiconductor technology
increased the capacity to include more and more logic on a single chip. Although the cost of
the microprocessor increased with its complexities, yet it was much lower than the cost
of the equivalent logic scattered over several less capable chips. In addition to reduced
number of ICs needed to perform a given function, the total number of pins is reduced and hence
assembly cost was also reduced.

The two biggest players in the PC CPU market are Intel and Motorola. Intel has enjoyed
tremendous success with its processors since the early 1980s. Most PCs are controlled by Intel
processors. The primary exception to this rule is the Macintosh. All Macs use chips made by 6
Motorola. In addition, there are several firms, such as AMD and Cyrix, that make processors
which mimic the functionality of Intel' s chips. There are also several other chip
manufacturers for workstation PC’s.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

1.7.1. Overview of INTEL Processors

The Intel Corporation is the largest manufacturer of microchips in the world, in addition
to being the leading provider of chips for PCs. In fact, Intel invented the microprocessor,
the so-called "computer on a chip," in 1971 with the 4004 model It was this invention that
led to the first microcomputers that began appearing in 1975. However, Intel' s success in
this market was not guaranteed until 198l, when IBM released the first IBM PC, which
was based on the Intel 8088. Since then all IBM machines and the compatibles based on
IBM' s design have been created around Intel' s chips.

1.7.2. History of INTEL Processors

 Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first IC in 1959.
 In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove resigned from Fairchild
Semiconductors.
 They founded their own company Intel (Integrated Electronics).
 Intel grown from 3 man start-up in 1968 to industrial giant by 1981.
 Its total revenue is $55.870 billion (2014).
 One of its most successful products is the Intel microprocessor. We will see its
historical background is described below.

Intel microprocessors can be grouped into 5:

i. 4-Bit Microprocessors:
– E.g. INTEL 4004, INTEL 4040
ii. 8-Bit Microprocessors:
– E.g. INTEL 8008, INTEL 8080, INTEL 8085,
iii. 16-Bit Microprocessors:
– E.g. INTEL 8086, INTEL 8088, INTEL 80186 & 80188, INTEL 80286
iv. 32-Bit Microprocessors:
– E.g. INTEL 80386, INTEL 80486, INTEL PENTIUM, INTEL PENTIUM PRO,
INTEL PENTIUM II, INTEL PENTIUM II XEON, INTEL PENTIUM III,
INTEL PENTIUM IV, INTEL DUAL CORE
v. 64-Bit Microprocessors:
– E.g. INTEL CORE 2, INTEL CORE I3, INTEL CORE I5, INTEL CORE I7 7

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

In Details:

 INTEL 4004 is the First microprocessor

– Introduced in 1971.
– It was a 4 bit μP.
– Its clock speed was 740 KHZ.
– It has 2300 transistors.
– It could execute 60.000 instructions per second.
 INTEL 8008 microprocessor
– Introduced in 1972.
– It was the first 8 bit μP
– Its clock speed was 500 KHz
– It could execute 50,000 instructions per second.
 INTEL 8080
– Introduced in 1974.
– It was a 8 bit μP.
– Its clock speed was 2 MHz
– 10 times faster than 8008.
– It could execute 5,000,000 instructions per second.
 INTEL 8085
– Introduced in 1976.
– It was the first 8 bit μP
– Its clock speed was 3 MHz
– Its data bus is 8 bit and address bus is 16 bit.
– It has 6500 transistors.
– It could access 64 KB of memory. 8
– It had 246 instructions.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

 INTEL 8086
– Introduced in 1978
– It was the first 16-bit μP.
– Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz, depending on the version
– Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20 –bit
– It had 29,000 transistors
– Could execute 2.5 million instructions per second.
– It could access 1 MB of memory
– It had 22,000 instructions
– It had Multiply and Divide instructions
 INTEL 8088
– Introduced in 1979.
– It was also 16-bit μP.
– It was created as a cheaper version of Intel’s 8086.
– It was a 16-bit processor with an 8-bit external bus.
– Could execute 2.5 million instructions per second.
– This chip became the most popular in the computer industry when IBM used it for
its first PC.
 INTEL 80386
– Introduced in 1986.
– It was first 32-bit μP.
– Its data bus is 32-bit and
– Address bus is 32-bit.
– It could address 4 GB of memory.
– It had 275,000 transistors. 9

– Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 33 MHz depending upon the various
versions.

DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024

 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

 INTEL 80386(Continued)
– Has Different versions:
a) 80386 DX
b) 80386 SX
c) 80386 SL
– Intel 80386 became the best selling microprocessor in history.
 INTEL PENTIUM
– Introduced in 1993.
– It was also 32-bit μP.
– It was originally named 80586.
– Its clock speed was 66 MHz
– Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 32-bit.
– It could address 4 GB of memory
– Could execute 110 million instructions per second.
– Has a Cache memory:
o 8 KB of the cache is used for instructions.
o 8 KB of the cache is used for data.
 INTEL DUAL CORE
– Introduced in 2006.
– It is 32-bit or 64-bit μP.
– It has two cores. Both the cores have there own internal bus and L1 cache, but
share the external bus and L2 cache (as shown in the fig below).
– It supported SMT (Simultaneously Multi-Threading) technology. E.g. Adobe
Photoshop supported SMT.

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 ECEg-5172: Microprocessor and Interfacing
(Compiled by: Bushra KM)

 INTEL CORE 2
– Introduced in 2006.
– It is a 64-bit μP.
– Its clock speed is from 1.2GHz to 3 GHz.
– It has 291 million transistors.
– It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core and 4 MB of L2 cache.
– It is launched in three different versions:
o Intel Core 2 Duo
o Intel Core 2 Quad
o Intel Core 2 Extreme

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DBU, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2024