Diffusion: the movement of particles from high to low concentration.

Osmosis: the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from high to low concentration.

WORD AND CHEMICAL EQUATION FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

WORD EQUATION:

Carbon dioxide + Water (Light energy / Chlorophyll) Glucose + Oxygen

CHEMICAL EQUATION:

6CO2+6H2O (Light energy / Chlorophyll) C6H12O6 + 6O2

ECOLOGY

Habitat: is the place where a particular organism lives.

Species: a group of organisms of common ancestry, that closely resemble each other and normally is
capable of interbreeding to produce fertile off spring.

Population: all the members of a particular species, living together in a particular habitat.

Community: the difference population of a species living together in a particular area.

Ecosystems: is a community of living organisms interacting with each other on with its physical

non - living environment.

FOOD AND NUTRITION

Balanced diet: a balanced diet must contain all the food groups in the correct proportion to supply our
body with enough energy and to keep us healthy. It will vary according to age, occupation, and gender.

Carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides – glucose (C6 H12 O6), fructose, and galactose

Disaccharides - sucrose, maltose and lactose

Polysaccharides – starch, cellulose, and glycogen (animal starch)

Carbohydrates provide energy 17 kJ per gram. They also release energy for respiration and for storage of
glycogen.

Protein: molecules are made of C, H, O, N and sometimes Sulphur and Phosphorus. They also form 20
different forms of amino acids. they make antibodies to fight diseases and to provide energy.

Lipids: they make cell membranes. They provide energy at 39 kg joules per gram this is used for storage
and for insulation.
 DISEASE

Nights blindness – vitamin A deficiency disease

Scurvy – vitamin C deficiency disease

Rickets - vitamin D deficiency disease

Anemia – iron deficiency, disease

Kwashiorkor - protein deficiency disease

Dental formula:

2123

2123

FOOD PRESERVATION

Drying – food is dried to remove water, saw that microorganisms are unable to grow and reproduce

Refrigeration – growth of microorganisms is slowed down by low temperature of 4°C

Salting - salt is rubbed onto food or placed in a brine. Salt what draws water from food by osmosis so
microorganisms cannot grow.

Adding Sugar – food is boiled in a sugar solution. Sugar withdraws water from food by osmosis so that
microorganisms cannot survive.

Pickling - food is placed in vinegar (acetic acid). It lowers the pH so that microorganisms cannot grow
since the food becomes acidic.

TYPES OF ENZYMES

Amylase – an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugar.

Enzyme - a chemical that breaks down food without being used up in the reaction with a faster process.

PH – a measure of how acidic or alkaline a chemical is.

 RESPIRATION

Nostrils > pharynx > larynx > trachea > bronchi > bronchioles > alveoli

Inhaled air:

Oxygen 21%

Carbon dioxide 0.04%.

Nitrogen 78%

Water vapor varies

Temperature varies

Other gases 1%

Exhaled air:

Oxygen 17%

Carbon dioxide 4%

Nitrogen 78%

Water vapor higher

Temperature higher

Other gases 1%

Factors affecting the rates of breathing:

Exercise, smoking, anxiety, drugs, environmental factors, altitude, weight and illness.

Gaseous exchange:

Diffusion of gases across the alveolus of the lungs.

Gas exchange:

Long surface area to absorb oxygen

Moist surface to allow oxygen to dissolve.

Thin lining to allow easy diffusion

Dense network of blood capillaries.

Features of capillaries for efficient gas exchange:

Dense network to carry CO2 and O2

Large surface area to transport gases

Lining is one cell thick so gases can pass through quickly and easily

Photosynthesis in Plants:

Oxygen is diffused during the night

Carbon dioxide diffuse out in the night

At dusk and dawn it has a compensation period where gases don’t go in or out.

Aerobic respiration:

Uses oxygen

Occurs in mitochondria

glucose is broken down completely

Releases large amounts of energy

ATP is produced
Anaerobic respiration:

No oxygen

Occurs in cytoplasm

Glucose is not completely broken down

Releases small amounts of energy

Also known as fermentation

ATP is produced

Artery -

Take blood away from the heart

Walls are thicker

Blood flows at a higher pressure

Carry oxygenated blood

Has a smaller lumen

Situated deeper inside the body

Vein –

Take blood to the heart

Walls are thinner

Blood flaws at a lower pressure

Carry deoxygenated blood

Has a larger lumen

Situated closer to the surface of the body

Arteries take blood away from the heart. The walls of an artery are made up of thick muscular walls and
elastic fibers. Veins carry blood towards the heart and also have valves. The capillaries link arteries and
veins, and have a one cell thick wall. Blood is made up of four main things plasma the liquid part of the
oxygen blood; Red Blood Cells to carry. White Blood cells to protect platelets the body from disease and
to help blood clot
Phagocytosis –

Engulfs, digests and absorb bacteria

First line of defense:

Skin – prevents entry

Mucus lining - traps dirt and microbes

Tears – antibacterial enzymes

Saliva - antibacterial enzymes

Stomach acid – low pH scales, harmful disease

Second line of defense:

Involves white blood cells

Phagocytes are the non-specific response. They target invading pathogens.

Lymphocytes are the specific response. They produce antibodies to target specific pathogens.

IMMUNITY

Natural immunity:

Passively acquired - it gets antibodies from placenta and breast milk. They have short term immunity.

Actively acquired – when a person is exposed to antigens they make their own antibodies.

Artificial immunity:

Vaccination – is used to control the spread of communicable diseases. It may contain live but weakened
pathogens, dead pathogens, antigens from coat of pathogen. (lymphocytes make antibodies and
produce memory cells.)
 KIDNEYS

Each kidney is divided into an outer cortex, an inner medulla and a central, hollow pelvis.

Ureter - tube carrying urine to the bladder

Bladder – muscular sac, which stores urine

Sphincter muscles – relaxes to allow the release of a urine

Urethra - tube leading out of the bladder

Ultra filtration:

Small molecules are forced out of Bowman’s capsule forming filtrate (water, glucose, amino acids,
vitamins, hormones, salts and urea) [blood cells and large proteins are too big to pass in filtrate]

Selective reabsorption:

You spell substances are released from federal treats back into bladder (some water, glucose, amino
acids, vitamins, hormones, and some salts.)

Urine:

It contains excess water, excess salts and urea.

Osmoregulation:

It is the concentration of blood or plasma and blood fluids. If blood cells become to dilute water enters
the cell by osmosis and can swell and burst. If body cells become to concentrated water leaves the cell
by osmosis and can shrink and dehydrate.

Too Little Water in Blood:

If blood passing through hypothalamus in brain is too concentrated, then pituitary gland secretes ADH

(anti-diuretic hormone).

ADH causes kidneys to reabsorb most of the water from the filtrate.

Small amounts of dark, yellow, concentrated urine are produced.

Too Much Water in the Blood:

If blood passing through hypothalamus is too dilute no ADH is released from pituitary gland.

Kidneys do not reabsorb much water and most is lost in urine.

Large amounts of pale, dilute urine is produced.

Metabolic waste in plants:

Oxygen – produced during photosynthesis and excreted during the day when the rate of photosynthesis
is higher than the rate of respiration.

Carbon dioxide – produced in respiration and excreted during the night when no photosynthesis is
taking place.

Water – produced in respiration and excreted during the night when no photosynthesis is taking place

These waste products are excreted by diffusion through the stomata and lenticels.

PESTS & PARASITES

Controlling Pests-

Sanitary control by which the conditions that attract pests are

eliminated.

Mechanical control in which some sort of device is used.

Chemical control in which pesticides are used.

Biological control in which control is achieved by natural means.

The use of physical barriers such as row covers or trenches prevents insects from reaching the crop.
Other methods include:

Hand picking of pests, sticky boards or tapes for control of flying insects in greenhouses and various
trapping techniques.

Methods to Control Mosquitoes:

Add insecticides to breeding areas to kill larvae and pupae.

Introduce fish (tilapia, guppies) into breeding areas to feed on larvae and pupae.

Drain all areas or remove all containers that collect water.

Spray thin layer of oil onto still-water breeding areas to prevent larvae and pupae from breathing.

Spray insecticides to kill adults.

Remove dense vegetation to reduce protection for adults.

Place mosquito screens over windows/doors and mosquito nets over beds

Use electronic insect killers.

Release large numbers of sterile male mosquitoes into an area to help reduce population as fewer
offspring will be produced.
 SENSE ORGANS

Stimulus – a change of environment = response

Response – change in us/ part of us = cause by stimulus

Receptor – part of us that detects stimulus

Effector – part of us that responds to stimulus

DIM LIGHT

Circular muscles relax

Radial muscles contract

Wide pupil – a lot of light

BRIGHT LIGHT

Circular muscles contract

Radial muscles relax

Smaller pupil – less light

NEAR OBJECT

Cornea bends light rays

Ciliary muscles contract

Suspensory ligaments slacken

Lens bulging to refract

Light a lot onto retina

FAR OBJECT

Ciliary muscles relax

Suspensory ligament tightens

Lens is pulled thin

To focus light rays slightly onto retina

 SHORT SIGHTED

Can see near objects

Can’t see distant objects clearly

Short retina

Eyeball too long

Lens too curved or too thick

Corrected by wearing diverging (concave) lens

Light rays from distant objects

LONG SIGHTED

Can see far objects

Can’t see near objects clearly

Light rays from near object

Long retina

Eyeball too short

Lens too flat or too thin

Correcting diverging (convex) lens

ASTIGMATISM

Cornea not smooth & form multiple images on the retina

Corrected by spectacles / contact lens

CATARACTS

Cloudy area in lens

Develops slowly and increases in size over time

Leads to cloudy or blurred vision, difficulties seeing at night

Corrected by surgery & replace with artificial lens

 GLAUCOMA

Condition where pressure of fluid in the eye increases in size due to aqueous humor blocked

Optic nerve can get damaged & lead to blindness

Corrected by eye drops, laser treatment/ surgery

EARS

Loudness = amplitude + decibels

Pitch = frequency + hertz (H/z)

Humans can hear between 20Hz to 20,000Hz

Middle Ear; 3 ossicles

Hammer (malleus)

Anvil (incus)

Stirrup (stapes)

PROCESS OF HEARING:

1. Sound waves enter the outer ear and create pressure waves that reached the tympanic
membrane.

2. Air molecules under pressure vibrate the tympanic membrane.

3. The vibration moves the Malleus to the other side of the membrane.

4. The handle of the Malleus strikes the incus, vibrating it.

5. The vibrating incus moves the stapes back & forth against the oval window.

6. The movement of the oval window set up pressure changes that vibrate the fluid in the inner
ear. These vibrations are transmitted to the basilar membrane, causing it to ripple.

7. Receptor hair cells of the organ of corti that are in contact with the overlying tectorial
membrane are bent, causing a generator potential, which leads to an action potential that travel
along the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain for interpretation.

8. Vibration in the cochlear fluid dissipate as a result of movement of the round window.

NERVOUS SYSTEM