Lesotho Lowlands Water Supply

Feasibility Study - Hydrogeology

Groundwater Systems and Water Quality Programme

Commissioned Report CR/03/176C
 BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

COMMISSIONED REPORT CR/03/176C

Lesotho Lowlands Water Supply

Feasibility Study - Hydrogeology
Jeffrey Davies

Key words
Lesotho, lowlands,
hydrogeology, groundwater
resources.

Front cover
Urban and peri-urban areas of
Maseru from the Lancers Gap

Bibliographical reference

DAVIES, J. 2003. Lesotho

Lowlands Water Supply
Feasibility Study -
Hydrogeology. British
Geological Survey
Commissioned Report,
CR/03/176C. 61pp.

© NERC 2003 Keyworth, Nottingham British Geological Survey 2003

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CR/03/176C

Foreword
This report reviews the current state of knowledge of the hydrogeology of the Lesotho
Lowland region. It is based on data and reports provided by the Department of Water Affairs,
Department of Rural Water Supply, the Water and Sanitation Authority, the Department of
Mines and Geology, Groundwater Consultants, Sechaba Consultants and Parkman Ltd. The
study was undertaken for Parkman Ltd as part of the Lesotho Lowlands Water Supply
Feasibility Study, funded by the European Union.

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Acknowledgements
This report is the result of short-term input into the Lesotho Lowlands Water Supply
Feasibility Study that necessitated two visits to the mountainous Kingdom of Lesotho. There
the author enjoyed the hospitality and stimulating discussions with Andy Pepperell,
Simon Jones and Jonathan Church of Parkman, David Hall of Sechaba and Mr Bukaya of
Groundwater Consultants. The members of staff at the Department of Water Affairs,
Department of Rural Water Supplies, the Water and Sewerage Authority and Department of
Mines and Geology are thanked for providing access to necessary reports, maps and digitised
data.

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Contents

Foreword i

Acknowledgements i

Contents ii

Summary v

1 Introduction 1
1.1 The British Geological Survey study 1
1.2 Groundwater in the Lesotho Water sector 2
1.3 Lesotho Lowlands Water supply Feasibility study aims 4

2 The TAMS (1996) Report 5

3 Hydrogeology 9
3.1 Physiography 9
3.2 Summary of the geology of Lesotho 10
3.3 Hydrogeology 11
3.4 Burgersdorp Formation 11
3.5 Molteno Formation 13
3.6 Elliot Formation 15
3.7 Clarens Formation 17
3.8 Lesotho Formation Basalts 19
3.9 Dolerite dykes and fracture zones 21
3.10 Alluvial Sediments 23

4 Hydrogeological Data 25
4.1 Borehole Siting 25
4.2 Borehole Drilling and Construction 25
4.3 Borehole test pumping 27
4.4 Aquifer hydraulic parameters 28
4.5 Monitoring systems 28
4.6 Groundwater abstraction methods 29
4.7 Groundwater quality 31
4.8 Hydrogeological Data Collection 31

5 Data storage and retrieval 33

5.1 Digital and hardcopy data packages 33
5.2 regional data sources 35

6 Groundwater resource evaluation 37

6.1 Hydrogeological Map 37

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6.2 Environment Vulnerability map 37

6.3 Potential Recharge Map 38
6.4 Groundwater Vulnerability to pollution 38
6.5 Drought Vulnerability Mapping 39

7 Discussion and Recommendations 41

7.1 Introductory questions and answers 41
7.2 Guidelines and standards 43
7.3 Exploration and Resource Assessment 44
7.4 Training 45
7.5 Recommendations 45

References 48

Appendix 1 Groundwater Programme Reports 50

FIGURES
Figure 1 Map of the Lowlands Study Area. 1
Figure 2 Map of Burgersdorp Formation distribution in Lesotho 12
Figure 3 Map of Molteno Formation distribution in Lesotho 14
Figure 4 Map of Elliot Formation distribution in Lesotho 16
Figure 5 Map of Clarens Formation distribution in Lesotho 17
Figure 6 Map of Lesotho Formation distribution in Lesotho. 19
Figure 7 Map of dolerite dyke and fracture distribution in Lesotho 21

PLATES
Plate 1 Burgersdorp Formation mudstones below Molteno Formation sandstones east of
Mazenod 12
Plate 2 Cross-bedded sandstones within the Burgersdorp Formation north east of Kolo on
the Tsoaing River. 13
Plate 3 Double ring dyke complex intruded into Burgersdorp Formation sediments at Ha
Patsa Maphathe, North of Mafeteng 13
Plate 4 Channel bedded Malteno Formation sandstones at Ha Mantsebo south of Mazenod
14
Plate 5 Weathered Molteno Formation channel bedded sandstones east of Morija 15
Plate 6 Red Elliot Formation mudstones overlying Molteno Formation sandstones, both
formations intruded by a dolerite dyke at a road cutting north of Ha Maja east of
Mazenod 16
Plate 7 Gullies developed in weathered Elliot Formation mudstones 17
Plate 8 Clarens Formation sandstones exposed upstream of the Metolong dam site 18

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Plate 9 Escarpment at Rampai’s Nek, Butha Buthe, Clarens Formation above Elliot
Formation 18
Plate 10 Spring-zone contact between the Lesotho basalt and Clarens sandstone at
Metolong 18
Plate 11 Basalts and underlying sediments north from Ha Hlekelele within the Thupa-Kubu
valley north west of Sefikeng. Note spring zone at the junction of the Upper
Clarens Sandstone and underlying Clarens Siltstone. 19
Plate 12 Lesotho Formation basalts forming the central highland massif of Lesotho south-
east of Sefikeng 20
Plate 13 Lesotho Formation basalts with interbedded red soil horizon north west of
Sefikeng 20
Plate 14 Lesotho Formation basalts exposed at Bushman’s Pass 21
Plate 15 Lancers Gap formed by the weathering and erosion of softer dolerite 22
Plate 16 Columnar Clarens Sandstone baked by Lancers Gap Dolerite dyke 22
Plate 17 Dolerite/Clarens Formation sandstone contact zone, Lancers Gap with different
degrees of baking and hence development of secondary permeability 23
Plate 18 Recent alluvial sediments eroded by the Phuthiatsana-Ea-Thaba-Bosiu north of
Mazenod 23
Plate 19 Recent river alluvium along the Phuthiatsana-Ea-Ha Masupha north of
Teyateyaneng 24
Plate 20 Abstraction from river alluvium using well points north of Teyateyaneng on the
Phuthiatsana-Ea-Ha Masupha , and pump house. The riverbed is incised into
Molteno Formation sandstones. 24

TABLES
Table 1 Example of a DRWS Village Water Demand Calculation 4
Table 2 Stratigraphy of Lesotho 10

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Summary
Groundwater is used extensively within rural Lesotho both as a source of domestic water
supply and for irrigation. The hydrogeology and groundwater resources of Lesotho were
evaluated in detail in 1995 (TAMS,1996a). Since then further development of groundwater
resources has been undertaken for rural and urban water supply. Information derived from
boreholes drilled by the Department of Rural Water Supply (DRWS) provides an indication
of groundwater availability in areas designated for peri-urban and urban development by
2050. Although these areas of the Lowlands region of Lesotho are underlain by dolerite
intruded sedimentary rocks and basalts of low permeability and porosity, the available
groundwater resources could provide temporary water supplies to the newly formed peri-
urban areas. The vulnerability of these aquifers to pollution from increasingly large numbers
of pit latrines within peri-urban settlements and associated waste disposal sites needs to be
assessed to define a limited period of useful exploitation. The results of wellfield development
undertaken for the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA) by Groundwater Consultants
(GWC) and others need to be fully assessed. These could become a series of aquifer case
studies to assist development elsewhere. It is essential that the groundwater database and
long term monitoring systems be upgraded to provide the necessary information for future
developments to take place. Groundwater should continue to play a secondary, but important,
as support by surface water in supplying the needs of Lesotho’s peri-urban and urban
populations.

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1 Introduction
1.1 THE BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY STUDY
The British Geological Survey (BGS) has been commissioned to provide hydrogeological
support to Parkman Ltd as part of the Lesotho Lowlands Water Supply Feasibility Study.
The terms of reference (TOR) for the hydrogeological support are:
1. Assemble and assess available relevant hydrogeological data for the Lesotho
Lowlands Study Area (Figure 1). The 1996 study by TAMS Consultants Inc. provides
a baseline analysis for the Lesotho lowlands, and this is to be reviewed, updated and
supplemented as necessary.
2. Using the available information, supplemented as necessary by modelling or other
studies, determine renewable groundwater availability for the study area. The
information available is variable, but it is not envisaged that a major groundwater
assessment study or any exploratory drilling would be undertaken as part of the study

Figure 1 Map of the Lowlands Study Area.

The terms of reference were discussed with the lead consultant in Lesotho who appreciated
that undertaking the second part of the TOR depended upon the availability of data assessed
and assembled from the DWA, DRWS and TAMS databases under the first part of the TOR.
Following an initial assessment of the data in Maseru a report structure was agreed with the
lead consultant and it was agreed that BGS limit activities to assessing the status of the
available data, assessing the validity of the TAMS assessment of the hydrogeology and
groundwater resources of Lesotho and making recommendations on how to proceed should

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groundwater have potential as a viable source of supply. Part 2 of the TOR has not, therefore,
been addressed. Due to cost limitations, time allocated for the commission was limited to 18
days of which 12 days were allocated for collection of data and initial assessments in Lesotho
and 4 days to travel to and from the UK. This left 2 days for data assessment and report
writing. The project has, therefore, been heavily subsidises by BGS.
Two-fold visits were made; the first during March 2003 and the second during April-May
2003. The offices of Department of Rural Water Supply (DRWS), Department of Mines
(Geological Survey Department), Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and Groundwater
Consultants Ltd (GWC) were visited where hydrogeological and geological data for the study
area were obtained in map, hard copy and digital formats.

1.2 GROUNDWATER IN THE LESOTHO WATER SECTOR

Groundwater plays an important role in water supply to the rural population of Lesotho.
Water use in Lesotho will increase rapidly with the expansion of urban and peri-urban areas
and economic infrastructure. Currently the water demands of peri-urban areas are met from
low-yielding aquifers, using spring fed gravity systems and hand-pumped boreholes
developed for rural water supply. Reticulated supplies from high yield boreholes and remote
river dams are not yet available. The water requirements of the growing number of textile-
manufacturing units in Lesotho are met from groundwater sources. The growing demand for
irrigation water from the agricultural sector is also supplied from groundwater sources. This
growing importance of groundwater to the national economy requires effective resource
evaluation and management if long-term sustainability is to be achieved.
Binnie and Partners produced an inventory of the groundwater resources of Lesotho in 1971-
72 (Binnie and Partners, 1971). The UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA)
funded hydrogeological studies of Lesotho by the British Geological Survey during 1974-75,
as reported by Bonney and Wright. An Italian funded Groundwater Project undertook a more
comprehensive study of the hydrogeology of Lesotho during the period 1982-1994. That
project produced 130 technical hydrogeological reports and a hydrogeological map of
Lesotho. The Groundwater Project coincided with the World Water Decade of 1981-1990
during which the DRWS installed more than 5000 boreholes funded by various international
donors. During the last decade, while the DRWS has continued the installation of boreholes in
rural areas, consultants have overseen the installation of a series of well fields to supply part
of the needs of 12 urban areas on behalf of the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA) and
DWA. TAMS used groundwater data from drilling programmes undertaken before 1993 to
assess the groundwater resources of Lesotho. As part of this study a database and GIS aquifer
maps of Lesotho were prepared (TAMS, 1996b). At present the Ministry of Natural
Resources (MoNR), through the DWA, DRWS and WASA, controls groundwater
development in Lesotho.

1.2.1 The Department of Water Affairs (DWA)

The Groundwater and Water Pollution Control Divisions of DWA are responsible for
groundwater exploration, management and resource assessment at national and district level.
This includes the monitoring of groundwater abstraction and water quality and assessment of
groundwater vulnerability to pollution, as defined by the Water Resources Act of 1978.
Groundwater development is regulated by DWA; facilitated by DRWS and WASA; designed
and supervised by consultants; implemented by contractors; and funded by international
donors. The principal hydrogeologist and his small team of hydrogeologists forming the
Groundwater Division (GWD) are the only qualified hydrogeologists in government service.

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DWA has a good library of project reports and is the source of copies of the hydrogeology
map of Lesotho.

1.2.2 The Department of Rural Water Supplies (DRWS).

DRWS formerly implemented rural groundwater supply projects using contractors to install
spring fed gravity schemes and hand-pump or motorised pump equipped boreholes for
domestic supply. Since an evaluation of the function of DRWS in 1996, the department has,
with the assistance of Helvetas, a Swiss NGO, changed role from that of implementer to
facilitator. During 1998-2002 DRWS adopted the demand response approach to rural
community water supply provision assisting communities to make informed choices about
water supply systems, facilitating their involvement in installation, operation and maintenance
activities thus enabling community ownership of the systems. Whether this happens in
practice needs to be determined. In addition to the head office in Maseru, DRWS has three
regional and ten district offices. DRWS rely upon the DWA and consultants for professional
hydrogeological expertise. DRWS water engineers supervise the installation of boreholes,
spring supplied gravity-fed schemes and distribution systems. Rural groundwater
development projects are funded and supported technically by various donor agencies. DRWS
currently supply water to 60% of the rural population of which two thirds comes from spring
supplied gravity-fed schemes, and the remaining third from boreholes equipped with hand or
submersible pumps. Summary borehole data are held in a digital database at headquarters,
with detailed borehole and related supply system data held at district level in hard copy files.

1.2.3 Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA)

WASA is responsible for water supply and sanitation in the 13 urban areas of Lesotho.
Mazenod does not have a WASA water reticulation system. In Butha-Buthe, Hlotse (Leribe),
Mapoteng, Maputsoe, Mohale’s Hoek, Morija, Peka, Quthing, Roma and Teyateyaneng
surface water sources are supplemented by groundwater from high yield boreholes or river
intakes. The Maseru and Mafeteng water reticulation schemes are supplied from surface
water. WASA has a good library of project reports.

1.2.4 The Department of Mines

The Department of Mines includes the Geological Survey of Lesotho that formerly included a
groundwater development division. Their library holds copies of most of the records of early
groundwater development undertaken during 1960-1980 in Lesotho. The Department of
Mines has a library on the geology of Lesotho that is the source of geological maps at scales
of 1:50 000, 1:100 000 and 1:250 000.

1.2.5 Consultants
Groundwater Consultants BeePee (Pty) Ltd (GWC) is the main hydrogeological consultant in
Maseru. It, in association with several international consultants, has been responsible for site
surveys, borehole design and construction and test pumping of wellfields installed for most of
Lesotho’s townships. GWC has a library of groundwater related reports, a database and in-
house hydrogeological experience in Lesotho. They prepared the hydrogeology and
groundwater resources chapter of the TAMS (1996a,b) report.
Sechaba Consultants of Maseru undertook various sociological baseline surveys as part of the
TAMS 1996 study including a survey of the location and status of rural community water
sources.

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1.3 LESOTHO LOWLANDS WATER SUPPLY FEASIBILITY STUDY AIMS

1.3.1 Water Supply Needs

The TAMS (1996a) project located 13 urban/peri-urban areas within the Lowlands area of
Lesotho, noting the significant contribution groundwater makes to their water supply. The
current project aims to address developments required to meet the long-term (up to 2050)
water demands of expanded urban/peri-urban areas that will include up to 150 towns in the
Lowlands area. "Urban" is defined as concentrated cluster settlements of at least 2500
inhabitants with a population density of 1000 per km2 (TAMS,1996a). This definition is
useful since it is towards the upper limit of communities that are served by DRWS and
indicates settlements that have outgrown the typical rural water supply service and require a
more comprehensive reticulation network. The water resources are currently provided from
combination of surface water sources (dams and river abstractions), and groundwater sources
(boreholes, springs and galleries). However there are growing concerns about water pollution
risk from anthropogenic sources and the impact of water abstraction upon the local
environment.
Within a rural context each borehole should provide 200 to 250 people with 25 l/person/day,
based on WHO/UN recommendations. This requires a borehole in an aquifer unit with a
transmissivity of 1 m3/d/m or more capable of supplying at least 6.3 m3/d at a pumping rate of
up to 0.3 l/sec for up to 7 hours per day. Given that low borehole yields are to be expected,
aquifer transmissivity values can be determined from the results of borehole pumping or bail
tests. Within a peri-urban context higher yields are needed to provide 250 people with water
at 60 l/person/day; equivalent to a borehole yielding 0.6 l/sec. Such yield requirements may
not be sustainable in a low permeability aquifer environment. Typical water requirements for
the rural community at Ha Monyane are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Example of a DRWS Village Water Demand Calculation
Village: Ha Monyane District: Mafeteng
Ref.No. MF-504 Coordinates:
Location: T/Morena 27°27’ East 29°53’ South
Design done by: DRWS, Mafeteng
Present population 420 Design period overall Design period pumping
water system equipment
Growth rate 2% per year 20 years 15 years
Design population 620 people 570 people
3
Demand calculation People M /day People M3/day
Basic service 25 l/person/day 590 14.8 540 13.5
Yard connection 60 l/person/day 0 0.0 0 0.0
House connection 100 l/person/day 10 1.0 10 1.0
House connection 200 l/person/day 20 4.0 20 4.0
sewerage
Clinic 100 l/bed/day 0 0 0 0
School 2 l/pupil/day 0 0 0 0
Boarding school 60 l/pupil/day 0 0 0 0
Total daily demand 19.8 18.5

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2 The TAMS (1996) Report

In 1996 TAMS consultants were commissioned to carry out a study of the water resources of
Lesotho and propose policies and strategies for management. Groundwater Consultants
BeePee (Pty) Ltd of Lesotho (GWC), on behalf of TAMS, assessed data from more than
8,000 boreholes, correlating data with geological information to define the aquifer units of
Lesotho and their groundwater resources in terms of dynamic (renewable) and static reserves.
Those parts of the TAMS (1996) report related to groundwater resources are listed below.
Water Resources Management: Policy and Strategies – Final Report, Section 1 – The
Present Situation, Part 4 Groundwater Resources (pp 19-35).
Using the section headings of that part of the TAMS report as a guide the following
comments are made
Hydrogeological database
A groundwater information database in Dbase 4 format with 8062 borehole (or groundwater
source?) records was compiled. The borehole records included village name, borehole depth,
date drilled, initial water level and pump type. Geo-referenced site locations were produced
for 5104 boreholes in UTM or Lat/Long formats.
Hydrogeology:
Groundwater occurrence in the Karoo basalt and sedimentary rock systems and in associated
fractures, dolerite dykes and alluvial systems were outlined. These appear to have been based
more upon the field experience of the consultant hydrogeologist than on the limited data held
in the available databases.
Resources:
TAMS assumed that operation of low-yielding hand pumped boreholes would not have
cumulative detrimental effects on aquifers; but abstraction using high capacity boreholes in
wellfield configurations can result in the mining of groundwater with adverse effects on
aquifers and boreholes if abstraction is not properly regulated. Annual groundwater recharge
was determined as the unknown in the water balance. Whether baseflow is duly accounted as
recharge and part runoff is unknown. Recharge of 2.5% of rainfall i.e. 20mm per annum was
calculated for the Lowlands region using the few “known and estimated” sets of groundwater
level fluctuations to estimate rates of recharge through the unconfined aquifer systems per
district and basin. Questionable estimates of static groundwater resources were produced per
district and basin using the few estimates of aquifer transmissivity and storativity available
derived from test pumping.
Groundwater Draft:
The amount of groundwater used per annum was estimated using assumed numbers of
boreholes and user rural populations at a rate of 25 l/ person/ year. This rate increases to over
60 l/person/day in peri-urban and urban environments.
Groundwater potential available for development:
On the basis of the above, estimates of groundwater development potential per district were
calculated. TAMS estimated that there were groundwater reserves sufficient for 29 000 hand
pumped boreholes. TAMS recognised that of the wellfields installed to augment township
water supplies, problems with the mining of groundwater and borehole failure had been
experienced. These were attributed to incorrect pump operation rather than aquifer conditions.

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It appears that TAMS failed to appreciate how groundwater occurs within low permeability
sedimentary rocks such as those which underlie much of western Lesotho.
Status of groundwater development:
TAMS concluded that the level of groundwater development was below the resource
potential. This is undoubtedly due to the low permeability nature of the sedimentary strata
that underlie much of western Lesotho, but easy interception of this groundwater resource is
not feasible. The groundwater occurrence is complex and heterogeneous, as indicated by the
30% borehole drilling failure rate sustained by DRWS projects.
Well-points and infiltration galleries:
As commented upon by TAMS well-points and galleries appear to be simple systems for
abstraction of groundwater from river bed sediments, but due to the mixed nature of alluvial
sediments such systems need to be properly designed and evaluated otherwise screen
blockage soon results in yield decline.
Springs:
As commented on by TAMS, springs are widely used as the basis of village gravity fed
schemes for rural water supply. Spring yields are declining due to increased incidence of
drought and decline in the long-term rainfall patterns associated with climate change.
In section 5, the topic of groundwater quality was addressed thus:
Groundwater Quality monitoring:
Although some hydrochemical analyses of groundwaters were made between 1985 and 1993
for the Italian funded Groundwater Project, these were limited to determination of major ions
as presented on the hydrogeological map of Lesotho. The hydrochemical analytical capability
of WASA and DWA laboratories is still limited to determination of major ions plus some
minor ions. Of the hydrochemical parameters determined, total dissolved iron are high and
limited determinations of fluoride indicate possible risk to humans. Improved analytical
facilities are required given the perceived increased potential for pollution through:
• Leaching of pesticides, herbicides and organics etc from agricultural soils,
• Sewerage infiltrating from pit latrines,
• Leaching from landfill sites,
• Uncontrolled urban drainage.
Water Resources Management: Policies and Strategies, Annex D – Water Resources
Inventory Volume 1: Section 4 – Groundwater Resources of Annex D.
This section of the TAMS final report includes detailed descriptions of the hydrogeology and
groundwater resources of the Lowland area.
Previous work:
The history of groundwater development in Lesotho has an important bearing on the creation
of hydrogeological data. The period covered includes the 1970’s when the development of
groundwater fell to the Geological Survey; the UN World Water Decade of 1980-1991 when
more than 5000 rural water supply boreholes were installed by the DRWS; and the
DWA/Italian Groundwater Programme when the first groundwater database was compiled.

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Hydrogeological database:
The DRWS, DWA and WASA data sources and databases are listed. The lack of good quality
data limits the use of the database compiled by TAMS in Dbase 4 format. The full data base
could not be accessed from the CD-ROM. The DBF files were transformed into Access and
Excel formats for ease of access.
Hydrogeology of sedimentary rock and igneous rock aquifers.
The geology and hydrogeology of the main aquifer units are outlined in the hydrogeology
section and their distributions shown on outline maps of Lesotho using ArcView software.
Groundwater resources – annual renewable groundwater resource:
Estimates of the groundwater resources of Lesotho were calculated using water balance
studies and the few long-term changes in groundwater levels available. The long-term water
level records reported are not present in any of the databases.
Recommendations for groundwater resource assessment:
At that time TAMS advised that the lack of appropriate data is highlighted by the lack of:
• A unique system of numbering boreholes,
• The monitoring and recording of borehole water levels,
• Continuous extension of the hydrogeological database,
• Improved transmissivity and storativity data,
• Development of an exploration programme.
Few of these factors have been address since production of the report
Recommended resource assessment techniques
• Water Balance,
• Groundwater level fluctuations,
• Baseflow hydrograph analysis.
Of the above only the first is still possible as long term water level monitoring has yet to be
undertaken in Lesotho.
Various tabulations of data are presented as appendices to the above volume:
• Appendix G, Borehole Data Statistics,
• Appendix H, Renewable Resources by District,
• Appendix I, Static Resources by District.
Other Final Report Annexure of interest include:
• Annex E, Water Quality. Appendix B (pp 65-71),
• Annex F, Water Use Agriculture. Appendix B (pp 65-71),
• Annex P – the GIS system,
• Annex Q – Annotated Bibliography – Groundwater (pp 139-157).
The above are available in MS Word format with aquifer and other parameter maps in
ArcView format on the TAMS data CD-ROM.

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Partial interrogation of the contents of the various CD-ROMs made available has produced:
• TAMS report in partial format,
• GWC/TAMS database in partial format to post 1996 in part,
• DRWS database as of 1992,
• DWA database – partial files up to 2002 in Wish format database for some main
towns.
The distribution of database boreholes needs to be correlated with the village locations. The
TAMS database lists all boreholes with limited data in Dbase 4 format, with numerous fields
related to location, sociological aspects and borehole construction details There are few data
related to the geological or hydraulic characteristics of the boreholes or the aquifers they
penetrate. The DBF and XLS files have been identified and grouped together so that they can
be interrogated in Microsoft AccessTM.

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3 Hydrogeology
3.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY

3.1.1 Climate
The climate of Lesotho is semi-arid to temperate with annual precipitation ranging from
500 mm in the eastern Senqu catchment to 1150 mm in the northwest highlands, with a mean
annual precipitation of 780 mm, with 85% of rainfall falling during October to April.

3.1.2 Hydrology
Surface runoff drains into three major river basins: Senqu River basin (20,847 km2),
Mohokare/Clarens River basin (6,890 km2) and Makhaleng River Basin (2,911 km2). The
mean annual runoff from the Senqu River Basin and the Makhaleng River Basin at their
confluence is 128-138m3/s. Mohakare River basin’s runoff is 32-36 m3/s where it leaves
Lesotho. The total surface water resource available in Lesotho is about 170 m3/s. River flows
reflect seasonal rainfall; more than 75% of the flow occurs during the six month wet season.
Apart from the main rivers most of the Lowland streams and smaller rivers have ephemeral
flow patterns.

3.1.3 Hydrological and climatological data

Hydrological and climatological data are the key requirements for understanding the
interactions within the water cycle. As part of the FRIEND (Flow Regimes from International
Experimental and Network Data) project, a database including the types of climatic and
hydrologic data listed below was compiled for the Southern African Development
Community (SADC) for study of low flows, floods, rainfall/runoff modelling, processes of
streamflow generation, sediment transport, climate-change and land-use impacts. The project
links to such themes as global changes and water resources, integrated watershed and aquifer
dynamics, and land habitat hydrology. The data types collected include:
1. Potential evaporation,
2. Major river basins,
3. Mean annual runoff,
4. Hydrometric boundaries,
5. Precipitation,
6. Rainfall data,
7. River network,
8. Temperature,

3.1.4 Geomorphology
Lesotho has three main geomorphic regions:
1. Basaltic highlands, above 2000 m elevation, forming two-thirds of Lesotho are
characterised by the deeply incised valleys, steep slopes and escarpments.
2. Mountain foothills, that lie between 1750–2000 m elevation, are underlain by Karoo
age basalts and thin basalts, the sandstones forming prominent cliff fronted scarps.

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3. The Mohokare and Senqu River valley lowlands of western Lesotho have river
terraces, gullies and flood plains underlain by Karoo sandstones, siltstones and
mudstones, intruded by dolerite dykes. The undulating lowlands lie at altitudes
between 1400-1750 m. The mudstones have been eroded to form low-lying areas with
thick clayey soil covers that are often deeply incised by gully systems. The ring dyke
dolerites of western Lesotho form low circular hill features.

3.2 SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY OF LESOTHO

The geology of Lesotho comprises horizontal to sub-horizontal dipping sedimentary rocks of
the Beaufort and Stormberg Groups of the Karoo Supergroup overlain by up to 1600 m of
Drakensburg Group basalts (UNDP, 1984) (Table 2). Sedimentary rocks belonging to
Burgersdorp, Molteno, Elliot and Clarens Formations include fluvio-deltaic mudstones,
siltstones, and sandstones that underlie and crop out in the western lowlands. The Clarens
formation is overlain by a thick sequence of (up to 1600 m) compact and amygdaloidal basalt
flows of the Lesotho Formation. Numerous dykes, ring dykes and sills intrude the sediment
and basalt formations. The doleritic and basaltic dykes mainly trend north-west – south-east
and north-north-east – south-south-west, forming either resistant ridge or eroded trench
features. The ring dyke complexes form characteristic circular low hills surrounded by
Burgersdorp sediments, where they occur in western Lesotho. The sedimentary formations
have low angles of dip with limited folding and faulting. Mineral extraction activities include
the mining of kimberlites for diamonds; the quarrying of dolerite for road and construction
materials; and the quarrying of Clarens siltstone for building blocks. The geology of Lesotho
has been mapped at a scale of 1:50 000 and 1:100 000 and described with type sections in
UNDP (1984). Interpretation of aerial photography and geophysical surveys have been used
by consultants to locate dolerite dykes and fracture zones in Karoo sandstones and basalts for
location of potential water borehole drilling sites.
Table 2 Stratigraphy of Lesotho
Age Group Formation Lithology
Quaternary Alluvium, Clays, silts and gravels
and colluvium and
Tertiary residual deposits
Middle Drakensberg Lesotho Basaltic lava with subordinate tuff and lenses of
Jurassic to sandstone near the base
Permian
Stormberg Clarens Sandstone and siltstone
Beaufort Elliot Mudstones and shales with subordinate
feldspathic sandstone
Molteno Sandstones, grits, mudstones, shales and coals
Burgersdorp Mudstones and siltstones, sandstone intercalation
common
Early Intrusive Dykes and sills Basalt, dolerite and gabbro
Tertiary to Rocks
Late Clusters of pipes Kimberlite
Cretaceous and dykes at depth

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3.3 HYDROGEOLOGY
In Lesotho, groundwater occurs within fractured Karoo Super group sedimentary and basalt
rock aquifers, alluvial sediments and within fracture and dolerite intrusion zones. The variable
occurrence of groundwater is illustrated by borehole yields that vary from dry to up to 8.0 l/s
within a few metres of a dolerite intrusion. What little is understood of the hydraulic and
hydrogeological characteristics of these aquifers has been derived from analysis of the
National Groundwater Database of borehole records compiled by TAMS (1996). No attempt
has been made to assess the composition, porosity and permeability variations within the
aquifers using plugged core samples of the rock formations. The quality of groundwater is
thought to be good but hydrochemical analyses are few in number and limited to major ions
and some trace elements. Fluoride has been determined as occurring at levels potentially
harmful to health at a small number of sites. There are few data available such as colour to
identify zones of water occurrence such as weathered zones in baked horizons to indicate
patterns of groundwater occurrence in these rocks.
Groundwater storage and flow in a sedimentary unit is a function of:
• Primary interconnected pore space, controlled by the degree of cementation,
compaction and the sand/shale ratio of the sediment, and
• Secondary porosity that results from the degree of fracturing and joint development
during compaction, tectonic activity, metamorphism, diagenesis and weathering.
TAMS (1996b) reported the highest transmissivities and borehole yields in the sedimentary
aquifers from the coarse-grained sandstone units such as the Molteno Formation. The
Burgersdorp Formation, composed of mudstones and siltstones with minor sandstones, is an
unproductive aquifer with yields <0.5 l/sec, except where intruded by dolerite dykes. The
Molteno Formation is the best aquifer; especially where its permeability is enhanced by
intrudes dolerite dykes or where it is fracturing (Groundwater Consultants 1993, 1995). The
Elliot Formation is often in hydraulic continuity with the underlying Molteno Formation;
good water strikes are often recorded at the contact between these formations. The Elliot
Formation is regarded as a poor aquifer due to its compact nature. Summaries of the geology
and hydrogeology of the main stratigraphic formations are described with photographs of
typical exposures and maps of aquifer distributions in sections 3.4 – 3.7. Given the fractured
nature of the main aquifer units, the few transmissivity and storage coefficient values
determined from the analysis of test pumping results for these aquifers should be applied with
extreme caution.

3.4 BURGERSDORP FORMATION

Geology – The Burgersdorp Formation are the oldest sedimentary rocks in eastern Lesotho
(Figure 2). Rocks of this formation occur at elevations below 1550 m and include poly
coloured shales (Plate 1), siltstones, thin coal seams and very fine-grained buff sandstone
(Plate 2). The formation is approximately 200 m thick. In the area north-west of Mafeteng this
formation is extensively intruded by dolerite ring dykes that crop out as low hills (Plate 3).
Hydrogeology - This mainly argillaceous formation has low productivity with borehole yields
of less than 0.5 l/sec. Boreholes drilled adjacent to dolerite intrusions, especially ring dykes,
have higher yields of 1-2 l/sec obtained from baked sediments. An average borehole yield for
the Burgersdorp Formation is 1.6 l/sec, reflecting the large number of boreholes drilled
adjacent to dolerite intrusions. The average borehole depth is 59 m; and average depth to
water table is 22 m, as found along low-lying valleys. Average transmissivity of 20 m3/d/m

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and storativity of 0.00117 indicate semi-confined to confined conditions within a low

permeability aquifer.

Figure 2 Map of Burgersdorp Formation distribution in Lesotho

Weathered Molteno Formation sandstones

Dark red Burgersdorp Formation

mudstones with thin sandstones

Plate 1 Burgersdorp Formation mudstones below Molteno Formation sandstones east of

Mazenod

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Molteno Formation sandstones

Bugersdorp Formation mudstones

Burgersdorp Formation sandstones

Plate 2 Cross-bedded sandstones within the Burgersdorp Formation north east of Kolo on the
Tsoaing River.

Dolerite ring dyke

Dolerite ring dyke

Plate 3 Double ring dyke complex intruded into Burgersdorp Formation sediments at Ha
Patsa Maphathe, North of Mafeteng

3.5 MOLTENO FORMATION

Geology –The Molteno Formation occurring at elevations of 1600 to 1700 m includes
medium to coarse-grained buff coloured feldspathic sandstone, with a gravelly basal unit and
interbedded thin siltstones and mudstones. It crops out in the lowlands between Maseru and
Mohale's Hoek and around Hlotse, the South Phuthiatsana and Senqu River valleys
(Figure 3). These sediments were deposited as a series of fining upwards alluvial channel
bedded sandstones (Plates 4 and 5), that varies in total thickness from >250 m in the south to
<50 m in the north of the country.

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Figure 3 Map of Molteno Formation distribution in Lesotho

Plate 4 Channel bedded Malteno Formation sandstones at Ha Mantsebo south of Mazenod

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Plate 5 Weathered Molteno Formation channel bedded sandstones east of Morija

Hydrogeology - The Molteno Formation sandstone aquifer has good groundwater
development potential. The quality of this aquifer varies according to the sand /shale ratio and
degree of cementation of the component sandstone layers. This aquifer has been developed at
Roma and Teyateyaneng where wellfields with individual borehole yields of more than 3 l/sec
have been installed. The total recommended yield for the Roma well field is 21 l/sec and that
of the Teyateyaneng well field is 22 l/sec. The Molteno Aquifer can have both limited
primary intergranular permeability as well as secondary fracture permeability. The most
productive boreholes are located adjacent to dolerite dykes where secondary permeability has
been developed by the baking and jointing of the formation during contact metamorphism.
Other productive boreholes have been located in well-developed fracture zones unrelated to
intrusions (Groundwater Consultants 1992, 1995). The Molteno outcrops also form an
important spring line with individual spring discharges as high as 0.5 l/sec (Bonney 1975).
Statistical analysis of available borehole data indicate an average borehole yield in Molteno
aquifer of 1.6 l/sec, average borehole depth of 61 m and average depth to water table of 24 m.
Average transmissivity of 20 m3/d/m and storativity of 0.001 are indicative of a low
permeability aquifer under semi-confined groundwater conditions.

3.6 ELLIOT FORMATION

Geology - The Elliot Formation consists of red clays and mudstones (Plate 6) with
interbedded fine to medium-grained sandstones. As with the Molteno Formation, the Elliot
Formation thins from 200 m in the south of Lesotho to 100 m in the north. The outcrop of this
formation underlies much of the northern lowland area (Figure 4). In areas stripped of
vegetation, the cover of clayey soils and weathered near-surface deposits has been deeply
gullied by rapid surface runoff (Plate 7). From analysis of drilling logs, Bonney (1975)
determined the average sand to shale ratio of this formation to be near unity.
Hydrogeology – Within the Elliot Formation groundwater mainly occurs within interbedded
sandstone layers that show significant lateral variability in thickness. Drilling and test
pumping data analysis indicate that the Elliot Formation is often in hydraulic continuity with
the underlying Molteno Formation. Water strikes are often recorded during drilling at the
contact between these formations. Analysis of available Elliot Formation borehole data

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indicate an average borehole yield of 1.3 l/sec, an average borehole depth of 60 m and an
average depth to water table of 27 m. Average transmissivity of 24 m3/d/m and storativity of
0.0005 indicate the Elliot Formation has low permeability under confined conditions and with
less development potential than the Molteno or Burgersdorp Formations.

Red Elliot Formation

mudstones

Dolerite dyke

Molteno Formation sandstones

Plate 6 Red Elliot Formation mudstones overlying Molteno Formation sandstones, both
formations intruded by a dolerite dyke at a road cutting north of Ha Maja east of Mazenod

Figure 4 Map of Elliot Formation distribution in Lesotho

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Plate 7 Gullies developed in weathered Elliot Formation mudstones

3.7 CLARENS FORMATION

Geology - The Clarens Formation is composed of up to 130 m of brown fine- to medium-
grained, massive aeolian dune bedded sandstones and siltstones with thin interbedded shales.
The formation crops out at the junction of the foothills and the lowlands areas (Figure 5)
where the sandstones form characteristic cliff sided escarpments sometimes capped with thin
basalts (Plates 8 and 9).

Figure 5 Map of Clarens Formation distribution in Lesotho

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Plate 8 Clarens Formation sandstones exposed upstream of the Metolong dam site

Clarens Formation sandstones

Elliot Formation mudstones

Plate 9 Escarpment at Rampai’s Nek, Butha Buthe, Clarens Formation above Elliot
Formation
Hydrogeology –The Clarens Formation is composed of compact sandstones with poor aquifer
qualities. Important spring zones occur at the Lesotho basalt –Clarens sandstone contact
(Plate 10) and at the upper sandstone - siltstone junction within the main Clarens Formation
(Plate 11). Analysis of borehole data from this formation gave an average borehole yield of
0.9 l/sec; an average borehole depth of 62 m and average depth to water table of 28 m. The
average transmissivity of 5 m3 /d/m indicates a low permeability aquifer.

Lesotho Formation basalt

Springs issuing from the baked contact zone

Clarens Formation sandstones

Plate 10 Spring-zone contact between the Lesotho basalt and Clarens sandstone at Metolong

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Lesotho Formation basalts

Spring zone
Clarens Formation sandstones

Elliot Formation mudstones

Plate 11 Basalts and underlying sediments north from Ha Hlekelele within the Thupa-Kubu
valley north west of Sefikeng. Note spring zone at the junction of the Upper Clarens Sandstone and
underlying Clarens Siltstone.

3.8 LESOTHO FORMATION BASALTS

Geology - Most of highland Lesotho is underlain by Lesotho Formation basalts (Figure 6 and
Plate 12). The formation consists of blocky, compact and amygdaloidal tholeiitic basalt, with
ashy bands and inter-bedded soils and thin sandy alluvial layers in the lower horizons (Plates
13 and 14).

Figure 6 Map of Lesotho Formation distribution in Lesotho.

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Plate 12 Lesotho Formation basalts forming the central highland massif of Lesotho south-east
of Sefikeng

Blocky basalt

Red soil horizon

Amygdaloidal basalt

Plate 13 Lesotho Formation basalts with interbedded red soil horizon north west of Sefikeng

Hydrogeology – In the highland area numerous springs issue at all levels mainly from
weathered basalt horizons at inter-basalt flow zones and adjacent to dolerite dykes. Some of
the few boreholes drilled into this formation have high yields, with water strikes occurring in
the weathered mantle, at inter-flow zones and in dykes and fracture zones. In the Likalaneng
area water strikes have been recorded at depths greater than 150 m with blow-out yields
exceeding 10 l/sec. The limited borehole data gave an average borehole yield of 2.6 l/sec, and
an average borehole depth of 66 m, due to deeper water strikes in mountain areas.

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Basalt flow

Basaltic ash and agglomerate

Basalt flow

Plate 14 Lesotho Formation basalts exposed at Bushman’s Pass

3.9 DOLERITE DYKES AND FRACTURE ZONES

Geology - The Karoo Formations of Lesotho are intruded by numerous north-west – south-
east and north-north-east – south-south-west trending dykes and ring dykes (Figure 7). The
dykes are either doleritic or basaltic weathering to form resistant ridges or eroded trench
features (Plate 15). Dyke intrusion is associated with country rock fracturing and the
formation of a baked high permeability zone adjacent to the dyke (Plates 16 and 17).

Figure 7 Map of dolerite dyke and fracture distribution in Lesotho

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Baked Clarens Formation sandstone

Softer Lancers Gap dolerite

removed by erosion

Plate 15 Lancers Gap formed by the weathering and erosion of softer dolerite

Plate 16 Columnar Clarens Sandstone baked by Lancers Gap Dolerite dyke

Hydrogeology – Analysis of test pumping data from boreholes drilled into and adjacent to
dykes indicate that, although permeable, the storage capacities of dyke zones are generally
low. Therefore, although the presence of a dyke may greatly improve local hydraulic
conductivity, the storage potential of the country rock should define the yield and drawdown
characteristics of the production borehole. Therefore, a borehole sited in a dyke zone in the
Molteno Aquifer will be more productive than one located in a dyke zone in the Elliot
Aquifer.

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Weathered Very Fairly

Unbaked
Dolerite baked baked
sandstone
dyke columnar jointed
sandstone sandstone

Plate 17 Dolerite/Clarens Formation sandstone contact zone, Lancers Gap with

different degrees of baking and hence development of secondary permeability

3.10 ALLUVIAL SEDIMENTS

Geology - Alluvial sediments occur as recent deposits associated with active river systems
and Quaternary age terrace deposits related to former drainage systems. Recent alluvial
sediments are well developed along the banks of the Hlotse, Caledon, Hololo and South and
North Phuthiatsana river valleys (Plate 18 and 19). Ancient alluvial deposits are primarily
associated with the Mohokare River drainage system, especially in the north, although there is
evidence of further deposits along the lower Senqu River valley.

Plate 18 Recent alluvial sediments eroded by the Phuthiatsana-Ea-Thaba-Bosiu north of

Mazenod
Hydrogeology - The Quaternary and Recent alluvial sedimentary aquifers have good
hydraulic characteristics although their size is limited. The hydraulic characteristics are
variable and often site specific, making borehole siting difficult. Some of the largest deposits
of exploitable alluvial aquifers are in the Maputsoe wellfield area, in the area around Butha
Buthe, north of Teyateyaneng and near Mazenod. Water is abstracted from these alluvial
sediments using well point or gallery systems as north of Teyateyaneng from the North
Phuthiatsana River (Plate 20) Analysis of test pumping results from the Maputsoe well field
indicated a potential yield of 40 l/sec when first developed (WEMMIN, 1987). Similarly, the
test pumping of boreholes installed to supply Butha Buthe township have been installed in
Quaternary and Recent age alluvial sedimentary aquifers with potential borehole yields of 1.5
to 4.0 l/sec (WEMMIN, 1988; GKW, 1998). An open well sunk in Quaternary age alluvium
in Mohale's Hoek produces water at 3 l/sec for the town’s water supply system.

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Plate 19 Recent river alluvium along the Phuthiatsana-Ea-Ha Masupha north of Teyateyaneng

Analysis of borehole test pumping data from alluvial deposits gave an average depth to water
table of 15 m and average borehole depth of 41 m. Both of these parameters reflect the
generally shallower nature of these aquifers compared to bedrock aquifers. The average
transmissivity is 106 m3/d/m, indicative of the significant primary porosity. An average
storativity of 0.04 indicates unconfined and semi-confined aquifer conditions.

Location of horizontal drains

within the river sediments
Pumping station

Plate 20 Abstraction from river alluvium using well points north of Teyateyaneng on
the Phuthiatsana-Ea-Ha Masupha , and pump house. The riverbed is incised into Molteno
Formation sandstones.

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4 Hydrogeological Data
A range of hydrogeological data is required for the estimation of groundwater resources.
These data should be acquired during each stage of the siting, drilling and test-pumping stages
of borehole installation. The types of data, their sources and their collection in Lesotho are
outlined below.

4.1 BOREHOLE SITING

Fine grained and compact sedimentary rocks with low intrinsic permeability underlie the
western Lowlands region of Lesotho. The optimum sites for water well drilling are located
accurately on zones of fracturing and contact metamorphism adjacent to dolerite dykes where
groundwater occurrence is enhanced by patterns of intense joining and weathering.
Information obtained from surveys of such sites should include:
• Location of geophysical surveys and proposed drilling sites located using GPS or grid
reference from a 1:50 000 scale topographic map,
• Analysis of data from geophysical surveys to indicate dyke attitude, as well as the
thickness of the dyke, the baked zone of contact metamorphism and weathered zone,
• Descriptions of the local surface geology, topography and patterns of drainage,
• Location and use of existing points of water abstraction such as boreholes, rivers and
springs.
DWA teams are able to locate borehole drill sites using geophysical survey equipment (not
defined) donated by a Japanese funded project undertaken in 1996-7. Geophysical equipment
(not defined) left by the Italian Groundwater Project cannot be used due to lack of trained
staff.
DRWS technicians formerly located borehole-drilling sites using aerial photography and
geological maps. During 1994 they also used magnetic geophysical surveys for drill site
location. Currently, consultants locate new borehole sites on fracture and dyke zones using
data from interpretation of aerial photographs, geological maps and field geophysical surveys.
Geophysical methods used to locate drilling targets include magnetic traversing, electro-
magnetic survey traversing and resistivity vertical electrical soundings (VES). Geophysical
survey and drilling sites should be accurately located using a geographical positioning system
(GPS) and 1:50 000 scale topographic maps. The geophysical survey data and interpretations
should be reported. Where professional borehole siting expertise is absent, drilling contractors
use dowsing with geological and visual inspection to locate drilling sites. The involvement of
communities in the siting procedures through direct action approach initiatives was not
examined.

4.2 BOREHOLE DRILLING AND CONSTRUCTION

Although a good density of boreholes and detailed geological maps may exist, data crucial for
hydrogeological assessments such as thickness of weathered zones, lithology, colour changes
and water strike/loss zones are rarely recorded. Thick surficial weathered zones often mask
the solid geology. Lithological data collected during borehole drilling are needed for
assessment of hydrogeological characteristics. Institutions responsible for drilling boreholes
should ensure the collection of representative geological and hydrogeological samples to be
examined under laboratory conditions, especially where boreholes are drilled in marginal

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areas. These data are needed for groundwater resource assessment at district or sub-district
level.
Production borehole design is dependant upon the following:
• type and dimensions of borehole pump,
• yield/drawdown characteristics of the borehole,
• available drilling method,
• depths of water strike zones,
• static water level variations,
• geology of the aquifer formation,
• access for water level monitoring equipment.
With decentralisation of rural water supply and greater involvement of NGOs there has been a
tendency to use minimum standards of construction to reduce the borehole installation costs.
Community borehole ownership can only be ensured if they can afford to contribute a realistic
proportion of the cost of borehole installation, operation and maintenance. The use of
minimum diameter borehole components results in access of water level measuring
equipment being sacrificed.
Information required to be collected during borehole drilling that will inform borehole
construction include:
• description of the drilling method, drilling system equipment and capacities,
• accurate location of the borehole drilling site, including village name and GPS
location,
• dates of start and completion of drilling and construction,
• drill penetration rate with bit types and sizes as well as borehole flushing medium per
metre including the addition of foam,
• collection of formation chip samples and their description (including colour) at 1 m
intervals. The samples should be placed in sequence along a sectioned half tube and
photographed with a digital camera to record colour change with depth. In
unconsolidated alluvial materials disturbed samples of at least 1 kg/m should be
obtained for grain size analysis especially from water producing zones,
• depths of water strike and water loss with determination of water flow by airlift at 3 m
intervals,
• details of all components used in borehole construction including types and lengths of
casing and screen with coupling types, materials and dimensions, slot sizes, zones of
grouting and gravel packing (grain size and source of pack material).
The above information is needed for borehole design and for recognition of causes of
problems resulting from borehole operation.
Most boreholes installed for DWA, DRWS and WASA are now drilled using rotary air flush
down-the-hole-hammer equipment: only private boreholes are drilled using cable tool
percussion equipment. Except for DWA exploration boreholes, all production boreholes are
drilled, constructed and test pumped by drilling contractors who are required to complete
DWA standard borehole completion forms.

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During 1982-1992 the DRWS installed nearly 6000 low capacity boreholes, most equipped
with hand pumps and a few with submersible pumps. These boreholes were mainly drilled to
depths of 40 to 100 m with a few as deep as 120 m and the occasional borehole drilled to
more than 150 m. While the older boreholes of the pre 1980 period were drilled using DRWS
cable tool percussion rigs, those installed during the last 20 years were drilled using the down-
the-hole-hammer drilling system. The typical borehole construction requires a drilled
diameter in the regolith of 208mm (8”) with 169 mm (6½”) (ID) surface casing below which
main borehole is drilled at 169 mm (6½”) diameter to be left uncased with no near surface
sanitary grout seal. Additional UNICEF funded boreholes were drilled as part of the 1995-96
drought relief programme. During the last year DRWS have standardised on a higher capacity
borehole design that uses steel casings and machine-slotted screens of 152 mm (6”) diameter
top to bottom, with 4-6 mm formation stabiliser between the borehole wall and the screens,
and a near surface sanitary seal grout.
All WASA boreholes are installed to a high capacity production design. The borehole is
drilled through regolith at 312mm (12”) to a depth of 3 to 10 m, and is cased using 260 mm
(10”) diameter steel casing that is grouted in place. The lower borehole is typically drilled to a
depth of 80 to 120 m at 260 mm (10”) diameter and constructed using steel casings and
screens of 169 mm (6½”) diameter. High yielding boreholes may be equipped with 208 mm
(8”) diameter casing and screen, the screen having 4mm wide machine-cut slots with 4-6 mm
diameter formation stabiliser inserted between the borehole wall and screens. In finer grained
alluvial sediments Johnson stainless steel wire wound continuous slot screen with a slot width
of 0.75 mm is used.
There is no information on the drilling and design of DWA exploration boreholes but
according to Ground Water Consultants (2001), DWA installed exploration boreholes are
drilled at 169 mm (6½”) diameter and left open-hole with some near surface casing. In
collapsing formations exploration boreholes are cased and screened top to bottom to prevent
borehole collapse. In alluvium, boreholes are drilled at 208 mm (8”) diameter so that gravel
pack can be installed. Geological samples from exploration boreholes should be submitted to
the Department of Mines for logging and analysis.
Privately drilled boreholes are usually 50 to 60 m deep, 169 mm (6½”) diameter and finished
open hole.

4.3 BOREHOLE TEST PUMPING

The test pumping of a borehole is undertaken to provide information on:
• hydraulic characteristics of the borehole,
• hydraulic characteristics of the surrounding aquifer.
The specific capacity and the rate of water level recovery should typically be determined for a
borehole drilled into a low permeability consolidated formation. The factors govern the type
of hand pump that can be installed and indication if the aquifer has sufficient connection with
the borehole to supply the community’s needs. Such information can be obtained by using a
simple borehole bail test. The DRWS used short-term bail tests to determine the specific
capacity and recovery characteristics of cable tool percussion drilled boreholes. In down-the-
hole-hammer drilled boreholes air-lift discharge rates are measured to indicate potential
borehole yields. On completion, the DRWS and DWA test pump a borehole with a four step
step-drawdown test, a 48 hours constant rate test and a 12 hours recovery test. The
transmissivity and storage coefficient factors determined using the test results cannot be
applied to fractured low permeability aquifers; the drawdown – yield measurements recorded

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apply to the linear fractured/dyke aquifer rather than the surrounding low permeability
country rocks.
Similarly, the WASA test pumping procedure that include a four-step step-drawdown test
(with longer steps), a 72 hours constant rate test and a 12 hours recovery test provides
information on:
• the hydraulic characteristics of the borehole,
• some information on the nature of the fractured water producing zone,
• little information on the surrounding country rock from which only a proportion of the
groundwater produced will originate.
Even where observation borehole data are available the transmissivity and storage coefficient
data produced should be used with caution.
Methods of estimating recommended safe yields are subjective being based upon questionable
qualitative analysis of test pumping data or airlift yields measured during the drilling. Where
wellfields have been installed, abstraction recommendations should be adjusted according to
the impact of long-term abstractions upon monitored water levels.

4.4 AQUIFER HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS

As indicated above, although aquifer test pumping seems to be undertaken at each borehole
site, little understanding of the true meaning of the transmissivity and storage parameters is
achieved from analysis of test pumping data. Where boreholes have been drilled into
fractured low permeability aquifers (preferably into fractures, weathered dykes and
associated baked zones of contact metamorphism) the methods of test pumping data analysis
employed are not strictly applicable. Most of the groundwater abstracted at such sites is
derived from the linear zone of relatively high permeability. With prolonged abstraction,
even at the low discharge rates experienced using hand pumps, such aquifers can be
dewatered over a period of several years if there is no active recharge from a source such as
the bed of a perennial river. Otherwise, during the dewatering, some water slowly seeps from
the surrounding low permeability rocks into the linear feature at a rate much less than that of
abstraction. In the absence of water level monitoring, the reduction in resources will be
noticed belatedly by a reduction in discharge rate, making hand pump operation more
difficult. This often leads to the failure of the borehole that is commonly recognised as being
due to pump failure rather than the dewatering of the aquifer. Therefore, some information on
the distribution of relative permeability and porosity in the country rocks and within the
fracture zone needs to be obtained. In such low permeability fractured aquifer systems, flow
contributions from fractures determined using packer tests and flow logging with intrinsic
permeabilities and porosities of the rock unit determined using formation core sample tests
help determine the sustainability of a boreholes yield. However, significant understanding of
the nature of groundwater flow patterns within a fractured aquifer can only be obtained from
observations made during borehole drilling at the well-head.

4.5 MONITORING SYSTEMS

Groundwater monitoring is required to acquire long term spatially organised data to
• indicate where and how groundwater may be sustainably abstracted within a given
region,
• the effects of natural change and anthropogenic activities upon groundwater systems.

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The main forms of groundwater system monitoring are:

• Water level monitoring – at a statistically significant series of sites,
• Water quality monitoring – at a statistically significant series of sites,
• Water use monitoring in terms of abstraction, supply and demand at as many sites as
possible within a given area as part of a hydro-census.
The density of borehole monitoring points needs to reflect the importance of the aquifers in
terms of usage, the effects on the aquifers of drought and flood events and the vulnerability of
aquifers to pollution. Guidelines for the monitoring and management of groundwater
resources have been prepared in South Africa for water level monitoring (Van Wyk, 2002)
and hydrochemistry – water quality monitoring (Meyer, 2000).
The following groundwater monitoring is reported to be in progress in Lesotho:
• The Groundwater Section of DWA monitors groundwater quality, abstraction rate and
water levels at a series of countrywide boreholes and springs. Since 1994, discharge
rates at 84 springs have been monitored once a month and water samples collected for
analysis twice a year (during wet and dry seasons). Since 1992, water levels have been
monitored at 42 boreholes at two-month intervals using manual water level dippers.
The DWA has several autographic drum water-level recorders located on boreholes in
the Mohales Hoek area. Three Diver type data loggers are to be located in boreholes in
the north-west of the country. Samples for groundwater quality analysis can be
obtained from boreholes using a small submersible pump that is currently out of
commission. Water quality monitoring is also constrained by the limited number of
water samples that can be processed by the DWA laboratory. The planned installation
of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer unit has been delayed by lack of operating
staff.
• WASA monitors pumping time and abstraction rates twice a month at all of its high
capacity urban water supply boreholes. Water level variations have not been recorded,
but this may start soon as the WASA have acquired at least one water level dipper.
• Although the DRWS operates the largest number of boreholes it does little monitoring
of groundwater systems. Water levels, abstraction rates for high capacity boreholes
nor water quality changes are monitored. The causes of failure of DRWS boreholes
are recorded in district level maintenance records, which also include water levels at
the time of pump repair.

4.6 GROUNDWATER ABSTRACTION METHODS

In the past villages in Lesotho were preferentially located at perennial sources of water such
as springs and rivers. The development of groundwater and reticulation supply systems
enabled communities to be located away from traditional water sources, allowing use to be
made of agricultural lands remote from surface water sources. Many rural and peri-urban
communities are now dependent upon groundwater sources such as:
• Boreholes,
• Well points and galleries,
• Springs.
There is no tradition of well digging in Lesotho for water supply.

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4.6.1 Boreholes
DRWS boreholes installed during the World Water Decade are equipped with deep or shallow
set hand pumps of the geared Mono type. UNICEF introduced India Mk III and India Mk IV
type pumps during the drought relief programme of 1995-96. A large number of these pumps
have subsequently failed, most failures thought to be due to mechanical problems. The
DRWS has moved from provision of hand-pumped boreholes to that of motorised-pump
boreholes of larger capacity. Water is reticulated from these boreholes to village standpipes
thereby reducing maintenance costs and improving supply reliability. Three types of pumps
are in use:
• diesel driven mono pumps,
• electric submersible pumps,
• solar power driven pumps.
The DRWS design installed does not have provision for water level measurement or time
switches. A vandal proof brick box is constructed over the borehole well-head as a protective
structure.
A WASA wellfield borehole is typically equipped with electrical submersible pump, cable,
level indicator and conduit pipe for water level measurement. The borehole top is protected
against vandalism by a reinforced brick and concrete superstructure with separate housing for
the electrical control panel, the wellhead and water meter.
The causes of borehole failure are:
• poor borehole operation caused by bad maintenance and/or over-pumping,
• deterioration of ground water flow conditions due to resource mining, biofouling or
borehole collapse or siltation.
Failure is usually only noticed when ‘the borehole runs dry’. A DRWS survey indicated that
up to 90% of handpump failures were attributed to mechanical problems and not to failure of
the borehole or deterioration of groundwater resources. WASA boreholes are designed for
automatic pumping schedules using timer switches or telemetric systems. When these systems
fail there is a tendency for the operator to over-ride the system and switch to manual
operation, resulting in borehole failure due to over-pumping.

4.6.2 Galleries and well point systems.

Galleries involve the sinking of gravel packed large diameter horizontal screens and
connecting pipes laterally along dewatered trenches within riverbed sands below the dry
season water table. Water flows by gravity into a collecting well sunk into an adjacent
riverbank from which water is pumped for treatment before reticulation to the nearby town.
Such a system has been installed at Mazenod.
Well points are a series of narrow diameter screened tubes jetted into the bed of a river
through which water is drawn by suction pump to a central treatment and distribution point.
These systems can be adversely affected by annual floods and have to be re-jetted into
position at the start of the following dry season.

4.6.3 Springs
Springs commonly occur in the highland and foothill zones of Lesotho, where they form
traditional sources of village water. Villages were formerly located adjacent to permanent
springs. Springs now provide domestic water to numerous villages and small towns by gravity

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flow, from protected collection boxes installed at the spring eye from which water is
reticulated by pipe to village standpipes. Discharge rates can vary from wet to dry season,
often declining during prolonged droughts.

4.6.4 Hand dug wells

There are no hand-dug wells in Lesotho since there is no tradition of well sinking in Lesotho
where water was originally obtained from springs and perennial rivers.

4.7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY

WASA and DWA have laboratory facilities for the routine hydrochemical analysis of water
samples. Laboroatories capable of detailed hydrochemical analysis of water samples are
located in South Africa.
The chemical quality of groundwaters present in low permeability fractured aquifer rocks
reflect:
• groundwater residence time,
• location of zones of recent recharge,
• pollution from anthropogenic or natural sources.
The Groundwater Programme funded the hydrochemical analysis of water samples from
168 boreholes and 35 springs. Ca-Mg-HCO3 type groundwaters were found in unconfined
shallow igneous, alluvial and sedimentary aquifers whereas more mature Na-HCO3 type
groundwaters occurred at depth in confined sedimentary aquifers (Arduino et al, 1994). Total
dissolved solids (TDS) determinations averaged 260 mg/l in borehole waters and 112 mg/l in
spring waters. None of the major ion concentrations or pH values determined exceeded WHO
standards for drinking water. However, a DRWS study of 30 boreholes in three villages in
Berea, Mafeteng and Maseru Districts found several high fluoride levels, up to 15 mg/l, that
exceed the WHO standard for drinking water of 1.5 mg/l F. A baseline hydrochemical survey
showing the distribution of major, minor and trace ions is needed to identify ionic
concentrations that could be toxic to human health. Groundwater quality in Lowland Lesotho
is threatened by increased urbanisation and uncontrolled development of:
• poorly located or constructed pit latrines,
• waste disposal sites,
• unregulated use of agricultural chemicals and disposal of animal wastes.

4.8 HYDROGEOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTION

Data collection procedures remain poor. In 1996 only 4 to 5% of borehole records contained
yield data and only 1 to 3% had transmissivity and storativity data (TAMS 1996). This
situation does not appear to have changed. Improved data collection during new DWA
projects is being practiced by consultants during borehole siting, drilling, construction and
testing. Data collected during non-DWA groundwater projects are not being submitted to the
Groundwater Section. A standard form for collection of drilling, construction and test
pumping data has been produced by DWA based upon data input requirements of the WISH
groundwater software, but its use is limited to the DWA. DRWS used borehole completion
forms produced by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry of South Africa. Although
comprehensive, they are usually completed by drillers recording little meaningful data.
DRWS is now planning to use the DWA forms for future borehole drilling programmes.

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Although data collection by consultants during WASA and DRWS programmes meets
acceptable standards, only worked data are presented in project reports, raw data are not
passed to DWA. Hence there are usually insufficient data for hydrogeologists to assess
groundwater occurrence, aquifer resources or aquifer sustainability.

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5 Data storage and retrieval

The pattern of groundwater development in Lesotho is typical of that seen elsewhere in the
SADC region. The style of development is dependant upon:
• the experience of the government department ,
• the controls of the international donors,
• the influence of the UN/World Bank as with the World Water Decade,
• the type of natural disaster that, maybe, is impacting upon groundwater, e.g. drought.
Aid donors tend to import high cost, high technology solutions such as groundwater
information systems that cannot be locally maintained after project support has ceased.
Unfortunately, data sets collected during such projects can end up locked into software
systems that cannot be accessed without new software and /or dongles designed to limit
access in the first instance. Therefore, it is important that raw data are stored in readily
retrievable spreadsheets that can be imported into any newly introduced GIS systems and in
paper files as hard copy. The data units used in the spreadsheets and GIS systems must be
clearly recorded.
Need also to record point source geo-referenced data that can be imported for spatial analysis
into a groundwater information system.

5.1 DIGITAL AND HARDCOPY DATA PACKAGES

To determine the location of hydrogeological datasets discussions were held at:
• Department of Mines and Geology,
• Department Rural Water Supply,
• Department of Water Affairs, Groundwater Division,
• Water Supply and Sanitation Authority,
• Groundwater Consultants (Lesotho),
• Sechaba Consultants,
• Southern African Development Community (SADC), Water Sector.
Groundwater data were found to be available on hard copy paper datasheets at DWA
(Maseru) and DRWS (Maseru and Mafeteng), hard copy reports and maps in the libraries of
DMG (Maseru), DWA (Maseru) and WASA (Maseru) and electronic databases at DWA,
Maseru (WISH format) at DRWS Maseru and Mafeteng (PARADOX format), at Sechaba
Consultants Maseru (DBASE 4 and ARCVIEW formats) and at GWC Maseru (Dbase 4 and
ArcView formats).

5.1.1 Databases
There are four main groundwater database sets:
DWA/Italian Project
The Groundwater Division of the DWA maintains a national hydrogeological database,
initiated in 1982 at the start of an Italian funded national groundwater exploration and
development project (The Groundwater Programme). This database probably contains

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geological and borehole construction logs, test pumping data, and hydrochemical data but it is
difficult to access.

DRWS
The DRWS provides data from boreholes drilled for rural water supply to the National
Database (NDB). The NDB is an administrative database listing information such as village
name, borehole depth, handpump type and installation information. Although it is the largest
database of borehole and spring data, the NDB lacks technical data such as georeferenced co-
ordinates, geological logs, borehole yield, test pumping results, and hydrochemistry. Some of
these data are held in paper files at district level, as seen at Mafeteng. Some geo-referencing
of boreholes was done as part of TAMS/GWC study. Data held in hard copy paper files at the
Maseru DRWS divisional office were destroyed when that office was burnt in 1988. some
DRWS borehole data from the 1994-2002 period are present on the CD-ROMs collected.

TAMS
The DWA/Italian project database was modified and expanded in 1996 by TAMS to contain
8070? Records of which about 70% have been georeferenced. The database is in dBase IV
format and is fully compatible with the ArcInfo based GIS system created during the project.
Although this database can be imported into Access and thereby transformed into a series of
component Excel spreadsheets it has not yet been set up for continued use and easy updating
of records.

DWA/WISH
Data obtained from projects implemented by DWA after 1996 are maintained separately by
the Groundwater Division within a WISH based GIS using software from the University of
Bloemfontein. Unfortunately the raw data cannot be extracted from this database system
without the necessary software for other applications.

5.1.2 Relevant literature

Listings of groundwater related reports held by DWA and GWC were compiled for the
TAMS study. These listings form the basis of the bibliography compiled by Ambrose (2001).
These listings need to be updated and listings of reports held by WASA and Sechaba
compiled. These bibliographies could then be used to produce a comprehensive listing of all
local consultant and departmental groundwater related reports produced in Lesotho. The
consultants reports that form the main source of raw and interpreted groundwater data from
wellfield studies include:
Binnie Shand Lesotho (1977) – the twelve towns project,
Groundwater Consultants (1995) – Leribe,
Groundwater Consultants (1995) – Maseru,
Groundwater Consultants (2000) – The six towns project,
Johnstone (1991) – Alluvial aquifers at Mashoeshoe I International Airport,
Lahmeyer (1992) – Maseru,
Riemer (1988) – The two towns project,
WEMMIN (1988) – Maputsoe.

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Earlier reference lists have been compiled during studies undertaken by Binnie (1971) and
TAMS (1996a). Further data sets are recorded within the 130 technical reports produced by
the Groundwater Programme; 50 of these reports are listed in Appendix 1.
Hard copy topographic, hydrogeological and geological maps of Lesotho are available, but
none have been digitised. Scanned versions of the 1:50 000 topographic maps have been
produced for the project in jpg format. The first hydrogeological map of Lesotho, produced by
Mott MacDonald (1990) at a scale of 1:250 000, is difficult to access. The second national
hydrogeological map produced by the Italian led Groundwater Project by Arduino, Bono and
Del Sette (1994) at a scale of 1:300,000 can be obtained from the Department of Water
Affairs library. Geological maps of Lowland Lesotho at scales of 1:50 000 and 1:100 000 can
be obtained from the Department of Mines and Geology. Maps showing the locations of
village boreholes are held at DRWS district offices.

5.2 REGIONAL DATA SOURCES

For a full understanding of how the groundwater systems of Lesotho operate the following
bodies of data need to be referred to:
• Regional surveys - hydrogeological mapping undertaken by UNDP, national
governments and institutions in the SADC region, especially Namibia, Botswana and
South Africa. The SADC countries are jointly preparing a hydrogeological map of the
region.
• Fracture and dyke locations and density distributions have been produced in South
Africa using interpretation of aero-magnetic surveys and remotely sensed satellite
imagery (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002).
• Three dimension analysis of dolerite ring dyke complexes intruded into Karoo age
sediments has been undertaken in the middle Karoo area of South Africa. This report
by Chevallier, Goedhart and Woodford (2001) describes the attitude of linear and ring
dykes and sills, and the associated occurrences of groundwater
• Rock weathering and soils formation data is obtained from geomorphological studies
and detailed borehole lithologs. Such data is important when trying to assess regional
patterns and rates of potential recharge and groundwater resources where the water
table occurs within the weathered zone. Guidelines on the collection of borehole data
are given in MacDonald, Davies and O’Dochartaigh (2001).
• A digital 3D terrain analysis map for the evaluation of rainfall run-off was obtained as
part of the Lesotho Highlands regional study but may have originated from a military
source in South Africa. Maps of geomorphology, geology and soils could be draped
over this 3D terrain model.
• Botha et al (1998) described the geology, geometry and properties of Karoo aquifers
of the Bloemfontein area west of Lesotho. The Water Research Commission of South
Africa has recently produced an edited volume of current papers describing new ideas
on the nature of fractured Karoo sedimentary aquifers.
• Meyer (2002) and Van Wyk (2002) describe guidelines for and the current status of
water level and groundwater chemistry monitoring as undertaken in South Africa by
DWAF. As in Lesotho, the use of use of digital data loggers to record water levels is
reliant upon aid donor funding.

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• Conceptual models of the interaction of climatic factors, groundwater and surface

water flows and abstractions, and their impact upon the local ecology are being
formalised for each of the main river basins and sub-basins in South Africa.
• The need for a detailed water quality baseline survey to identify potential problem
areas where WHO standards are not met has been highlighted by litigation regarding
the natural contamination of groundwater with arsenic in Bangladesh, and problems
with high fluoride concentrations in central southern India, Tanzania and Sri Lanka.
• Groundwater Consultants have made available an up-to-data borehole installation
costing structure in spreadsheet format. These figures could be used to produce a
comparison of borehole costs with those for dam construction and water supply
reticulation, with life expectancy and reliability in short and long term.
• Groundwater Information Systems (GIS) have been introduced into Botswana,
Namibia and South Africa where they are used to model various aquifer scenarios.
Some problems have been experienced with the German Geodin system in Namibia
and Botswana. Until these systems become more user friendly and accessible, raw
data should be stored in spreadsheets such as Excel and Access from where they can
be transferred into ArcView or other GIS.
• Guidelines on methods of geophysical surveys to locate drilling sites, methods of
borehole drilling, construction and test-pumping are presented in Sami and Murray
(1998), Groundwater Consultants (2001) and MacDonald, Davies and O’Dochartaigh
(2001). In the present era where exploration-drilling costs are prohibitive, every effort
should be made to acquire as much data as possible during the drilling of production
boreholes to obtain data needed to understand groundwater systems thereby cutting
development costs. Basic training could be provided by the course site supervisors
developed in Malawi by BGS (Davies et al, 2002).
• The WRC of South Africa should be encouraged to disseminate its reports and
journals to a wider user group in adjacent countries where aquifer conditions are
similar to those occurring in South Africa.
• Groundwater demand varies with climate, season and drought. The population
distribution at the time of the national census, and a nominal water use in rural areas
of 25 l/person/day are used to assess rural groundwater demand. Rates of consumption
of water by urban populations (Table 1) and various types of livestock are also
assumed.

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6 Groundwater resource evaluation

TAMS (1996b) estimated the renewable groundwater resources of Lesotho to be 10.84 m3/s,
of which 7.37 m3/s is available in the lowland areas. Water balance studies indicate 2.5% of
annual rainfall recharges to groundwater systems in the lowlands region. Unfortunately there
are no water-level data to support these estimates. A series of digital hydrogeological
parameter data layers, created within a GIS, could be used in various combinations to show:
• the distribution of aquifers,
• the distribution of aquifer parameters,
• the interaction of surface and groundwater with vulnerability to change,
• aquifer recharge potential,
• the vulnerability of aquifers to pollution ,
• the to the effects of prolonged drought.
These together with long term water table and abstraction monitoring data can be used to
provide indication of groundwater resource distribution.

6.1 HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP

Data obtained from water supply boreholes have been collated with the national geological
map to produce hydrogeological maps of Lesotho. The first hydrogeological map of Lesotho
was produced by Mott MacDonald (1990) for the World Bank/UNDP at a scale of 1:250 000.
This was improved upon during the course of the Italian led Groundwater Project with an
updated version being published by Arduino, Bono and Del Sette (1994) at a scale of
1:300,000. The map includes:
• the extent of groundwater occurrence in fissured/jointed, jointed, porous, and
fissured/bedded/intergranular rocks,
• the distribution of selected boreholes, springs, wellpoints and hydrological stations
with their respective water temperatures, electrical conductivity, mean annual
discharge and minimum annual discharge,
• typical geological and hydrogeological cross-sections,
• characterisation of water chemistry for boreholes, springs and surface water,
• summarised hydrological data for various stations and rivers,
• surface water basin boundaries,
• the spatial distribution of rainfall, effective precipitation and effective precipitation
rainfall coefficient.
These maps are not available in digital format but Lesotho, in common with the other SADC
nations, has been asked to produce a digitised national hydrogeological map as a component
of the proposed hydrogeological map of the SADC region.

6.2 ENVIRONMENT VULNERABILITY MAP

This map would indicate areas of surface water – groundwater interaction and provide some
indication of the impact of groundwater abstraction on wetlands and river flows. The wetland

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areas of Lesotho include upland bogs and the floodplains of perennial and ephemeral rivers.
Although the ecology, climate, hydrology and geomorphology of wetlands have been studied,
little work has been done on surface-water/groundwater interaction.
Groundwater and surface water interaction occurs where:
• surface water is ‘influent’ and flows from a recognised surface water body into the
groundwater resource,
• groundwater is ‘effluent’ and groundwater discharges into and contributes to a surface
water body.
Prolonged rainfall drought and associated increased abstraction of groundwater markedly
affects patterns of flow between surface and ground water bodies. If a surface water body is
influent with respect to groundwater, then the rapid reduction in size of the surface water
body during a drought will reduce recharge to the groundwater resource which is often the
main source of water during a drought. Conversely, if the groundwater body is ‘effluent’ with
respect to surface water then the effects of a groundwater drought will reduce flow to the
surface water body, or even reverse the direction of flow. Conceptual models of wet and dry
season flow patterns between surface and groundwater bodies in the main basins need to be
developed.

6.3 POTENTIAL RECHARGE MAP

Although recharge to groundwater recharge forms an integral part of the hydrological cycle,
rates and patterns of aquifer recharge are difficult to determine. None of the methods of
recharge evaluation used in Southern Africa is readily applicable or reliable. Determination of
recharge data remains a research topic rather than a groundwater management and
development tool. Methods of estimating groundwater recharge include water balance,
chemical isotope and long-term water level change studies. In South Africa the results of
regional recharge studies were used to produce a tentative national recharge potential map.
Such a map of potential recharge could be produced for Lesotho using base line data sets
collected during the 1980-1992 drilling programme and survey of current aquifer conditions.

6.4 GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY TO POLLUTION

The susceptibility or vulnerability of groundwater to anthropogenic pollution is defined as
“the tendency and likelihood for general contaminants to reach the water-table after
introduction at the ground surface”. The vulnerability of an aquifer to pollution depends on
the characteristics of the strata separating the saturated aquifer from the ground surface. Once
the contaminants have arrived at the water table the aquifer is polluted. To assess the impact
of contamination, groundwater vulnerability is related to the groundwater resource.
The pollution of aquifers by human waste, urban run-off, and other pollutants are described
by Coughanowr (1994). He considers that in the developing world case studies of severe
ground-water pollution by hazardous and industrial wastes are rare. However, in rural areas,
there is increasing contamination of aquifers by fertilizers, pesticides and human and animal
waste. In his guide to the production of a groundwater contamination inventory Zaporozec
(2002) summarises contamination sources that planners and managers should be familiar
with, and proposes inventory structures to help hydrogeologists in:
• designing and implementing an inventory of contamination sources,
• determining the extent and degree of existing contamination,

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• explaining the impact of the existing and potential contamination sources on

groundwater,
• presenting results of the inventory on maps,
• using results of the inventory to suggest alternative strategies to protect groundwater.
At the time of the TAMS (1996) report little information was available on sources of
pollution in Lesotho (location, effluent characteristics and effluent treatment). Pollution
sources that were considered included:
• the sheepskin tannery in Maseru which emits chromium compounds,
• the stone-wash denim factory in Maseru, emitting a blue effluent, which is discharged
into the Caledon River without treatment,
• Maseru abattoir,
• some hospitals which discharge untreated effluent,
• other industries in Maseru and other large towns such as Maputsoe, Mafeteng and
Butha Buthe (e.g. canneries, pharmaceutical companies and textile factories),
• brewing, ice cream factories, flour mills, fertiliser blending and packaging factories,
and clothing manufacturers,
• small organizations that might dump waste which leads to water pollution,
• sewage works and untreated sewage effluent from rural communities,
• rubbish and waste dumping sites which are not properly managed allowing leaching
into groundwater sources,
• agricultural run-off and dipping practices,
• mining activity (e.g. Kao mine).
DRWS boreholes are only tested for bacterial contaminants if health problems such as
gastroenteritis, cholera or typhoid are reported.
Water samples are obtained after borehole drilling or during test pumping for hydrochemical
analysis of major ions and bacteria at WASA sites. Sanitary seals are grouted in around
boreholes as a matter of course. Protection zones are not demarcated around wellfields
supplying the urban centres therefore some of WASA’s urban supply boreholes are already
heavily polluted. There is no routine in-country testing for heavy metal or organic
contaminants that potentially pose long-term pollution and health risks. Some evidence of
pollution of groundwater has been obtained from a borehole in the vicinity of a solid waste
disposal site at Lancer’s Gap to the east of Maseru. Both DWA and WASA are resticted by
the limited water quality analytical capacity of their laboratories. WASA periodically sends
water samples from the Caledon River for detailed analysis to a private laboratory in
Pietermaritzburg.

6.5 DROUGHT VULNERABILITY MAPPING

A drought vulnerability map aims to show regions where groundwater resources are
vulnerable to groundwater drought to indicate the ability of the resource to provide a supply
during drought events. Key determinants of vulnerability include aquifer type, depth of the
weathered zone, well and borehole yields and rainfall (amount and variability). Such a
physical dataset identifying availability of resource and ease of access can be superimposed

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on a sociological dataset, analysing the distribution of demand, to form a composite drought

vulnerability map. This map is then used to identify vulnerable communities where efforts can
be targeted to provide drought proofing in pre-drought periods, and to ensure that appropriate
drilling methods and borehole designs are used.
Such a map of Lesotho would have been useful to the World Bank drought relief study of
1995. Lesotho would have been affected by the regional droughts of 1984, 1992 and 1994
among others. Without long term water level records to correlate with climatic records the
impact of drought events upon groundwater resources cannot be determined.
In areas underlain by low permeability aquifers where there are limited groundwater
resources, and borehole yields are low, the effect of prolonged periods of drought may be
disproportionately large especially if abstraction leads to the mining of the groundwater
resource.

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7 Discussion and Recommendations

7.1 INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Are the contents and conclusions of the groundwater section of the TAMS (1996) report
still valid?
The TAMS report is a review of hydrogeological and related information available from rural
and urban water supply schemes prior to 1994. The lack of data and the limited software
packages used to analyse them reflect the database and GIS techniques available at that time.
ArcView based maps were generated as base maps and to show main aquifer distributions.
Some raw data were stored within associated databases. Much of the data were collected by
DRWS technical staff whose lack of professional hydrogeological training is reflected in the
poor quality of data collected during borehole drilling and test pumping. Following borehole
installation, little attempt was made to monitor water level or water quality changes with time.
Such data are needed for effective estimation of groundwater resources and their absence
limited the hydrogeologists contributing to the TAMS report using water balance based
estimates of groundwater resources. Unfortunately this lack of long-term data has not
improved. Their guesstimates are the only reference until comprehensive data collecting,
baseline surveys and long term monitoring systems are put in place to provide the data
necessary for more accurate methods of recharge determination. TAMS does not cover the
impacts of privatisation, decentralisation, NGOs and the application of the demand response
approach of cooperating with communities.
What were the reasons for the drilling of large numbers of boreholes during the 1980s and
early 1999s?
The large numbers of boreholes installed by the DRWS during the 1982-1992 period were
funded by Aid donors as part of the United Nations World Water Supply and Sanitation
Decade (1981-1990). This coincided with the Italian funded Groundwater Programme
undertaken with the Department of Water Affairs Groundwater Division. The borehole
database established by the Groundwater Programme (GWP) included information from
boreholes installed during the UN World Water Decade and a number of exploration
boreholes installed by the GWP. 50 of the reported 130 technical reports produced by the
GWP are listed in Appendix 1 as being available at the GWC and DWA libraries. These
should provide more geological, hydrogeological and test pumping data not present in the
GWP database.
What borehole drilling and test pumping was undertaken during the 1990’s and 2000’s?
Rural water supply borehole installation continued at a reduced rate during 1995-2002 due to
reduced levels of donor funding. DRWS has been reorganised, becoming more responsive to
the needs of communities by acting as a facilitator enabling full community participation in
NGO-led water supply projects. This ensures that communities ‘own’ their water supply
systems and participate in operation and maintenance. During 1995-96 drought, DRWS
assessed the operating condition of a large number of rural boreholes and several hundred
boreholes were drilled as part of the World Bank Drought Relief Project. Failed boreholes
were replaced and those with reduced yields were cleaned out. DRWS in correspondence files
indicate that all rehabilitated and new boreholes were test pumped. These drilling and test
pumping data should exist in hard copy format on the files of DRWS at district level.
Therefore, DRWS should hold most of the existing borehole data for the potential peri-urban
areas.

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Urban water supply borehole installation continued to be implemented by WASA under the
supervision of consultants who ensured collection of hydrogeological data during the
borehole siting, drilling and test-pumping phases. The lack of long term monitoring activity
was addressed by GWC during their later projects, as at Butha-Buthe in 1998.
What proportion of rural boreholes were successfully installed and how many remain in
operation?
The numbers and locations of operational boreholes and failed boreholes (with causes of
failure) need to be obtained from DRWS district offices. Their distributions will indicate
where groundwater can or cannot be successfully exploited. An assessment of the
sustainability of existing boreholes using maintenance data held at district level in DRWS
offices will help determine the operational life expectancy of rural water supply boreholes.
Questions such as “Should plastic well screens and casings now be used in preference to
steel?” and “Who owns the hand pumped boreholes, DRWS or the communities?” need to be
asked.
What proportion of the rural population is now reliant upon groundwater?
Villages were originally located adjacent to springs or rivers. The use of boreholes has
allowed the settlement of lands away from such traditional water sources. Under this
circumstance villagers may become reliant upon groundwater abstracted from boreholes as
their sole sources of water. This situation could cause problems if these resources do not
prove to be sustainable in the long term. There is need to identify those villages that are
totally reliant upon groundwater and the status of their supply boreholes.
What impact have privatisation and decentralisation had upon groundwater development
and data collection in Lesotho?
Privatisation of WASA, decentralisation of the DRWS, reduced central/donor funding, lack of
cash for equipment have all impacted upon the effectiveness of organisations associated with
groundwater development. Currently it is difficult to maintain levels of appropriate
technological advancement. Items such as PCs GPSs, laptops are now relatively cheap as is
the purchase of remotely sensed satellite imagery, but formerly freely available equipment
such as vehicles, fuel and staff are now relatively expensive making fieldwork and thus data
collection prohibitive. Site specific and temporal hydrogeological and operational data need to
be collected from wellfields so that their sustainability can be assessed.
What information should be collected from rural and urban water supply schemes for
recording in a groundwater database and groundwater information system?
The following categories of hydrogeological information should be recorded wherever
possible:
• georeferenced borehole and spring locations,
• borehole geological logs with drill penetration rates, water struck levels and discharge
rates,
• water levels,
• borehole discharge rates and specific capacities,
• borehole construction including drilled depth and diameter, types and dimensions of
screens and casings installed as well as details of gravel packed and grouted sections,
• pump types,

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• test pumping data with details of equipment and drawdown-recovery data with dates
and static water levels,
• groundwater hydrochemistry.
These data can be used to:
• up-grade data collection,
• assess borehole sustainability using specific capacity determinations in the absence of
transmissivity and storage coefficient determinations,
• assess causes of borehole failure,
• identify and relate long term trends in climate and drought to changes in water levels
and spring flows,
• produce a table of the 150 potential peri-urban areas showing groundwater
development potential of the underlying aquifer for each.
In addition, Use wellfield studies as case studies of specific aquifers and apply the results
countrywide to obtain a national/district wide picture of how groundwater

7.2 GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

The DRWS has guidelines on the design, construction and maintenance of rural water supply
schemes that include:
• construction and maintenance manual for rural community based handpump equipped
boreholes,
• tender document with specifications for the drilling, installation and test pumping of
‘high capacity boreholes’,
• general description of groundwater occurrence .
Borehole specifications and standards continue to vary from project-to-project.
There are no national water quality standards: Instead the Water Pollution Control division of
the DWA, WASA, and other agencies refer to WHO standards which are yet to be applied.
On enactment of the Environmental Bill (2000), the establishment of water quality standards
will be the responsibility of the National Environmental Secretariat (NES) in consultation
with Government Ministries. Water quality guidelines for domestic water supply have been
drafted by the NES(1998).
The legal framework for the regulation of groundwater development is provided by the Water
Resources Act, 1978, which is being revised. The Act requires permission from the DWA for
the drilling of boreholes for water abstraction. The draft version of the Water Resources
Management Policy (1998) outlines groundwater development issues such as:
• permits for regulation for groundwater abstraction,
• “polluter pays” control of groundwater pollution,
• groundwater information system,
• hydrogeological mapping,
• groundwater quality monitoring by DWA,
• groundwater exploration, resource assessment and management.

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Adequate geological and geomorphological/soils understanding: - The natures of subsurface

soils, weathered zones, underlying geology and water production zones are needed for
determination of groundwater movement and rainfall recharge patterns. This knowledge is
best achieved by the collection and description of lithological samples, penetration log data
and water strike data during borehole drilling. For Karoo sedimentary aquifers, understanding
of the weathered and non-weathered zones and the presence of fractures and fissures are
needed. Unfortunately, although thousands of boreholes have been drilled into these water
bearing zones, little detailed information has been acquired and consequently knowledge of
these zones remains poor. DWA and consultant supervisory staffs need to acquire borehole
site data collection skills so that geological data can be correlated with water strike, water
yield and penetration rate data. Professional hydrogeologists should not rely upon drillers to
collect these data, especially from exploration boreholes
Adequate knowledge of the water transmitting and storage properties: - Knowledge of the
groundwater-related properties of sub-surface materials is needed to conceptualise parts of the
hydrological cycle such as groundwater recharge and movement. This information is best
obtained during borehole drilling, depth sampling and test pumping.
Adequate understanding of various temporal factors: - Knowledge of temporal variations in
groundwater levels and quality is needed to understand the behaviour of aquifer systems.
Long term time series groundwater level and quality data availability is poor. In contrast long-
term rainfall, runoff and river flow data are available. Collection of temporal data depends
upon suitable monitoring systems that have been maintained and operated over a long period.
In Lesotho no raw water level data were seen but DWA informed that water level monitoring
is limited to several autographic chart recorders in the south-west and the periodic monitoring
of a network of boreholes using manual water level dippers.
DWA plan to:
• obtain data loggers and locate these in the peri-urban areas,
• upgrade the monitoring of water levels in the WASA wellfields with data-loggers.
Few water quality data are presented in the DWA and DRWS databases. Presumably
analytical data are present in the data files of the DWA and WASA laboratories and but are
limited to major ion chemistries.
DWA and DRWS need to:
• Investigate fluoride problem,
• Undertake aquifer pollution vulnerability mapping in the expanding peri-urban areas,
• Assess the impact of VIP pit latrines upon aquifer conditions,
• Train staff and upgrade equipment to undertake analyses to WHO standards,
• Increase water quality monitoring in wellfields and peri-urban areas

7.3 EXPLORATION AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

The Groundwater Division of DWA is responsible for groundwater exploration and resource
assessment. Groundwater exploration procedures should be the preserve of the DWA and not
consultants but due to lack of resources and expertise the Division is limited in what it can
archive. DWA aims to assess the availability of sustainable groundwater resources and
borehole yields as well as the economics of groundwater development on a district/aquifer
basis. Boreholes drilled for production purposes should be regarded as exploration boreholes

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to maximise collection of data. Some data are available in a number of brief reports on siting,
drilling and test pumping, carried out during the Groundwater Project. These data and those
from subsequent exploration and development programmes, need to collected and collated to
present an overview of groundwater resources and development in Lesotho to complement the
hydrogeological map. Such a report would produce clear guidelines for groundwater
development and resource assessment. TAMS (1996) estimated groundwater resources in
terms of both dynamic (renewable) and static resources for major surface water basins and
administrative districts. Estimates of groundwater usage were also produced using a rural
water supply inventory and administrative records. One vision is the production of
hydrogeological maps at a scale of 1:50,000 as tools for development.
The supervision of rural groundwater development by professional hydrogeologists or
qualified technicians is rare, due to the misconception that they are expensive to employ. In
contrast, consultant hydrogeologists supervise the siting and installation of urban water supply
boreholes for WASA. The Ground Water Division lacks experienced professional staff. The
DRWS have no in-house hydrogeologists to supervise borehole drilling and testing
programmes they facilitate. This has led to poor data collection and reporting. Few borehole
records contain water strike or detailed geological log data. Of the 5 000+ boreholes drilled by
DRWS so far, few comprehensive borehole completion reports are available. Hydrogeological
supervision is provided on WASA borehole drilling and testing programmes by specialist
consultants. The reporting standard is fairly high and analysis is provided. Similar supervision
and reporting were provided by DWA during recent exploration programmes.
All borehole records for the Maseru region of DRWS pre 1988 were lost in 1988 when the
DRWS district office in Maseru was burnt to the ground by invading South African forces.
This demonstrates the requirement for a back up data system out of country.
The groundwater sector is poorly funded although it plays an important role in urban and rural
water supply, as reflected in public and private sector groundwater capacities. Neither DWA
nor DRWS have sufficient in-house expertise on groundwater, therefore has to outsource
these activities. The GWD of DWA has some professional capacity with two drilling rigs and
a test-pumping unit.

7.4 TRAINING
The training of professional and technical staff involved in groundwater is important to
Government. Unfortunately, the loss of qualified professionals to the private sector results in
a high rate of turnover in government groundwater staff. Training for staff of DWA is now
provided through workshops and seminars as well as on-the-job training at technician level.
The Institute for Groundwater Studies, University of the Orange Free State in Bloemfontein
provides two-year or longer degree courses. The BGS training course for technicians engaged
in the supervision of the siting, drilling, construction and test pumping of rural development
boreholes could be adapted for presentation in Lesotho (Davies et al, 2002).

7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
Groundwater is used extensively within rural Lesotho, both as a source of domestic water
supply and for irrigation. Information derived from boreholes drilled by the Department of
Rural Water Supply should be used to provide indication of groundwater availability in areas
designated as potential sites for peri-urban and urban development by 2050. Although these
areas of the Lowlands region of Lesotho are underlain by dolerite dyke intruded Karoo age
sedimentary rocks and basalts of low permeability and porosity, the limited groundwater

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resources will provide temporary water supply to the newly formed peri-urban areas. The
vulnerability of these aquifers to pollution from effluent deposited in the large number of pit
latrines that will proliferate within peri-urban settlements and associated waste disposal sites
needs to be assessed to define the limited period of useful exploitation. The results of
wellfield development undertaken for WASA by GWC and other consultants need to be fully
assessed and produced as a series of aquifer case studies to be used as conceptual models for
the development of further wellfields in areas of sufficient groundwater development
potential, as identified from the results of baseline surveys and GIS digitised data. It is
essential that groundwater database and long term monitoring systems be upgraded to provide
the necessary information if these developments are to take place. Groundwater will continue
to play a secondary but important role to surface water in supplying the needs of Lesotho’s
peri-urban and urban populations. The following recommendations made are aimed at setting
up mechanisms to fill the data gaps and identify additional systems needed.
• Collect, georeference, collate and digitise all available data from DRWS, DWA,
WASA and GWC raw data files. Store data in readily accessible and updateable
databases
• Establish effective monitoring systems and undertake hydrochemical and hydrocensus
baseline surveys
• Obtain digitised regional survey data to produce the following:
o geological map
o hydrogeological map
o soils distribution map
o fracture analysis map (satellite imagery)
o dyke distribution map (aeromagnetics)
o digital terrain map
o groundwater use map (produced from census data)
• The digital data for the above entered within a GIS would enable various data layers to
be combined to produce a map of groundwater resource development potential of
designated peri-urban and urban areas.
• Investigation boreholes should be drilled within those areas identified for peri-urban
development to determine their groundwater development potential for interim water
supply.
• Aquifer vulnerability mapping in urban/peri-urban and adjacent rural areas to identify
susceptible areas.
A phased study of aquifer properties and use will require the following:
• Hydrochemical baseline survey for determination of major, minor and trace elements
including iodine, fluoride and arsenic. The results of this baseline survey could be
correlate with epidemiological data and potential pollution sources in designated peri-
urban development areas
• Borehole location and status baseline survey to assess the distribution of dry, failing
and successful boreholes that could be used to indicate areas of good groundwater
development potential. This survey would indicate which of the designated urban
areas could be supplied from groundwater sources. This survey to include:
o GPS location of boreholes, springs etc

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o Water levels using electric water level dippers for one off measurements and data
logger systems for long term monitoring. This survey will indicate the effects of
long term abstraction on aquifers, thus identifying areas of good or poor resources
and areas of low recharge potential
o Water quality – conductivity and temperature
o Yields – how much is being abstracted and how used
o Equipment – pump type and status
o Borehole specific capacities - using simple bail test to do a quick drawdown
recovery test
• Study of the pollution threat from pit latrines especially in areas identified for peri-
urban development. Need a survey of pit latrine distribution, how often are they
emptied if ever, how long does a pit latrine last before it fills up or collapses. Need
also to assess the presence of agro-chemicals used for irrigation.
• Groundwater use survey to determine the distribution of groundwater abstraction. This
will held identify areas where groundwater can be successfully used for designated
peri-urban area development as well as areas of potential village and irrigation
expansion.
• Survey of wellfields to assess their long-term sustainability and reassess their
groundwater resources. Information derived from the development of these wellfields
could be compiled as a series of case studies to be used to advise the future
development of wellfields in similar hydrogeological environments.
• Improved collection of geological information, such as patterns of colour change,
water struck, yield variations with depth and penetration rates all at 1m intervals,
during drilling will better inform hydrogeologists of patterns of weathering, fracturing,
dyke intrusion, required to understand how groundwater exists and flows within the
geological formations present.
• Detailed hydraulic parameters such as permeabilities and porosities from core plug
samples and data derived from the packer testing and down-hole flow logging of
boreholes will inform patterns of groundwater flow and potential recharge estimates.
• Down the hole geophysical wire-line logging of boreholes using natural gamma logs
to identify formation sandstone/shale ratios, radiation logs to identify variations in
formation porosity and down hole television viewes to identify the nature of inflow
zones.
• Need to enhance the activities of DRWS given its lack of hydrogeological expertise
and provide practical training to DWA and DRWS in geophysical survey siting
methods and databasing activities.
• An assessment of where groundwater use fits into the development of peri-urban
areas. Is groundwater to be used as a stopgap source of supply until reticulated waters
supplies are plumbed in? Is the contamination of groundwater sources underlying peri-
urban areas with anthropogenic waste for pit latrines to be regarded as a foregone
conclusion?

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References
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Education, National University of Lesotho.
ARDUINO, G, BONO, P AND DEL SETTE, P , 1994. Hydrogeological Map of Lesotho. Scale 1:300
000. Lesotho Government, Ministry of Natural Resources, Department of Water Affairs, Groundwater
Division, in association with the Italian Government, General Directorate of Development Co-
operation, MOLISV – Groundwater Project.
BINNIE AND PARTNERS, 1971. Lesotho; study on water resources development; inventory report.
Vol. 2, Geology. UNDP/IBRD, London and Maseru (Chapter 4, 4.3 Boreholes, pp 35-42, Chapter 5
Groundwater, pp 35-50).
BINNIE SHAND LESOTHO, 1977. Twelve Towns Water Supply Study. Volume 6; Supplementary
Borehole Drilling and Testing Programme. Final Report, December 1977. In association with Peat
Marwick Mitchell for KfW, Lesotho.
BONNEY, G , 1975. Estimates of groundwater resources in Lesotho. Department of Mines and
Geology Hydrogeology Section, Lesotho Government, Maseru.
BOTHA, J F , VERWEY, J P , VAN DER VOORT, I , VIVIER, J J P , BUYS, J , COLLISTON, W P
AND LOOCK, J C , 1998. Karoo Aquifers: Their geology, geometry and physical properties. Report
to the Water Research Commission by the Institute for Groundwater Studies, University of the Free
State. WRC Report No. 487/1/98.
CHEVALLIER, L , GOEDHART, M AND WOODFORD, A C , 2001. The influence of dolerite sill
and ring complexes on the occurrence of groundwater in Karoo fractured aquifers: a morpho-tectonic
approach. Water Research Commission report No. 937/1/01, 146 pp
DAVIES, J , COBBING, J , ROBINS, N S , KULULANGA, G K , MANDOWA, W and HANKIN, P
, 2002. Development of a Curriculum and Training of Supervision Teams in Borehole Construction in
Malawi. British Geological Survey International Report, CR/02/219N. pp. 27 and CD-ROM.
ENVIRONMENTAL BILL 2000; Government of Lesotho.
GKW CONSULT, 1998. Two Towns Water Supply Project: Butha Buthe Upgrading; Stage 2 Final
Report December 1998. Water and Sewerage Authority, Lesotho. (WASA) .
GROUNDWATER CONSULTANTS, 1993. Groundwater development in Morija and Teyateyaneng
towns od Lesotho; Progress Report No. 1, February 1993. Water and Sewerage Authority, Lesotho.
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GROUNDWATER CONSULTANTS, 1995. Groundwater development in Maseru and peri-urban
areas of Maseru; Final Report, February 1995. Water and Sewerage Authority, Ministry of Water,
Energy and Mining, Lesotho. (WASA) .
GROUNDWATER CONSULTANTS, 1995. Groundwater exploration and development in Leribe;
Progress Report, May 1995. Water and Sewerage Authority, Lesotho. (WASA) .
GROUNDWATER CONSULTANTS BEE PEE (PTY) LTD, 2000. Six Towns Water Supply Project.
Project No. 7 ACP LSO 041. Preparation of Phase II, Final Report: Preliminary Design Report. For:
European Development Fund of the European Community and the Water and Sewerage Authority
(WASA), Ministry of Natural Resources, Lesotho.
GROUNDWATER CONSULTANTS, 2001. Development of a Code of Good Practice for
Groundwater Development in the SADC Region, Report No. 2 (Final). Guidelines for the
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JOHNSTONE, A , 1991. The results of the hydrogeological investigation of the South Phuthiatsana
river abstraction system supplying water to the Moshoeshoe 1 International Airport. Groundwater
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LAHMEYER INTERNATIONAL, 1992. Maseru Water Supply Phase III, Pre-feasibility study,
Volume 2, Main Report (Draft). October 1992. Water and Sewerage Authority, Ministry of Water
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MACDONALD, A M, DAVIES, J, AND O’DOCHARTAIGH, B, 2001. Simple Methods for
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MEYER, R , 2002. Guidelines for the monitoring and management of groundwater resources in rural
water supply schemes. Water Research Commission report No.861/1/02a, 59 pp
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SECRETARIAT (NES); 1998; Proposed Water Quality Guidelines
for Lesotho – Domestic (Drinking) Water Guidelines.
RIEMER, W , 1988. Two Towns Water Supply: Evaluation of options for groundwater development.
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CONSULTORES DE HIDRAULICA E SALUBRIDADE, 1990. Hydrogeological Map of Lesotho.
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021/9. For the Government of Lesotho. 252p.
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Appendix 1 Groundwater Programme Reports

DWA GWC Ambrose GWP Date Report title
44 315 3 Oct-86 Water Branch: Moroeroe Catchment Area (Ha Mopeli - Butha-Buthe) Pumping test preliminary report
14 319 4 Dec-86 Preliminary report on the boreholes construction fir the Butha Buthe Hospital
15 321 5 Feb-87 Mafeteng LNDC Site: Groundwater Forcasting
26 326 10 May-87 Project Lesili: Forecast of groundwater reswources
17 329 11 Jun-87 Final report on the boreholes construction for the Butha-Buthe Hospital
18 328 12 Jun-87 Teyateyaneng: borehole field - St Agnes Catchment Area
19 330 13 Jun-87 Butha-Buthe woodlot nursery - borehole pumping test
2 332 14 Aug-87 Village water supply: Thaba Bosiu Pumping Test (Bh 8)
3 337 16 Sep-87 Village water supply: Masitise Pumping Test (Bh10A)
46 17 Sep-87 Butha-Buthe: base flow measurements in 1983, 1984 and 1985
48 18 Oct-87 Hydrogeological outlines of Maoamafubelu drainage basin
45 338 20 Nov-87 Village water supply hydrogeological survey at Ha Ralejoe-Ha Phaloane
49 316 21 Nov-87 Khamane village pumping test (Bh1, Bh2)
50 336 22 Nov-87 Village water supply: Mese-pela pumping test (Bh1)
51 340 23 Jan-88 Leribe woodlot pumping test (Bh1)
52 342 25 Feb-88 Lesotho Youth Service 'Train Work Village' hydrogeological survey
27 343 26 Feb-88 Geological survey for borehole siting: Leribe District and Mafeteng District
28 345 27 Feb-88 Forestry division: Maseru Woodlot Nursery hydrogeological survey for borehole siting
29 348 28 Mar-88 Thabana Li Mele:'Craft centre': Drilling and pumping tests on two boreholes
30 349 29 Mar-88 Hydrogeological investigation in Mount Tabor
31 350 30 Mar-88 Sekameng Mine: boreholes drilling and pumping test
32 351 31 Mar-88 Masite Mission Pumping Test: Bh 11
33 353 33 Apr-88 Masianokeng Roads Camp hydrogeological survey
34 355 34 Apr-88 Ha Ralejoe: drilling and pumping test on 3 boreholes
35 71 360 35 Jun-88 Water Branch: boreholes survey for Roma water supply
36 361 36 Jun-88 St Monica: Holy Family High School water supply
37 365 41 Jul-88 Borehole siting for Dilli Clinic, Quthing
38 372 51 Oct-88 Letsie High School (Thaba-Bosiu)
39 373 52 Oct-88 VWS hydrogeological survey for borehole siting Tlhakoli and Nqechane Village, Leribe District
40 362 53 Oct-88 St Monica: Holy Family High School water supply - pumping test on bh No 2
41 377 54 Dec-88 Village water supply geological survey for Bh siting, Ha Mofoka: Maseru District
42 375 55 Nov-88 Ts'a Kholo Area: hydrogeological survey for bh siting
43 380 56 Jan-89 Linotsing clinic water supply
44 383 57 Mar-89 Caledonsproot pumping test: Archiplan studies
23 386 69 May-89 Linotsing pumping tests

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76 393 71 Sep-89 Thabeng high school: pumping test - Morija

11 400 76 Jan-90 Maputsoe water supply for water Branch
63 406 88 May-90 TY St Agnes water supply drilling and pumping test
37 400 89 Jun-90 Teyateyaneng Water Supply; borehole field at Phuthiatsana tretment plant
73 455 119 Oct-92 WASA borehole pumping tests - Katlehong and Lower Thetsane
47 335 ? Oct-87 Upper Koete Dairy Farm: Matsieng (Bh 1)
47 270 Feb-83 Hydrogeological survey in Morija wellfield
75 Feb-83 Hydrogeological survey in Morija wellfield
30 290 Jun-84 National University of Lesotho study for water supply
310 Sep-85 Construction of 50 boreholes in the rural area of Tsa-Kholo - Mafeteng District, Lesotho (Nov 1984-Sept 1985)
9 314 Sep-86 Marsieng Water Supply - preliminary report
8 364 Jul-88 Hydrogeological investigation for Butha-Buthe water supply: drilling and pumping test
24 452 Jul-92 Site visit to Maputsoe and TY wellfields
8 394 Sep-89 Progress evaluation of the Groundwater Project Activities and equipment inventory

Key
DWA – Department of Water Affairs library number
GWC – Groundwater consultants bibliography number
Ambrose – Dr Ambrose’s bibliography number
GWP – Ground water project technical report number

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