BLOCK 2

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict Management

66
 Methods of Conflict
UNIT 5 METHODS OF CONFLICT Resolution

RESOLUTION

Structure
Introduction
Aims and Objectives
Typology of Conflicts
Management, Transformation, Settlement and Resolution of Conflicts
Conflict Management
Conflict Transformation
Conflict Settlement
Conflict Resolution
Changing Nature of Conflicts
Methods of Conflict Resolutions
Redistributive and Integrative Perspectives
The Role of Civil Society
Let Us Sum Up
Some Useful References
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

5.0 INTRODUCTION
There is no one golden method of conflict resolution. The history of conflict
resolution at the same time has been one of constant and tireless experimentation
with various methods since the time the necessity of resolving conflicts was felt.
The reason is simple: a method that has evidently worked in one society at one
particular point of time may not be as much successful – if at all - in another
society or even in the same society sometime later. As no two conflicts across
the world are identical, the methods of their resolution are bound to be different.
This Unit will make an attempt at drawing some broad generalisations particularly
from the recent past history of conflict resolution. It is obvious that we need to
understand the nature of conflicts in the first place in order to resolve them.
Aims and Objectives
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
know the types and nature of conflicts;
distinguish between various kinds of conflicts;
understand conflict resolution and how is it distinguishable from conflict
management, conflict settlement and conflict resolution;
know the changing nature of conflicts; and
understand the methods of conflict resolution.

Prof. Samir Kumar Das, Professor of Political Science, University of Kolkata, Kolkata

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Conflict Management 5.1 TYPOLOGY OF CONFLICTS

Since methods of conflict resolution are bound to vary in keeping with changing
nature of conflicts waiting for resolution, a brief reference to the typology of
conflicts may not be out of place here – although in real-life cases conflicts cut
across the sharp division between the given types and are likely to be of mixed
and overlapping nature. At an elementary level, one can see that conflict between
two or more individuals is different from that between two or more groups.
Conflict between individuals is likely to be more easily solved than the latter.
The task becomes even easier if the individuals involved in conflict belong to
the same group. The command of the group often works wonder in resolving
conflicts of this nature.

Lewis Coser makes a distinction between conflicts that (threaten to) disintegrate
the society at large and conflicts that do not. As we have already noted, some
conflicts may be encouraged (like conflict between individuals belonging to the
same group) in order that neither group is able to take a hardened position that
eventually becomes too difficult to resolve.

Such conflicts as those between ethnicities, classes, generations or even nations

are illustrative of the second type. Contemporary evidences however point out
that conflicts between ethnic groups
based on perceived blood ties often Conflict of Interests andConflict
prove to be more difficult to resolve of values
than class conflicts. The situation really In a parliamentary democracy like
turns worse when ethnic conflicts tend India, different political parties
to coincide with class conflicts. The system but may have conflicting
adivasis, for example, are not only Interest on an issue like Foreign
ethnically different from the Varna- Direct Investment.
Hindus, but are reported to bear the
brunt of poverty and homelessness Conflict of Value: A radical Maoist
induced by the commissioning of Group may not believe in the
development projects in what once used parliamentary democratic system
to be their habitat. Poverty and and thereby not participate in
homelessness on the other hand are elections
rightly considered as a measure of their
poor class status. A report prepared by the Expert Group to the Planning
commission of India in 2008, for example, highlights the connection between
ethnicity, economic backwardness and Maoist violence in parts of Central India
in the following terms: ―The main support for the Naxalite movement comes
from dalits and adivasis‖.

Besides, it is also important to make a distinction between conflict of interests

and conflict of values. In a parliamentary democracy like the one we have in
India, political parties have conflicting interests. Thus to cite a very recent
example, some of them welcome the foreign direct investment in retail trade
while there are others who are vociferously opposed to it. The ruling Trinamul
Congress (TMC) Government in West Bengal staged its exit from the UPA II
Government at the Centre on this issue. Notwithstanding such differences, all
parties within our parliamentary democracy have first of all decided to abide by
its rules and values and keep faith in its institutions with the effect that they take
part in elections organised to choose peoples‘ representatives. By contrast there
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are some radical groups and parties that do not look upon parliamentary democracy Methods of Conflict
Resolution
as a value in itself. They continue to stay away from its ambit and do not take
part in elections. It is obvious that the more there is agreement on rules and
values, the easier will be the process of conflict resolution. The reverse is also
true.

MANAGEMENT, TRANSFORMATION,
SETTLEMENT AND RESOLUTION OF
CONFLICTS
There is hardly any point of agreement – whether amongst the scholars or amongst
the activists – on what resolution of conflict entails. While such terms as conflict
management, transformation, settlement and resolution are widely used as
synonyms, it is important for us to make the finer distinctions among them.

Conflict Management
‗Conflict management‘ refers essentially to a specific kind of work, for example,
engaging in mediation by those who have the expertise in handling them in a
way that eventually results in the disappearance of conflict. Much of the literature
on conflict resolution is concentrated on how the conflicting parties may be
persuaded to participate in talks and listen to each other, the size and shape of the
table (the colonial rulers in India for example had a preference for roundtable
with stakeholders sitting around it) necessary for holding such talks, how the
first move may be made to break the ice, the precise moment that makes the
conflicting parties enter the negotiation process etc. A number of conflict
management manuals elaborately laying down such rituals and protocols of
management are in circulation as much as there are institutions of and for conflict
management across the world. Conflict management has by now become a
separate field of specialisation and profession. Thus state initiated development
in Jangalmahal in West Bengal or other areas affected by Maoist insurgency can
be seen as attempts to manage conflicts and triumph over violence. Often the
managers refuse to remain mute facilitators and are seen to dictate terms necessary
for ending conflict and compel the parties to accept them. Conflict management
may call for the intervention of both State and non-State actors as third party. As
we will have occasion to see, the role of civil society in managing conflicts can
hardly be exaggerated in the present context.

Conflict Transformation
Conflict transformation as an approach can apply to all stages of conflict, and
encompasses relatively constructive ways of conducting and transforming
conflicts ‗from harmful conflicts to less harmful or productive one‘ and
maintaining secure and equitable relations amongst the conflicting parties. Not
all conflicts are harmful to the society – at least not to the same degree – as you
have already read. Conflict transformation, viewed in this light, can serve as a
strategy of conflict management insofar as the managers of conflict may find it
judicious to often encourage intra-group conflicts as a counterweight to intergroup
ones.

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Conflict Management 5.2.3 Conflict Settlement
Conflict settlement refers to ways of settling or ending conflicts that entail joint
efforts to reach mutually acceptable agreements between the conflicting parties,
most importantly without the mediation of others. Unlike in third party
intervention, the duty of settling conflicts rests with the parties in conflict as
much as outside intervention is considered as unwelcome. India insists that the
problem of Kashmir is an Indo-Pak problem to be settled bilaterally by them –
without any outside intervention — while Pakistan is known to have
internationalized the issue on several occasions by raising it at international forums
and even in the United Nations. Since the settlement is expected to be reached
without any outside intervention and is the outcome of an agreement of the
conflicting parties themselves, conflict settlement is likely to bring about more
durable peace than what conflict management leads to.

5.2.4 Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is the act of settling and ending conflicts by addressing the
issues that trigger them and in ways that are not only considered as mutually
acceptable to the conflicting parties but also helps establish such universal values
as rights, justice, democracy etc. Conflict settlement does not have the obligation
of adhering to these principles. In other words, both the solutions which are
sought, and the means through which they are sought are judged against the
criteria of being against violence, dominance, oppression, and exploitation, and
for the satisfaction of human needs for security, identity, self determination and
quality of life for all people. Satisfaction of human needs is thought to be inversely
proportional to the conflagration of conflicts. As Johan Galtung observes:
―The idea that however much collective actors are capable of realising
abstract goals, ultimately, sooner or later the failure to satisfy basic human
needs will generate forces – popular movements that is – that will threaten
even the most beautiful construction in social-political architectonics.
Hence, it is important to conceive of human needs in such a way that their
non-satisfaction, both from empirical experience and from more general
and theoretical points of view, will with very high likelihood lead to such
movements. The needs may for some time be suppressed, the movements
may for some time be repressed, but sooner or later the forces will be
there‖.
The values that are supposed to guide the processes of conflict resolution are
neither given nor unalterable. Values do change – not of course as fast as the role
of third parties. Defined thus, conflict resolution is to be distinguished from both
conflict management and conflict settlement. For one thing, conflict management
aims not so much at solving issues underlying the conflicts, but at psyching the
parties into believing in and accepting the terms of ending the conflict suggested
by the conflict managers. The practice of conflict management aims at utilizing
knowledge of psychological processes to maximize the positive potential inherent
in a conflict and to prevent its destructive consequences. The methods of conflict
management are therefore different from those of conflict resolution. Conflict
management depends on a repertoire of techniques necessary for influencing the
minds of the conflicting parties. That is why, such instrumentalities as talks,
negotiations and observance of diplomatic rituals etc acquire importance.
Influencing the minds of conflicting parties can occur without necessarily solving
70 the outstanding issues that set the conflict in motion.
For another, conflict resolution is also to be distinguished from conflict settlement. Methods of Conflict
Resolution
Two parties can mutually settle a conflict that otherwise sets them apart in a way
that may be beneficial for them only to the detriment of the society at large and
does not help restore the universal values that human societies have been
cherishing for ages. Gandhi would have rather preferred to let conflicts grow
and continue – than addressing them through morally unacceptable means.
Unfortunately, observance of morals does not necessarily guarantee peace. Peace
achieved through management or even mutual settlement may in fact be a
stumbling block to the establishment of the principles of rights, justice and
democracy.

Gandhi was certainly not alone in making such an advocacy. The moral and
practical issues related to dealing with various kinds of conflicts were widely
discussed, emphasizing the importance of reasoning. For example, Immanuel
Kant (1724-1804) wrote about perpetual peace resulting from states being
constitutional republics and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) wrote about the value
of liberty and the free discussion of ideas. Gandhi, drawing from his Hindu
traditions and other influences, however developed a powerful strategy of popular
civil disobedience, which he called Satyagraha, the search for truth. Gandhi,
after his legal studies in London, went to South Africa; where, in the early 1890s,
he began experimenting with different nonviolent ways to counter the severe
discrimination imposed upon Indians living in South Africa. The nonviolent
strategies he developed were influential for the strategies that the African National
Congress (ANC) adopted in its struggle against apartheid or racial discrimination
on the basis of the colour of skin. The strategies of nonviolent struggle and
associated negotiations were further developed in the civil rights struggles in the
United States during the 1960s.

Key Points
Important distinction between terms that are often used interchangeably.
Conflict Management refers to limitations, mitigation and containment
of conflict.
Conflict settlement emphasises the reaching of agreement between the
parties, involving bargaining, negotiations, compromises and concessions
from both side.
Conflict Resolution holistic approach that addresses the deep rooted causes
of conflict, changes behavior and attitudes and builds mutual understanding
and values.
For Gandhi values based approach to conflict resolution important. Others
like Immanuel Kant, J. S. Mill also link values of republic and liberty to
peace.

Check Your Progress Exercises 1

Note: i) Use of the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Distinguish between settlement and resolution of conflicts.
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Conflict Management
5.3 CHANGING NATURE OF CONFLICTS
As we have already noted, conflicts change over time. A recent study conducted
by the Chennai-based Centre for Security Analysis concludes that conflicts
develop over time in a way that the ‗causes‘ originally triggering them are forgotten
after a while and newer ‗causes‘ are requisitioned in order to subsequently sustain
them. Thus to cite an example from the recent past history of Assam, violence
against the illegally settled foreigners in the 1980s eventually turned into one
against the Hindi-speaking settlers in the early 1990s – who by all accounts are
Indians. Understanding the morphology of conflicts is therefore important for
designing the methods of their resolution. The eclipse of Cold War between the
USA and the erstwhile USSR as two superpowers is also believed to have marked
the beginning of some newer forms of conflict as much as newer methods of
their resolution. The following paragraphs describe some new trends in the
evolution of conflicts particularly since the early 1990s:

1) When the Cold War ended in 1990, the number of active armed conflicts
stood at 38, the greatest number reached at any time since the end of World
War II. Today, internal conflicts tend to outweigh external conflicts with of
course examples of overlaps between them. Of the 136 civil wars fought
since 1940, according to an estimate made in 2012, 74 aimed at gaining
control of the state and 62 at separation. Interestingly, since the end of the
Cold War, about half of the internal wars fought for control of the state
ended in negotiated settlements and some measure of power sharing with
the existing regimes while in most others, regimes won. A third of the wars
of separation ended in agreements that recognized regional autonomy,
another third were defeated, and the rest were stalemated.

2) There has been a growing trend towards increasing democratisation – partly

induced by the fatigue effect of authoritarian regimes existing particularly
during Cold War. It is for example detected that the longer a figure like
Ben-Ali, Mubarak, Saleh, or Gaddafi is in power, the more likely he is to
be challenged and ousted. While there is no easy way to measure rise and
fall of popular grievances, it is possible to draw such correlation only in
rough terms. Much of what has happened in the name of ‗Arab Spring‘ in
recent times whether in Egypt, Tunisia or in Syria and other countries has
to do with the growing disenchantment with authoritarian regimes directly
sponsored and patronized by the superpowers during Cold War.

3) In the post cold war period, the nature of conflict has changed. Mary Kaldor
has developed the ―new wars‖ thesis, arguing that contemporary wars or
conflicts are distinct from the old wars in significant ways. If in the old
wars the majority of casualties were among the military, today 70-90% is
among civilian population, majority of who are women and children. These
are not side effects of war but the central methodology of new wars which
revolves around gaining power through fostering fear and hatred, creating
a climate of terror, silencing moderate voices. The new wars also blur the
difference between home front and battlefront. When Apache helicopters
shoot inside people‘s homes, when there is carpet bombing in Afghanistan,
in Iraq, battlefields emerged in diverse location- the home, the workplace,
the community space, the women‘s center. When bombs are exploded in
trains, in marketplaces, in theaters, they bring the violence of conflict into
72
 spaces hitherto considered safe and in doing so, foster fear and insecurity Methods of Conflict
Resolution
in people‘s hearts and lives. These new typologies of conflict also submerge
real questions of power based on economic or political or national identities
and give way to other, cross class and cross sectional identities such as
culture, religion, ethnicity

METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTIONS

Conflicts are sought to be resolved at multiple levels depending on where they
occur – starting from the UN being the highest body to the nuclear family being
the most primary unit where parents prevail upon the siblings and seek to address
the conflicts amongst them. It is stressed that UN peacekeeping is a necessary
element for the intra-state conflict resolution process. Since mid-1988, there has
been a great expansion in the number of UN peacekeeping forces. From 1948 to
1978, only 13 peacekeeping forces were set up and in the following ten-year
period, no new forces were established. However, since 1988 the number has
increased significantly. From May 1988 to October 1993, a further 20 forces
were created. As of February 2007, the number of UN peacekeeping operations
had reached 61 and involved 80,094 military personnel and civilian police. On
the other hand, with the growing awareness of child rights all around the world,
the probability of parents prevailing over their siblings has gone down
significantly. State laws are very strict in this respect. Methods therefore vary
depending on the agency that is involved in conflict resolution.

The State as an agent of conflict resolution continues to play a significant role.

To cite an example, a variety of different approaches has been tried by South
Asian governments to counter terrorism. Reviewing these approaches in the South
Asian and global context, it appears that using the armed forces or local militias
have not been especially effective in combating terrorism. Strengthening police
forces or conducting negotiations to induce insurgents to join the political
mainstream appear to be more effective approaches. Economic incentives or
development programs can be useful complements to this political
accommodation approach. Regional cooperation initiatives, which have been
under utilised so far, are likely to be very important in countering terrorism going
forward. On the role of the government you will read in detail in the next Unit.

REDISTRIBUTIVE AND INTEGRATIVE

PERSPECTIVES
As one approaches conflicts in order to solve them, one follows either of the two
perspectives or as in most cases a combination of them: redistributive and
integrative. While in the former, the objective is to transfer resources – over
which conflict takes place - in a way that satisfies both the conflicting parties –
maybe to a varying degree, in the second conflicts are resolved in a way so that
it becomes possible for the conflicting parties to live together within the same
society on the basis of some form of agreement on a given body of social values.

Satisfaction may be temporary. The same conflict may relapse after a while on
the same issue or may even lead to some other types of conflict between the
same conflicting parties. Satisfaction therefore is issue-based and short-lived.
On the other hand, integration being based on values is likely to have a durable
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Conflict Management impact on society and reduce the conflictual potential in the society. Thus to cite
an instance, the poor may think that poverty they are subjected to is an insult to
human dignity while the rich may think that their riches are a recognition of the
merit they have compared to that of the poor; but both the rich and the poor may
agree that this should not be a ground for violence and revolution and it is
parliament composed of peoples‘ representatives that can take appropriate steps
to alleviate their distance. The agreement on the value that violence in itself is
bad under all circumstances is what encourages them to resolve conflict between
them in non-violent ways.

There is no single rule suggesting to us how a society otherwise ridden by conflicts

might move towards value integration. Value integration is a historical process
and attempts at promoting and inculcating values of their choice by patriarchs,
emperors and nation-states had not only become unsuccessful but often counter-
productive. On the other hand, several redistributive methods have widely been
in use – three of which deserve a mention at this point:

1) The win-lose method is all too common. If, for example, the nature of
resources is such that they are indivisible and cannot be distributed amongst
the conflicting parties (like two children conflicting over the ownership of
a football), what one party gains, the other loses. The method in this case is
thus to force either of them to capitulate. Sometimes, this is done through
socially acceptable mechanisms such as majority vote, the authority of the
leader, or the determination of a judge. Sometimes, it involves secret
strategies, threat, innuendo or whatever to make the end acceptable. The
ends justify the means.

2) The case of two children conflicting over the ownership of the same football
may also be addressed by way of denying it to both of them. This is an
example of lose-lose method where both take the negative satisfaction that
the other could not get away with the resources. Neither side is aware that
by confronting the conflict fully and cooperatively they might have created
a more satisfying solution the utility of the football could be realised. Or
the parties may realistically use this approach to divide limited resources.

3) The win-win method is a conscious and systematic attempt at maximizing

the goals of both parties through collaborative problem solving. The conflict
is seen as a problem to be solved rather than a war to be won. The parties
work toward common goals, i.e., ones that can only be attained by both
parties pulling together. Thus to cite an instance, there is one view that
tends to suggest that the conflict between India and Pakistan may be
approached by starting to address only those issues that can be resolved in
a way that is mutually beneficial to both of them. The strategists point to
the Indus Treaty providing for water sharing between the two countries
which till date has worked well – notwithstanding a series of issues that
otherwise keep them apart.

THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY

We have already pointed out that Gandhi‘s is essentially a value-based approach
to conflict resolution in which resolution of conflict is considered as much
important as their resolution in morally rightful ways. In his scheme of conflict
74 resolution, the State is required to play a minimum role – if possible no role at
all. Moral means and reduction of dependence on the State as the agent of conflict Methods of Conflict
Resolution
resolution have been two of the running threads of Gandhian perspective on
conflict resolution. There have been examples of eminent Gandhians staging an
exit from the process of mediation and conflict resolution on the ground that
they do not morally approve of the means through which conflicts are proposed
to be resolved. What follows is an inventory of civil society interventions in the
recent past in India particularly in course of communal riots and violence:

When it comes to role of civil society in addressing conflict and building peace,
women play a central role. Across conflict zones in South Asia, between Israel
Palestine, in South Sudan, in times of heightened ethnic and intercommunity
conflicts in India, it is mostly the women who are seen to taken the lead on the
ground to negotiating survival for their families and communities, and try to
restore peace.

They do it all on their own without any third party intervention just to make it
possible for them and their families to live and survive.. In fact Athwass (a
Kashmiri word which means handshake or holding of hands as an extension of
solidarity or trust) is the name of an initiative conceptualised at the Women in
Security, Conflict Management and Peace (WISCOMP) roundtable held in 2000
that brought together women from Kashmiri Pundit, Muslim and Sikh
communities for the first time in almost a decade since the conflict in its renewed
form broke out in the Valley.

Its main objective is to familiarize them with ‗contrasting realities and narratives‘,
they hold and harbour toward each other and this is expected to ensure
transparency in their dealings with others and dissolve the boundaries. Such
interventions by women in conflict situations are by no means unique to Kashmir.
Similarly, between Israel and Palestine, the Jerusalem Link is a pacifist initiative
carried out by women from the two countries. In the conflict affected state of
Nagaland, the Naga Mothers Association (NMA) is a prominent civil society
organisation that was formed by women to address problems of conflict, and try
to stop fratricidal killings, violence between different Naga outfits such as NSCN
(I-M) and NSCN (K), and the Indian security forces. Women have emerged as a
powerful voice and agents of peace. However, there is little recognition of their
efforts. Moreover though they play a key role in building peace on the ground
and in informal spaces in the village and community, their experience and concerns
are sidelines one formal official peace process begins. In recognition of the key
role played by women, and emphasise their participation, on 31st October 2000,
UN Security Council resolution 1325 (UNSCR 1325) was passed in the Security
Council, calling for women‘s participation in peace building.

Secondly, another instance of civil society can be what is called the ‗Khopade
pattern‘ named after the famous police officer – Suresh Khopade who introduced
it in Bhiwandi – a medium-sized town of Maharshtra visited by frequent cycles
of communal violence till the early 1990s. The idea is to establish mohalla (or
neighbourhood) committees consisting of an equal number of members drawn
from each of the conflicting communities, headed preferably by a police officer
and to ensure that they regularly meet and discuss issues amongst themselves
without divulging its content to the outsiders. The model worked wonders. The
role of the police was minimal – to ensure that these processes are in place and
active even during the riots.
75
Conflict Management Thirdly, besides organised interventions, there are many other interventions, which
because of their unorganised nature escape our notice. In this connection, we
may refer to the individual interventions as an example. We have already referred
to the example of Gandhi. Since these interventions are made essentially by
individuals – whether as medical practitioners (like Paris-based Doctors without
Frontiers) or otherwise, they fear reprisals from the communities in conflict. In
course of communal riots, these individuals play a great role albeit at great risk.

There is no a priori way by which one method can be privileged over another.
For, each method is only specific to a context where it is seen to have worked. It
is no guarantee that it will work elsewhere too.

Check Your Progress Exercises 2

Note: i) Use of the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Briefly explain the changing nature of conflicts.
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LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we have discussed various methods and approaches to conflict
management, conflict settlement and conflict resolution. To understand this aspect
we have recapitulated the meaning and typology of conflicts already discussed
in other units.

The methods discussed are for management, transformation, settlement and

resolution of conflicts. Conflict management means engagement by concerned
in handling the conflicts in a way that eventually results in the disappearance of
conflict. Transformation is a process through which conflict is transformed from
harmful to less harmful.

Conflict settlement refers to ways of settling or ending conflicts that entail joint
efforts to reach mutually acceptable agreements between the conflicting parties.
Conflict resolution is the act of settling and ending conflicts by addressing the
issues that trigger them and in ways that are only considered as mutually
acceptable to the conflicting parties but also help establish of values of rights,
justice and democracy.

Conflict can be resolved at various and multiple levels starting from the United
Nation to the nuclear family. There is no single rate for the same. Apart from
international agencies and states civil society also can play an important role in
various aspects of conflict settlement and resolution.

You have read about the type and nature of conflicts and methods of their
76 resolution. Conflicts can be inter-personal, inter-group or inter-interests. Various
conflicts are managed, transformed, settled or resolved. Each of these has specific Methods of Conflict
Resolution
connotation and process. The nature of conflicts is not static. This keeps on
changing both in purpose and techniques. Therefore, conflicts are sought to be
resolved at multiple levels depending on where they occur. The agencies to resolve
may be a family at the lowest level and the United Nations at the highest level.
Perspectives for resolution may be redistributive or integrative. Civil society has
emerged a significant agency in the task of conflict resolution.

SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

Christie, D. J., Wagner, R. V., & Winter, D. A. eds. (2001): Peace, Conflict, and
Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21st Century. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Das, Samir Kumar (2011): ‗Individual Dissent or Organising for Social Power?
A Possible Gandhian Approach to Peace and Conflict Resolution for India‘s
Northeast‘ in Gandhi Marg, 32 (4), January-March, pp. 545-569.
Expert Group to the Planning Commission (2008): Development Challenges in
Extremist-Affected Areas. New Delhi: Government of India.
Galtung, Johan (1958): Theories of Conflict: Definitions, Dimensions, Negations,
Formations. New York: Columbia University Press.
Kaldor, Mary (2003) ‗The Discourse of Civil Society‘ (chapter two) in Global
Civil Society: An Answer to War, Polity Press.
Manchanda Rita, 2005. ―Women‘s Agency in Peace Building: Gender Relations
in Post-Conflict Reconstruction.‖ Economic and Political Weekly 40 (44/45):
4737–45.
Samaddar, Ranabir, ed. (2004): Peace Studies: An Introduction to the Concept,
Scope, and Themes, South Asian Peace Studies I. New Delhi: Sage, 2004.
Sunila Abeysekera ―Maximizing the Achievement of Women‘s Human Rights in
Conflict Transformation : The Case of Sri Lanka‖ 41 Columbia Journal of
Transnational Law 2003.
UN 2015 ; Preventing Conflict, Transforming Justice, Securing the Peace: Global
Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council resolution 1325.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercises 1
1) Your answer should include such as conflicts ethnicities, classes and even
nations. Write your answer with examples and provide suitable case studies.
Further it also include, conflict management, transformation and conflict
resolution.
Check Your Progress Exercises 2
1) Your answer should have the following points:
a) Post cold war developments and democratisation
b) Methods of conflict resolutions
77
Conflict Management
UNIT 6 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND
CIVIL SOCIETY*

Structure
Introduction
Aims and Objectives
State and Government
Conflicts and State
Main Institutions
Law Making Bodies
The Executive
The Police
The Judiciary
Other Constitutional Agencies
Statutory and Appointed Bodies
Methods and Strategies
Enforcement
Adjudication
Mediation and Persuasion
Redressal
Participant Government : A Critique
The Concept of Civil Society
Civil Society and Conflict Resolution
Women, Peace and Security
Media in Post Conflict Society
The Setting
The Mass Media
The Public Sphere
Citizens Journalism
Media and Peace Building
Responsible Journalism
A Checklist for Conflict-Sensitive Journalism
Mahatma Gandhi : A Great Mass Communicator
Let Us Sum Up
Some Useful References
Answers to Check Your Progress

INTRODUCTION
In earlier units, you have read that conflicts can be both inter-state and intra-
state. While inter-states conflicts are between two or more states and at boundaries
of states, intra-state conflicts are between the individuals, two or more families,
groups, communities, regions, provinces or even between State and groups or
Prof. A. S. Narang, Retd Professor, Faculty of Political Science, SOSS IGNOU, New Delhi and
78 Dr. Jyoti, Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Journalism, Kamala Nehru College, Delhi University,
New Delhi
communities. In other words, we call them as domestic conflicts. The state, Role of Government and
Civil Society
including state institutions and officials play very significant, sometimes even
exclusive role, in management, resolution, and prevention of these conflicts.
Domestic conflicts can be simple in form of disputes or violent conflicts between
groups or communities. In both cases, the state through its manifestation the
government is responsible to resolve disputes as well as maintain law and order,
that is, peace. The government performs this role through various institutions
and by several methods. In this unit, we will discuss the responsibility of state,
the main institutions of governments‘ methods and means for resolution and
management of conflicts and the limitations and criticism of the role of the state
in conflict resolution.

Along with the government, civil society and media plays an important part in
the proper functioning of any democratic state. They are an important constituent
of the public sphere and help improve public discourse, raise issues of rights and
foster conflict resolution. In this unit we will examine these aspects.
Aims and Objectives
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
define the importance of Government, and Civil Society in maintenance of
peace in society;
understand the responsibility and role of government and civil society in
conflict resolution;
know the meaning of civil society and mass media their role in conflict
resolution;
understand the role of women in conflict resolution understand various
means, methods and functions for conflict resolution; and
evaluate the role of state, civil society and media in the task of conflict
resolution

STATE AND GOVERNMENT

In present times, we all live in states. A state is a political system that has
sovereignty-independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory,
based on the recognized right to self-determination. Sovereignty, in practice,
rests with those who have the ultimate right to make political decisions. They
are known as government. In that sense it is the physical and visible form of the
state. According to Andrew Heywood the term government comes from govern.
In its broadest sense to govern means to rule or control others. Government can,
therefore, be taken to include any mechanism through which ordered rule is
maintained, its central features being the ability to make collective decisions and
the capacity to enforce them. It is more commonly understood to refer to the
formal and institutional processes which operate in the state to maintain public
order and facilitate collective action. The core functions of government are, thus,
to make law (legislation), implement law (executive) and interpret law
(adjudication). In some cases, the political executive alone is referred to as ‗the
government‘, making it equivalent to the administration.

The existence of state has been considered as a necessity to provide security of

life and property of citizens. In due course its role has also been extended to
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Conflict Management provide welfare that is to manage availability of essential needs of life like health,
education, minimum material needs etc. For performance of these functions too,
maintenance of order and peace is essential. Only the state, therefore, its visible
from the government, has the authority to use force, and exercise control over
resources.

CONFLICTS AND STATE

The above discussion makes it clear that the state has gradually evolved to provide
a framework for orderly organisation of society. In that sense state or government
provides a binding framework to hold the society together by maintaining law
and order or preservation of peace. The government as the visible agency of the
state enjoys a monopoly in performing this function as no other institution or
association in a society has similar power and function. Conflicts in any society
are a major threat to peace.

As you have already studied conflicts can be just disputes or violent acts. These
may be at various levels and for various reasons. These may occur either due to
innate human nature or due to the clash of human natures when individuals enter
into relationships either at the family or wider community levels, issues or sharing
available resources like water, property, food, etc. or maintenance or threats to
identities. Therefore, there can be disputes between individuals, groups,
communities or regions with regard to access to resources. There are violent
conflicts between non-state groups that are organised along a shared communal
identity – caste, religion, linguistic, etc.

Such violent community conflicts between groups, often causes high casualties
and severe disruption of livelihoods and may in the worst case, destabilize entire
regions or estate into civil war. Examples are Sri Lanka, Bosnia, Kosovo, Rwanda,
Chechnya, South Sudan among others. At times even non-violent disputes can
escalate to violence or social harmony. As the primary duty of the state is to
ensure the maintenance of law and order in a situation of violent conflict, the
government has the primary non-partisan function of ensuring the return of peace
and normalcy. In case of non-violent disputes also state has the duty to get them
resolved.

At the family and domestic levels, conflicts may ordinarily be managed at those
levels itself through the intervention of the elders or relatives. But when disputes
become more intense and intractable for settlement within the family, the state
intervention became necessary. In managing the diversity of human needs and
putting in place mechanism of managing disputes, the government functions as
a conflict manager. Aside from governance structures, the government also
formulates policies and programmes aimed at facilitating peaceful coexistence
among its diverse citizens. In situations of violence conflicts, the government‘s
responsibility goes beyond just the stoppage of violence, to executing initiatives
aimed at the resolution of the conflict issues among the disputants.

Governments may respond to conflicts in several ways as adjudicator, mediator

and peace keeper or as enforcers of law either by persuasive means or use of
force. At times state even becomes a participant in the conflict. In general due to
its control over national resources and security forces, the government is expected
to be not only a key player, but at times the only player in managing conflicts.
80
The ways for this may be both formal institutional or non-institutional and Role of Government and
Civil Society
informal. These are discussed below in some detail.

MAIN INSTITUTIONS
In any country there can be several institutions and instrumentalities whose
mandate is and who can deal with potential and actual conflict situations. Some
of these may have been provided in the Constitution itself while others can be
constituted through statutes or executive orders. These institutes can play role in
prevention, management, resolution and subsequent prevention of conflicts.
Broadly, speaking constitutional institutions include law-making bodies, the
Executive, the Judiciary and other specific types of conflict resolution institutions.
Statutory or other institutions include various commissions, bodies or structures
created by law or executive orders in general or for specific areas and types of
conflicts.

Law Making Bodies

Law-making bodies known as Legislatures, Assemblies, Parliaments, etc. occupy
a key position in the machinery of the government. Main functions of Legislatures
are to frame policies and enact laws. With regard to conflicts the legislature has
to create the framework for curtailing, reducing and avoiding conflicts. The main
concern of legislatures is prevention and empowerment of other bodies for
management and resolution of conflicts. Legislature also plays the role of changing
or enacting laws to ensure better social and economic environment conducive to
the avoidance of social conflict. Legislatures enact laws for distribution of
resources, putting restrictions on activities that may lead to conflicts and provide
punishment on violation of such laws. Laws may also empower executive and
other bodies to enforce laws using force or other means and judiciary and like
bodies to adjudicate in cases of disputes, award punishments on violation of
laws or causing violence etc. Legislatures may also create institutions and bodies
for resolution of conflicts or for taking measures to prevent those. National
Commission for Minorities, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Commission
and such other bodies created by Parliament of India can be cited as examples of
this.

The Executive
In modern states, the executive branch is by far the most complex and the most
powerful branch of government. Generally there are two wings of the executive
the political and bureaucratic. The executive is, technically, the branch of
government that is responsible for the execution or implementation of policy. In
practice, however, its responsibilities are substantially broader, particularly in
the context of conflict management and peace-keeping. In fact, it is the immediate
agent of conflict resolution. In that the key function of the political executive is
to direct and control the policy process. In short, in words of Andrew Heywood,
the executive is expected to govern.

The bureaucracy is the administrative machinery of the state, that is, the civil
servants and public officials who are charged with the execution of government
business. There also are enforcement agencies, such as police force and armed
forces and other such bodies. Both civil bureaucracy and police forces work
81
Conflict Management under the directives and control of the political executive, though these may
enjoy some autonomy in exercise of their powers and performance of functions.

The Police
The main organ of the executive in its task of conflict management and resolution
is the Police. It is the monopoly sub-agent of government to use force, with the
civil services having the role of overall supervision. The central purpose of a
police force is to maintain domestic order. The police on the one hand are
concerned with protecting citizens from each other and on the other preservation
of the authority of the state and ensuring that its jurisdiction extends throughout
the community. In this it performs the functions of controlling social unrest and
civil disorder. In both cases it also includes enforcement of criminal law.

In cases of managing conflicts, particularly violent, there is what as Andrew

Heywood brings out, ―fire brigade policing‖. This emphasizes the capacity of
the police to react to breaches of law when they occur, in the hope that crime will
be prevented by the effectiveness of police response. Fire brigade policing, or
reactive policing, requires the adoption of harder, even para-military tactics, and
a greater emphasis on technology and arms. Police, apart from using force to
manage violent conflicts, also collect intelligence and adopt preventive measures
like making preventive arrests, blocking ways etc. In modern day liberal states
police is also expected to bring involved parties on negotiation tables and resolve
disputes peacefully.

The Judiciary
The judiciary is the branch of government that is empowered to decide legal
disputes. The central function of judiciary, therefore, is to adjudicate on the
meaning of law and decide disputes between individuals, individuals and state,
groups, groups and states. Judiciary also is empowered to award punishments in
cases of violation of law. As such in terms of conflict management judiciary
settles the disputes between private individuals, regarding sharing of resources,
claims over property, money, jurisdiction etc. Judiciary also performs the function
of deciding criminal cases. In general violent conflicts or riots are considered
criminal acts. Therefore, in such cases it punishes the perpetrators committing,
abetting or helping violation of criminal laws. At times, judiciary also directs the
state to redress the grievances of groups or communities thereby preventing
possibilities of agitations, uprisings, and violence.

Other Constitutional Agencies

Apart from three core agencies of the government, the Constitution of a State
can also provide for other agencies which are empowered to adjudicate the
disputes between individuals or groups or even levels of government. For instance,
in India for resolution of disputes between Centre and States there is a provision
for Constitution of Inter-state Council under Article 263. Election Commission
is empowered for resolution of disputes in some cases of disputes connected
with elections. In a state, there can be constitutional bodies of different types
empowered to adjudicate or mediate to resolve disputes. The functions of such
bodies generally are limited to adjudicate on disputes with regard to claims or
complaints.
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Statutory and Appointed Bodies Role of Government and
Civil Society

As already mentioned in addition to constitutional bodies, the Legislature and

Executive within the powers given by the Constitution can create, constitute or
appoint agencies, commissions and bodies to adjudicate, and/or mediate in cases
of disputes or for redress of grievances of citizens and groups either to prevent
conflicts or there reoccurrence after management. In India, such bodies created
by Parliament include the National
Commission for Scheduled Castes Permanent Indus Commission
and the National Commission for
The Permanent Indus Commission
Scheduled Tribes, the Zonal
was created after signing of the Indus
Councils, National Human Rights
Water Treaty in 1960 for sharing
Commission, National Minorities
water of the Indus river basin by the
Commission and National
two countries.
Commission for Backward Classes.
Such bodies, generally, help in It is a bilateral commission consisting
prevention and de-escalation of of officials from India and Pakistan;
conflicts by redressing the created to implement and manage the
grievances of groups and mediating goals and objectives of the IWT.
between government and aggrieved The commission is the first step for
groups. Apart from statutory bodies, conflict resolution. It maintains and
the executive can also appoint exchanges data and co-operates
Commissions and agencies to look between the two countries.
into the causes of conflicts and
violence and recommend methods to prevent and deal with them. You might
have noticed Constitution of inquiry commissions after communal riots or other
serious cases of violent upsurges. The government can use their reports and
recommendations to address the grievances and prevent reoccurrence of such
violence. Similarly, there can be Commissions to resolve dispute with other
countries, such as the Indus Water Commission, that was created after prolonged
talks between India and Pakistan and signing of the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) in
1960 for sharing water of the Indus basin.

METHODS AND STRATEGIES

As already mentioned, that the state has gradually evolved to provide a framework
for orderly organisation of society. Above we have discussed various institutional
devices through which government manages the conflicts. Though families, non-
state agencies, civil society groups may play important roles in resolution of
conflicts the government is the final agency to deal with conflicts. For that the
methods and strategies available with the state include, enforcement, adjudication,
mediation and persuasion.

Enforcement
For the government most important task in all cases is maintenance of law and
order. Therefore, while it is important that the government takes all possible
measures to prevent the occurrence of violent conflicts, it is important that peace
is restored at the earliest. For that governments resort to use of force. Generally,
local civil police is used for that. In cases of serious cases or escalation of violence
para-military forces, or even army can be called to restore order. As violence or
riots are violation of criminal laws, the perpetrators and participants are
apprehended and prosecuted also. 83
Conflict Management 6.4.2 Adjudication
Adjudication means to pronounce about the rightfulness of the claim between
disputing parties. This can be with regard to claims over property between two
or more individuals, sharing of resources like river waters, between two or more
States or regions, or propriety claims between groups. The adjudication can be
both through judicial or quasi-judicial processor. Disputing parties themselves,
either one or both can approach appropriate courts of law or government can
send the disputes for judicial considerations. Governments may also have
authorities to send disputes and claims for adjudication to quasi-judicial bodies
like Tribunals and Commissions constituted either for the matters in general or
specific cases. These can be for sharing of river waters, other resources or claims
by religious, cultural, linguistic groups, etc.

Mediation and Persuasion

Mediation and Persuasion are internal methods that the governments can use to
prevent, deescalate or resolve conflicts. The government through the agencies
and representatives can bring parties in dispute on table to talk among themselves,
negotiate and agree on the solutions. The police and civil officials can impress
upon community leaders to maintain peace and use lawful and peaceful methods
for redressal of their grievances. Governments can also involve civil society and
non-government organisations to mediate and impress upon the necessity for
maintenance of peace. In democratic societies government is expected to use
such informal methods to the maximum to avoid use of force and possible violation
of citizens‘ rights. Such informal methods are important even after restoration of
peace through police and military actions to rebuild social harmony and restore
confidence among victims in particular and society at large. What is important is
that mediation and persuasion is carried out by persons and officials of high
social standing and credibility who use their legitimacy and facilitative skills
rather than manipulation and sanctioning to reach agreement.

Redressal
A number of social and communal conflicts are results of real or perceived feelings
of discrimination, denial of rights or claims or non-consideration of demands by
groups, communities or sections of society. The government in addition to
persuade citizens also has the obligation to promote social good and undertake
positive functions. You might have noticed agitations and conflicts on issues of
reservations, religious rights or claims over resources etc. The governments are
expected to be non-partisan observers and policy makers. Various complaints
and demands need to be given a patient hearing, looked into appropriately and
responded properly. Governments cannot accept all claims or succumb to
pressures, but need not resort to coercion at once. If mediation, persuasion and
acceptance of reasonable extent fail then, the government has to enforce the law
of the land and maintain peace.
Key Points
Governments have several institutions and instrumentalities to deal with
potential and actual conflict situations
Parliament, Assemblies, National Commissions for Women, Minorities,
Human Rights, SC/ST that prevent or empower other bodies for
management and resolution of conflicts
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 The executive and the bureaucracy are manage conflict through Role of Government and
Civil Society
implementation of policies
Police as the law enforcing agency acts to manage social unrest and
civil disorder.
Judiciary adjudicates disputes, punishes perpetrators, and at times directs
state to redress grievances of groups or communities to preventing
conflict.
Other constitutional agencies can exists to adjudicate disputes between
individuals, groups or levels of government e.g. in India Article 263
provides for constitution of Inter-state Council 263 to resolve Centre
and State disputes.
Statutory and Appointed Bodies can be created by legislature or executive
to address conflict.
The government uses various methods and strategies for addressing
conflict that include enforcement, adjudication, mediation and
persuasion.

PARTICIPANT GOVERNMENT: A CRITIQUE

You have read above that it is the responsibility of the State and government to
ensure the maintenance of peace and law and order in society. Within that
framework, it also has to work as a conflict manager. In that state is expected to
act neutrally not taking sides. However, at times, the government, including its
institutions and officials become involved and/or implicated in conflict. First is
participation by default. This occurs where state policies or decisions trigger or
exacerbate conflict. For instances government‘s decision to open new university
or hospital area ignoring the demand from some other area may cause an agitation
which may become riots or violence. The government may react with extensive
use of force.

Second is participation by design. This occurs where the governments, particularly

its official‘s take side in the conflict and use state resources to support a particular
faction. The government becomes conflict participant in a situation where its
agencies are seen to be actively involved in the perpetuation of violent conflict.
Such allegations are made particularly in cases of ethnic and communal conflicts.
There can be instances of failure to alleviate local scarcity, or unequal treatment
of communal groups. In many societies government is seen strongly connected
to particular ethnic group or community.

The fact that the government may be seen as a direct or indirect cause of communal
or ethnic conflict, and may be actively or passively supporting one side in the
conflict, or appears to create significant obstacles for its potential to serve as a
third party and help resolve the conflict. There, thus, come up reports and
allegations of human rights abuse,

Police brutality and violation of democratic norms. The response of the

government in such cases may aggravate the situation rather than help to resolve
it. Critics, therefore, see the role of government as peace keeper with suspicion.
Another criticism by some observers in some states is that while government is
primarily charged with the responsibility of maintaining peace and security, there
85
Conflict Management is no sound policy for managing conflicts. In order to enable a durable settlement,
the security concerns of all parties, and balance of power between them, need to
be taken into account during and after conflict management process.

It is, therefore, suggested that the activities of the government should not be
confined to prohibiting and compelling the activities of individuals in a society.
These should also relate to promoting human activity conducive to peaceful living.
These include creating conditions for mutual tolerance of differing ways of
thinking and living in a social order, spread of health and educational facilities.
Government has to be pro-active and not reactive to conflicts particularly social
and communal by creating an environment of harmonious co-existence. In the
first analysis given its security force apparatus and monopoly over legitimate
violence within the country‘s borders the government remains the best institution
to serve as peacekeeping force, remaining tolerant to dissent and sensitive to
people‘s grievances and apprehensions.

Check Your Progress Exercises 1

Note: i) Use of the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Briefly explain the role of government in maintenance of peace and security.
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THE CONCEPT OF CIVIL SOCIETY

Civil society plays an important part in the proper functioning of any democratic
state. It plays the role of a watch dog against concentration of power by the state,
and helps to initiate, promote, and strengthen dialogue between governments
and their people. In this way, civil society advances human rights, fosters conflict
resolution, and promotes better democratization processes. Because of its flexible,
multidimensional, and non-rigid structure, civil society has the capability to adapt
to rapid global changes.

However, at first we need to define what we mean by civil society. Everyone

talks about civil society, but what is meant by the term? There is in fact no
accepted definition of civil society. Broadly, by civil society the reference is to
that metaphorical space between the family and the state, where people as right
bearing citizens, enter into associational forms of life to engage with the polity.
It is distinct from entire society, distinct from the force bearing structures of the
state, and the commercial interests of the market. According Saberwal (2005),
civil society is defined as a social space which should possess the following
qualities:

The first quality is that decisions and choices have to be made on the basis
of reason and knowledge;
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 The second quality of Civil Society is that its members have to relate to Role of Government and
Civil Society
each other open-ended, without exclusion on the grounds of religion, gender,
caste etc;
The third quality is that in the making of decisions and choices, the Civil
Society space has to be free from coercive pressures.
Together the above qualities of Civil Society are interlinked and specify a social
space which is committed (a) to freedom of association so that groups with open
memberships may pursue diverse purposes, (b) within non-coercive space of
reasoned deliberation, which has to be (c) grounded in knowledge of empirical
reality – knowledge that would be valid across cultures.

The World Bank‘s definition of civil society refers to the wide array of
nongovernmental and nonprofit organizations that have a presence in public life
expressing the interest and values other members and others base on ethical,
cultural, political, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations.
Specifically, the term civil society organizations or CSO for short is used to refer
to entities such as community groups, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
so NGOs are a subset to civil society. Obviously not the whole thing, for there
are labor unions, indigenous groups, charities, faith based organizations,
professional associations and foundations. Civil society is considered intrinsic
to a well-functioned democratic state. Some argue that the development of civil
society requires a freedom of speech, of association, of religion and independent
judiciary and democratic political institutions.

Some theorists also consider mass media as a part and parcel of civil society.
The mass media provides civil society with the social space that satisfies all the
above qualities because the media plays a major role in a developing the public
sphere and strengthening democracy. According to Denis McQuail, the civil
society is described as being free, democratic, non-oppressive and lawful, as
well as having a developed public sphere. The Public Sphere provides a space
between state and private citizens for other social formations and voluntary action.
The mass media are an institution of the public sphere, providing the platform
for discussion and debate and for the circulation of information. Castells (2008)
notes that the relationship between the state and civil society is the cornerstone
of democracy because without an effective civil society capable of structuring
and channeling citizen to debates over diverse ideas and conflicting interests,
the state drifts away from its subjects.

A civil society with a healthy public sphere stands opposed to a mass or

authoritarian society. The civil society emphasizes that the audience is engaged
in freely expressing themselves, and interacting with the state and its arms.

CIVIL SOCIETY AND CONFLICT

RESOLUTION
Civil society institutions perform a significant role in conflict prevention,
containment and resolution. It is worthwhile to refer to this point at some length.
Ordinarily, it is the state that has near monopoly in ultimately prescribing and
implementing conflict resolution. But because the cause of conflict keep on
increasing and the state, even otherwise, cannot always effectively function in
this regard, civil society institutions entered the scene in a big way. In particular,
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Conflict Management the very spread of the idea of participatory democracy introduces, among other
things, two important claims for participation of the people. The first is for the
claim for more equitable sharing of society‘s resources and the access to the
enabling rights and privileges that present day states are obliged to concede to
people. The second claim refers to the very demand for participation in society‘s
governance. Both of these points can be well illustrated from the Human Rights
claims in society and the wide popularisation of democracies decentralisation.

The result is an open invitation for increased role for non-governmental

institutions. They play a role in making these people aware of their entitlements
to these claims. The effect of this is an even more extensive role in conflict
avoidance, containment and even in conflict resolution. Public health and
educational entitlement are good examples in this regard. The preservation of
environmental balance is another instance. These entitlements, as is by now well
known, sometimes bring the people and governments in conflict. Yet in the final
analysis, the intervention of the voluntary non-governmental agencies also brings
about an adjustment of claims and counter claims. A few examples will illustrate
this trend. The NGOs‘ role in the promotion of minority-rights invoking the rights
guaranteed by the Indian Constitution and the UN Declaration of Human Right
and by bringing pressure upon the government to implement these go a long way
in containing long-term potential for conflict and, above all, in achieving just
ends for society‘s peace. Similarly, in issues relating to displacement of thousands
of people when large irrigation and other developmental projects bring large-
scale disturbance to their natural habitat, the NGOs concerned perform the whistle-
blowing function and much more in helping avoid damage to larger public interest.

In recent decades the civil society, as an entity distinct from the state, has emerged
as a strong force reckoning with conflict-resolution. Partly, this is due to the
perception among some sections of the societies within states that the latter are
not capable enough to cope with conflict, or are themselves pursuing socio-
economic policies directly or indirectly contributing to conflict.
Seven Civil Society Functions in Peace—building
Function Activities Typical actors
Protection Protecting citizen life, freedom and Membership
property against attacks from state and organizations, human
non state actors. Membership rights, advocacy NGOs.
organizations, human rights, advocacy
NGOs.
Monitoring/ Observing and monitoring the activities Think tanks, human
early warning of government state authorities, and rights NGOs,
conflict actors. Monitoring can refer to operational NGOs (in
various issues (human rights, conjunction with CBOs
corruption), particularly those relevant
for drivers of conflict and early warning.

Advocacy/ Articulation of specific interests, Advocacy

public especially of marginalized groups and organizations,
communication bringing relevant issues to the public independent media,
agenda. Creation of communication think tanks, networks.
channels, awareness raising and public
debate. Participation in official peace
processes.
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 Role of Government and
Socialization Formation and practice of peaceful and Membership Civil Society
democratic attitudes and values among organizations
citizens, including tolerance, mutual trust
and non-violent conflict resolution.
Social Strengthening links among citizens, CBOs, other membership
cohesion building bridging social capital across organizations.
societal cleavage
Intermediation/ Establishing relationships Intermediary NGOs, CSO
facilitation (communication, negotiation) to support networks, advocacy
collaboration between interest groups, organizations, faith-based
institutions and the state. Facilitating organizations.
dialogue and interaction. Promoting
attitudinal change for a culture of peace
and reconciliation.
Service Providing services to citizens or NGOs, self-help groups.
provision members can serve as entry points for
peace-building, if explicitly intended.
Source: World Bank, 2006

WOMEN PEACE AND SECURITY

When it comes to role of civil society in addressing conflict and building peace,
women play a central role. The upheaval of violent conflicts, and transition to
post conflict situation impacts everyone, – but women and girls suffer face
particular impacts. In general, women and girls have access to fewer resources
to protect and sustain themselves – aspects which get further heightened during
war times. Women and girls often become the deliberate target of gender-based
violence, young girls are the first ones to be pulled out of school, married early.
Besides suffering physical and psychological violence of dislocation, loss of
their men folk, women carry the double burden of survival and care of the family.

Knowing what it means to be disempowered and, women are often the first take
the lead on the ground to negotiate survival for their families and communities,
and try to restore peace. For example, in the midst of violent conflict in Nagaland
in the 1980s and 90s between different Naga outfits such as NSCN(I-M) and
NSCN(K), and the Indian security forces, the Naga Mother‘s Association came
together to address the conflict, stop fratricidal killings among different Naga
(NMA) factions, stop drug abuse and every day deaths in gun battles of young
boys. They gave the slogan ‗Shed No More Blood‘; undertook long journeys
into jungles to meet armed groups to stop the killings and speak peace. Similarly,
between Israel and Palestine, women from both sides came together to form the
Jerusalem Link as an initiative for peace and dialogue between the two countries.
Such interventions by women in conflict situations are by no means unique to
these places but echo across different conflict zones. However, although women
have led and supported peace and recovery efforts in communities across the
world, they remain largely excluded from negotiations and decision making.
Their needs, for example the complex reality and needs of female headed
household, are often ignored when formal peace negotiations are made, Notably,
when it comes to peace negotiations, it is often an all men affair, and women
peace makers such as
89
Conflict Management Naga Mothers Associations are often Women Peace and Security
ignored and never invited to the
negotiating table. However, given the Groundbreaking UN Security
critical role that women play in peace Council resolution 1325, calling
making, such gaps not only exclusionary for women‘s participation in
of women from peace talks but also miss peace building was passed in
opportunities for building sustainable 2000.
peace or revive peace processes on There is mounting evidence that
conflicts that have defied all attempts to women are powerful actors in
resolve them. sustaining peace in their
communities and nations. When
Recognizing these challenges, the women lead and participate in
international community has taken some peace processes, peace lasts
important steps. In 2000, the UN Security longer.
Council passed Resolution 1325 on
Women, Peace and Security. UNSCR Research shows that achieving
1325 called for women to participate in gender equality helps in
peace efforts, greater protection from preventing conflict, and high
violations of their human rights, rates of violence against women
improved access to justice, and measures correlates with outbreaks of
to address discrimination. Since the conflict.
adoption of UNSCR 1325, there have been many new commitments, growing
policy recognition and increasing political rhetoric in relation to the Women,
Peace and Security agenda. Six additional UN Security Council resolutions have
helped develop the policy framework and promote positive norms. Denmark
became the first country to develop its National Action Plan (NAP) to implement
UNSCR 1325 in 2005, while Côte d‘Ivoire led the way in sub-Saharan Africa in
2007. The African Union Commission launched its five-year Gender, Peace and
Security Programme in June 2014 to promote women‘s participation and
protection across the continent. By July 2015, 49 states had published one or
more NAPs. In South Asia, Nepal became the first country to adopt UNSCR
1325 in 2011.

THE MASS MEDIA

The mass media are the technological tools by which information can be
communicated and transmitted to millions of people spread all over the globe.
Mass communication takes place through the mass media. Mass communication
is the process of delivering information, ideas, attitudes, entertainment and
messages to a sizeable and diversified audience through the use of media
developed for that purpose. Mass media can be broadly classified into the
following categories:

Print, Electronic and New Media

Print media comprises of newspapers, magazines, journals, posters, books and
any printed material that is published for circulation among the public. The
Electronic media, also known as the broadcast media comprises of radio,
television, film, video, DVD and all the electronic means of delivering information
to the masses. The New media are the Internet, mobile technology, DVDs and
the social media that use the World-Wide Web to reach millions of people.

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Mass media—newspapers, television, radio, films and the internet—have an Role of Government and
Civil Society
enormous influence on civil society. The Media acts as the intermediary between
the State and Civil Society by providing citizens a platform for debate and
discussion on matters of public importance and for the development of a rational
consensus.

The Public Sphere

Jurgen Habermas, in his book entitled ‘The Structural Transformation of the
Public Sphere’ (1962) has explained the concept of the ‗Public Sphere‘. The
Media today is regarded as an important constituent of the public sphere that
provides space for Civil Society to debate and articulate diverse ideas and in
doing so, influence the decisions of the state. Public sphere is the notional space
existing between civil society and the state. For Habermas, ‗The media is the
public sphere‘s pre-eminent institution‘ because it facilitates the rational debate
of citizens. The media, which is a major constituent of the public sphere, plays a
critical role in providing the space for presenting diverse points of views of society
and thereby attempts to influence policy.

The concept of public sphere was proposed by Habermas in 1989 to refer to the
discursive space in which individuals and groups can come together to freely
discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence
political action.

There has been much reference to the concept of a public sphere in the role of the
mass media in political life. In general, the public sphere refers to a notional
‗space‘ which provides a more or less autonomous and open arena or forum for
public debate. Access to the space is free, and freedoms of assembly, association,
and expression are guaranteed.

According to Habermas, an important role of the public sphere was to keep a

check on the government by way of an informed and influential public opinion.
The public sphere points towards the active exchange of views between or initiated
by the members of the public.

Citizen Journalism
Almost all journalism in India as it exists today grew out of citizen journalism. It
was the urge to express themselves and be an active part of the public sphere,
that made the freedom-fighters set up newspaper establishments.

Thus, the urge within the citizen community to express itself and raise issues has
always existed. The tools available for this kind of expression have greatly
evolved, primarily due to the advancements in technology. Besides, the term
‗citizen journalism‘ comes from television. Citizen journalists are now
increasingly seen as sources of news.

The concept of citizen journalism has garnered every medium – newspapers,

magazines, television, internet and the radio. So what started out with letters to
the editor in newspapers, became a show on television and then found itself
being practiced through blogs.

It can also be safely concluded that the citizens, when using the mainstream
media to raise issues, are being provided with a platform and forum to do so. Yet 91
Conflict Management the interests of the media
Syria‘s Citizen JournalistsThe start of the
organisation will no doubt
Syrian uprising in 2011 was followed by brutal
supersede those of the
crackdown on independent journalist. Many
citizen journalists. Thus,
ordinary Syrians began using smart phones
except the Internet, no
to film the ravages of war they saw around
other medium provides
them, uploading videos and photos on
absolute freedom of
Facebook, Youtube, online and providing
expression to the citizens.
news
With the Internet and As events led to increasing control of parts of
technology use escalating, Syria by the Islamic State- these areas were
citizen journalism is either ‗emptied‘ of professional journalists, or
becoming more significant they fled to neigh-bouring countries. The role
with higher levels of of citizen journalist became even more critical.
citizen engagement and
More and more citizens across cities and towns
participation. As evident in
in Syria began to mobilise, better organize,
examples such as Syria,
coordinate and allocate work. Citizen‘s
ordinary Syrians have
―media officers‖ began to appear. At some
used their smart phones to
point, there was ―coordination‖ in almost
film the ravages of war
every neighborhood in Syria.
they saw around them,
uploading videos and Keeping the information flowing has been
photos on Facebook, dangerous, and by 2016, around 70 citizen
Youtube, online and journalists were killed. Yet citizen journalists
providing news in absence have been risking their lives to report on the
of professional journalist brutal conflict in Syria
who have either been Most of the western journalists covering Syria
killed, imprisoned, fled or are based in Beirut or Turkey, who rely on
situated across the border. several semi-permanent sources inside Syria,
The Age of the mostly citizen journalists.
Empowered Citizen has
firmly entrenched itself and is here to stay, thanks to the communication
revolution.

MEDIA IN POST-CONFLICT SOCIETY

A reliable news media enables well-informed citizen decision-making that, when
freely exercised, in turn contributes to democratisation. Reliability here refers to
journalism that is accurate, impartial and socially responsible. In Western practice,
the gathering and presentation of information by the news media is distinguished
by at least three key principles: accuracy, impartiality and responsibility in the
public interest. These principles apply to reporters, editors, directors, producers,
managers, camera-persons, designers, and others, including individuals
(freelancers), news agencies, both private and government-owned, providers of
news and information.

The international community has recognized the place of the media in a post-
conflict society and its importance in the process of democratisation. Ross (2010)
notes that this increase in attention can be explained by the technology-driven
pervasiveness of the news media in the global post-Cold War era; an appreciation
of the effectiveness of the preceding decade‘s media-based relief and development
strategies; and increased concern among the international community that
92
irresponsible media may fuel genocidal incidents as was the case in Rwanda. As Role of Government and
Civil Society
such, assistance for free and independent media has become an integral part of
aid and development programmes of most Western countries and international
development organisations. Education programmes to establish and reinforce
these bedrock principles of journalism continue to dominate donors‘ attention,
especially through training activities. Similarly, Media is involved in reporting
and commenting on conflicts and processes of their management and resolution.
Ross (2010) notes that in many post-conflict countries proper training of media
personnel has helped to create a wide range of print and broadcasting media
(including newspapers, television and radio stations) and has stimulated the
emergence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) promoting free speech.
Other donor activities with regard to media include assistance to intended-outcome
programming, promotion of counter-acting media outlets and the facilitation of
a media-supportive infrastructure, including legislation, courts and regulators.

However, particular post-conflict conditions such as state-controlled ownership,

lack of appropriate equipment and (self-) censorship have often hampered the
development of local institutional capacity in the field of media. Where diversity
of media does exist, it has proved to be a minefield of highly ‗partisanized‘ outlets
producing unreliable journalism which may in turn destabilize the fragile
democratic process. The establishment of a well-functioning media sector with
the necessary institutional infrastructure therefore requires long-term commitment
from the international community through a more coordinated, context-specific
and informed approach and assessment of the impact of media programmes.

6.10.1 The Setting

The crumbling of Cold War structures and attitudes, at the end of the 1980s,
triggered welcome developments for democratisation, and an accelerated interest
in supporting the professionalisation and independence of media in previously
repressed or violence-stressed societies. Ross (2010) identifies the following
reasons for this rise in attention:

First, in the 1980s international agencies and donors had demonstrated

considerable success in integrating media-based programmes, especially radio
programmes, into their strategies for immediate relief in natural disasters, conflict
resolutions and for longer-term humanitarian development. Whether it was using
public and private radio for messages directing populations to relief centers or
for extended programmes concerned agencies and civil society organisations
had recognized the effectiveness of media for presenting responses and options
to adverse conditions. At the same time, the end of the Cold War removed barriers
to the dissemination of national and international news to previously inaccessible
audiences. Greater access to many countries enticed agencies to explore
developing indigenous media in those countries as an alternative forum to the
previously totalitarian or tightly controlled media. The objective was to encourage
growth of an independent, professional media and an alternative, democratic
ideology, in the belief that an independent, professional media constitutes an
integral part of the democratisation process.

Secondly, the media, and especially the electronic media, had achieved a
technology-driven ubiquity which enabled its messages to reach even the most
remote places. Radio receivers most particularly had become affordable and
available everywhere. Television, too, had penetrated deeply in some societies,
93
Conflict Management whereas the circulation of printed material expanded as a result of new printing-
distribution technologies and a rising literacy.

Thirdly, media programmes became more prominent in the 1990s as a possible

counterforce to the increased use of (especially electronic) media for the opposite
and deplored purpose of undermining peace. Sharply increased incidents of hate
radio and other propaganda, which exhorted and helped engineer attempted
genocides – such as in Rwanda and Bosnia-Herzegovina, to cite only two –
attracted attention to the negative power of media and launched the search for
responses. The emerging knowledge of conflict resolution with emphasis on
changing disputants‘ perceptions through controlled communication further
intensified the focus on the media as an instrument of reconciliation and
democratisation in conflict-stressed societies.

As a result, international organisations, bilateral donors and non-governmental

organisations (NGOs) began to explore opportunities for media support
programmes, also known as media assistance. The United Nations (UN) included
a major media initiative in the transitional process in Cambodia (1992-1993),
and in almost every other UN intervention since. NGOs specialising in media
interventions emerged, including the US-based Search for Common Ground –
the Foundation Hirondelle, the Baltic Media Centre in Europe, and the Media
Institute of Southern Africa. A number of donor countries – including the
Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and the United
States – introduced media support programmes within their international aid
strategies.

Other major organisations such as the Council of Europe, World Bank, and
UNESCO invested substantially in media activities as part of democratisation
and human rights programmes. Interest in the media‘s role in sustaining peace
and democratic transition continues to increase.

MEDIA AND PEACE BUILDING

Professional journalists working in the media do not set out to reduce conflict.
They seek to present accurate and impartial news and thereby aid peace building.
But it is often through good reporting that conflict is reduced. There are several
elements of conflict resolution that good journalism can deliver, automatically,
as part of the media‘s daily work:

1) Channeling communication
The news media is often the most important channel of communication that
exists between sides in a conflict. Sometimes the media is used by one side
to broadcast intimidating messages. But other times, the parties speak to
each other through the media or through specific journalists.

2) Educating
Each side needs to know about the other side‘s difficulty in moving towards
reconciliation. Journalism which explores each side‘s particular difficulties,
such as its politics or powerful interests can help educate the other side to
avoid demands for simplistic and immediate solutions. Television debates
in recent times have tried to discuss and debate India-Pakistan relations.
94
3) Confidence-building Role of Government and
Civil Society
Lack of trust is a major factor contributing to conflict. Good journalism can
present news that shows resolution is possible by giving examples from
other places and by explaining local efforts at reconciliation.

4) Correcting misperceptions
By examining and reporting on the two sides‘ misperceptions of each other,
the media encourages disputing sides to revise their views and move closer
to reducing conflict.

5) Making them human

Getting to know the other side, giving them names and faces, is an essential
step. This is why negotiators put the two sides in the same room. Good
journalism also does this by putting real people in the story and describing
how the issue affects them.

6) Identifying underlying interests

In a conflict both sides need to understand the bottom-line interests of the
other. Good reporting does this by asking tough questions and seeking out
the real meaning of what leaders say. Good reporting also looks beyond the
leaders‘ interests and seeks the larger groups‘ interest.

7) Emotional outlet
In conflict resolution, there must be outlets for each side to express their
grievances or anger or they will explode in frustration and make things
worse. The media can provide important outlets by allowing both sides to
speak. Many disputes can be fought out in the media, instead of in the streets,
and the conflict can be addressed before it turns violent.

8) Framing the conflict

In a conflict, describing the problem in a different way can reduce tension
and launch negotiations. In good journalism, editors and reporters are always
looking for a different angle, an alternative view, a new insight which will
still attract an audience to the same story. Good journalism can help reframe
conflicts for the two sides.

9) Face-saving, consensus-building
When two parties try to resolve a conflict they must calm the fears of their
supporters. By reporting what they say, the media allows leaders in a conflict
to conduct face-saving and consensus-building, even reaching to refugees
and exiles in far-away places.

10) Solution-building
In a conflict, both sides must eventually present specific proposals to respond
to grievances. On a daily basis, good reporting does this by asking the
disputing parties for their solutions instead of just repeating their rhetoric of
grievances. Good journalism is a constant process of seeking solutions.

95
Conflict Management 11) Encouraging a balance of power
Conflicting groups, regardless of inequalities, have to believe they will be
given attention if they meet the other side in negotiations. Good journalism
encourages negotiation because the reporting is impartial and balanced. It
gives attention to all sides. It encourages a balance of power for the purpose
of hearing grievances and seeking solutions.

Responsible Journalism
Good journalism is a constant process of seeking solutions. Journalists working
in different media institutions should adopt the following practices while reporting
about conflict:
Journalists should seek out all points of view.
They should not only repeat grievances of one side.
Journalists should examine what the conflicting parties are seeking and the
possibility for withdrawal, compromise or transcendence. Journalists should
write about these possibilities.
With conflict analysis, journalists can understand what diplomats and
negotiators are trying to do, and can report it more reliably.
With conflict analysis, journalists can identify more sources to go for
information. By providing this information, journalism makes the public
far more well-informed about the Conflict beneath the violence, and can
assist in resolving it.
Good journalism should avoid the following while reporting conflict:
Good journalism should not be defamatory. It does not tell lies and twist the
truth about people.
Good journalism does not simply repeat what has been reported somewhere
else. Copying others‘ news may repeat false information.
Journalism is powerful. News reports can ruin reputations, put people in
danger, or cause public panic. Good journalism is not used to intentionally
harm other persons.
Good journalism does not accept bribes. It does no special favours for anyone.
Good journalism is not for sale.

A Checklist for Conflict-sensitive Journalism

Avoid reporting a conflict as consisting of two opposing sides. Find other
affected interests and include their stories, opinions and goals in news.
Interview those affected by say, a general strike, workers who are unable to
work, refugees from the countryside who want an end to violence etc.
Avoid defining the conflict by always quoting the leaders who make familiar
demands. Go beyond the elite. Report the words of ordinary people who
may voice the opinions shared by many.
Avoid only reporting what divides the sides in conflict. Ask the opposing
sides questions which may reveal common ground. Report on interests or
goals which they may share.
96
 Avoid always focusing on the suffering and fear of only one side. Treat all Role of Government and
Civil Society
sides‘ suffering as equally newsworthy.
Avoid words like devastated, tragedy and terrorized to describe what has
been done to one group. These kinds of words put the reporter on one side.
Do not use them yourself. Only quote someone else who uses these words.
Avoid emotional and imprecise words. Assassination is the murder of a
head of state and no-one else. Massacre is the deliberate killing of innocent,
unarmed civilians. Soldiers and policemen are not massacred.
Genocide means killing an entire people. Do not minimize suffering, but
use strong language carefully.
Avoid words like terrorist, extremist or fanatic. These words take sides;
make the other side seem impossible to negotiate with. Call people what
they call themselves.
Avoid making an opinion into a fact. If someone claims something, state
their name, so it is their opinion and not your fact.
Avoid waiting for leaders on one side to offer solutions. Explore peace ideas
wherever they come from. Put these ideas to the leaders and report their
response.

MAHATMA GANDHI – A GREAT MASS

COMMUNICATOR
Mahatma Gandhi was a great mass communicator. He left out no means, no
technique to rouse the consciousness of the people—instill into them the
imperative of their active participation in the movement. To enable him to do so,
he took up a wide range of activities pertaining to all sections of the people—
from education to village welfare, from the spinning wheel to cattle protection.

As a communicator, Gandhiji used the medium of the Press apart from the spoken
word. In the midst of all his multitude of activities, his sponsored journals, Indian
Opinion, Young India and Harijan came out regularly – a one-man endeavour –
conveying his message to his countrymen. The importance that was attached to
the written word by Gandhiji and other national leaders reflected their urge to
reach out their message to as wide a section of the people as possible. The means
to convey that message were often primitive, but no medium available at the
time was left out. From traditional interpersonal means – including the travelling
bards – the bauls of Bengal, for instance – to the educated student going out on
literacy-cum-swadeshi missions – the composing of patriotic songs and setting
up of choirs in villages, mohallas and bustees, to the immortal ‗magic lantern‘ –
no video at that time – nothing was left out. It was a gigantic operation, sustained
through the ups and downs of the freedom struggle, and later on followed by
handwritten posters and graffiti.

Gandhi realised the power of the media to sway the masses even in the pre-
Independence era. In today‘s age with advancements in media technologies, we
can effectively harness the media for spreading peace and resolution of conflict.

97
Conflict Management Check Your Progress Exercises 2
Note: i) Use of the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain the meaning of Civil Society and Mass Media their role in conflict
resolution.
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LET US SUM UP
Conflicts can be inter-state, intra-state and inter-personal. In inter-state conflicts
states are involved, therefore, their resolution requires either dialogue among
conflicting states themselves or international bodies. Intra-state or inter-personal
conflicts occur within the boundaries of a state. As the state is primarily responsible
for maintenance of peace and law and order in society and has monopoly over
use of force and resources, it has to be the key role in conflict management and
resolution. The state acts through its visible agency the government. The
government also has a wide infrastructural network to deal with intra-state
conflict-situations ranging from the ones like family quarrels, assuming violent
proportions, the ubiquitous crime as commonly understood, to group violence,
to insurrection and insurgent violence.

The government acts primarily through its three core branches, legislature,
executive and judiciary. The government adopts the methods of enforcement
mediation and arbitration, adjudication and redressal of grievances to contain,
control and prevention of reoccurrence of conflicts. For enforcement the
government has under its command, bureaucracy, police and para-military forces.
At times, it can also call upon the armed forces to contain serious situations of
violence.

It has also been observed that at times and in some societies, the government
itself becomes party to conflict either because of some policies and decisions it
has made or by design acting in favour of a party in conflict. Observers, therefore,
are critical of over or partisan use of force by the government. They allege the
tendency of abusing rights of citizens and curbing dissent.

This unit also explained the importance of the civil society and media as a
constituent of the public sphere and their role in reducing conflict. Women
particularly play a key role in building peace in informal spaces like villages,
between warring communities, factions and even nations. However, their key
role has often gone recognized and unutilized. The UN SCR 1325 and follow up
resolution tries to make peace building a more gender inclusive process. The
role that the media can play, as a mediator, to reduce conflict as well in
98 strengthening civil society‘s efforts for conflict resolution is important.
 Role of Government and
SOME USEFUL REFERENCES Civil Society

Das, Samir Kumar (2011): ‗Individual Dissent or Organising for Social Power?
A Possible Gandhian Approach to Peace and Conflict Resolution for India‘s
Northeast‘ in Gandhi Marg, 32 (4), January-March, pp. 545-569.
Expert Group to the Planning Commission (2008): Development Challenges in
Extremist-Affected Areas. New Delhi: Government of India.
Howard, Ross. (2010). Conflict Sensitive Journalism in Practice. University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
Jayaram, N. (Ed.). (2005). On Civil Society: Issues and Perspectives. Sage
Publications
Juergeneseeryer, Mark (2005), Gandhi’s Way: A Handbook of Conflict Resolution,
Mass: University of California.
Kaldor, Mary (2003) ‗The Discourse of Civil Society‘ (chapter two) in Global
Civil Society: An Answer to War, Polity Press.
Manchanda Rita, (2005), ―Women‘s Agency in Peace Building: Gender Relations
in Post-Conflict Reconstruction.‖ Economic and Political Weekly 40 (44/45):
4737–45.
McQuail, Denis (2010). Mass Communication Theory. (6th Edition). London:
SAGE.
Samaddar, Ranabir, ed. (2004): Peace Studies: An Introduction to the Concept,
Scope, and Themes, South Asian Peace Studies I. New Delhi: Sage, 2004.
Sunila Abeysekera ―Maximizing the Achievement of Women‘s Human Rights in
Conflict Transformation : The Case of Sri Lanka‖ 41 Columbia Journal of
Transnational Law 2003.
Sacco,V. (2015). Citizen Journalism: Global Perspectives. Vol. 2. by Einar Thorsen
and Stuart Allan. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 94(4), 1025-
1027.
Singh, Richa, (2007) Transcending borders: role of women in building peace
between India-Pakistan, In Women building peace between India and Pakistan/
ed. by Shree Mulay and Jackie Kirk. - London: Anthem Press. p.23 -36
UN 2015 ; Preventing Conflict, Transforming Justice, Securing the Peace: Global
Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council resolution 1325.
Wolfsfeld, Gadi, ―The role of the media in violent conflicts in the digital age:
Israeli and Palestinian leaders‘ perceptions
World Bank (2006), Civil Society and Peacebuilding: Potential, Limitations and
Critical Factors http://siteresources.worldbank.org/Extsocialdevelopment/
Resources/244362-1164107274725/3182370-1164110717447/Civil_Society_
and_Peacebuilding.pdf (Accessed 27.8. 2018).

Yarchi, M. (2013) Promoting stories about terrorism to the international news

media: A study of public diplomacy. Media, War & Conflict 6(3): 263–278 http:/
/www.mkgandhi.org/mass_media.htm
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Conflict Management
6.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercises 1
1) Your answer should include the following points:
a) Importance of the government institutions, statutory bodies and their role
in addressing conflict resolution.
Check Your Progress Exercises 2
1) Your answer should highlight the following points:
a) Concept of Civil Society
b) Civil Society and Conflict Resolution
c) Provide example Mahatma Gandhi was great communicator

100
 Role of Government and
UNIT 7 ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL AND Civil Society

TRANSNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS*

Structure
Introduction
Aims and Objectives
Role of International Organisations to Promote World Peace
Role of the UN and other International Bodies
Arms Race and Disarmament
Terrorism and Counter terrorism
University for Peace
Role of Regional Organisations
Non-governmental Transnational Organisations
Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research (TFF)
The International Committee of Artists for Peace (ICAP)
Let Us Sum Up
Some Useful References
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 INTRODUCTION
International Institutions are of two types – governmental and non-governmental.
The term ―Transnational Organisation‖ (TO) as used in scholarly literature refers
to International Organisations (including International-Governmental
Organisations (IGOs) and International Non-Governmental Organisations –
INGOs) that transcend the idea of a nation-state. IGOs are organisations whose
members include at least three states, that have activities in several states and
whose members are held together by formal international agreement or treaty. In
the last century, more than 38,000 IGOs and INGOs have been established. The
former includes, among others, the United Nations, World Bank, the Council of
Europe, African Union, and the Organisation of American States. The latter
includes, among others, Amnesty International, International Committee of Red
Cross, Peace Brigades International, Transnational Foundation for Peace and
Future Research (TFF), and the International Committee of Artists for Peace
(ICAP).

These International and Transnational Organisations (ITOs) have been playing a

significant role in resolving conflicts among states and contributing towards
keeping peace and international order in the world. For their role, the UN and its
bodies and the persons associated with these organisations have received several
Nobel Peace Prizes. INGOs such as the International Committee of the Red Cross
(1917, 1944, and 1963), Amnesty International (1977), International Physicians
for the Prevention of Nuclear War (1985), the International Campaign to Ban
Landmines (1997), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007)
have also received Nobel Peace awards (the years in bracket indicates their years
of award). In this unit you will read about their role in some detail.

*Prof. Abdulram P. Vijapur, Deptt. of Political Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
101
Conflict Management Aims and Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to understand:
the definition of international and transnational organisations;
how the United Nations (UN) has been playing a significant role in
maintaining international peace and security since the end of World War II;
why the UN is not so successful in enforcing peace in the world;
the role of the UN in achieving disarmament and dealing with the menace
of terrorism;
the role and functions of University of Peace;
the role of NATO in maintaining peace and security at regional level; and
the role of non-governmental transnational organisations in promoting
international peace.

ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS TO PROMOTE

WORLD PEACE
Although there are nearly 400 IGOs, only few are concerned with international
peace and security. In this Unit we discuss the role of three kinds of transnational
organisations – the UN and its bodies, one regional organisation and two non-
governmental organisations.

Role of the UN and other International Bodies

The UN is truly a global inter-governmental organisation. It was established in
October 1945 to achieve the following aims:
To preserve peace in the world and eliminate war;
To remove the causes of conflict by encouraging economic, social,
educational, scientific and cultural progress throughout the world;
To safeguard the rights of all individual human beings, and the rights of
peoples and nations.
In spite of the careful framing of the UN Charter, the UN was unable to solve
many problems of the world due to Cold War between the US and the former
USSR. Yet, it played an important role in a number of international crises by
arranging ceasefires and negotiations, and by providing peacekeeping forces. Its
successes in non-political work – care of refugees, protection of human rights,
economic planning and attempts to deal with problems of world health, population
and famine – have been enormous.
The Security Council of the UN is its principal organ to maintain international
peace and security. The Council works on the principle of ―collective security‖.
This concept treats the aggression of one state against the other States as an
attack on all member States of the UN. It allows the Security Council to take
action against the aggressor only when five of its permanent members (which
are great Powers) – the US, USSR, France, China and Britain – are unanimous
on such action. These states are known as P5. Any negative vote (known as veto)
will prevent such action. Any veto will kill the concept of collective security.
The Council was paralyzed by frequent use of veto power during the Cold War
102 (1945-1991).
In order to secure some action in case of a veto by one of the P5, the General Role of International and
Trans–National Institutions
Assembly (GA) (at the time of the Korean War in 1950) introduced the ―Uniting
for Peace‖ Resolution. This resolution stated that if the Security Council‘s
proposals were vetoed, the GA could meet within 24 hours and decide what
action to take, even military intervention if necessary. In cases like this, a decision
by the Assembly would only need a two-thirds majority. Again this new rule was
not incorporated in the UN Charter, and the USSR, which exercised more vetoes
than any P5 states, always maintained that a Security Council veto should take
precedence over a GA decision. Nevertheless, the Assembly acted in this way
many times, ignoring Soviet Union protests.

How successful has been the UN as a Peacekeeping Organisation?

Although it has had mixed success, it is probably fair to say that the UN has been
more successful than the League of Nations in its peacekeeping efforts, especially
in crises which did not directly involve the interests of the great powers, such as
the civil war in the Congo (1960-4). On the other hand, it has often been ineffective
like the League in situations where the interests of one of the great powers – the
USSR –were involved (e.g., the 1956 Hungarian crisis and the 1968 Czech crisis).
This is because the USSR was ignoring or defying the UN. The best way to
illustrate the UN‘s varying degrees of success is to examine some of the major
disputes (both during Cold War and post-Cold War) in which it has been involved.

Palestine (1947)
The dispute between Jews and Arabs in Palestine was brought before the UN in
1947. After an investigation, the UN decided to divide Palestine, setting up the
Jewish state of Israel. This was one of the most controversial UN decisions, and
it was not accepted by the Arab states. The UN was unable to prevent three Arab-
Israeli wars (1948-9, 1967 and 1973) over the question of Palestine. However, it
did useful work arranging ceasefires and providing supervisory forces, and caring
for the Arab refugees. Due to strong US support to Israel and the disunity among
Arab states has not resolved the Palestine issue till date.

The Korean War (1950-3)

This was the only occasion on which the UN was able to take decisive action in
a crisis directly involving the interests of one of the superpowers. When South
Korea was invaded by Communist North Korea in June 1950, the Security Council
immediately passed a resolution condemning North Korea, and called on UN
members to send help to the South Korea. However, this was possible because
the USSR was boycotting SC meeting in protest at the failure to allow PRC to
join the UN. Although the Russian delegates returned soon, it was too late for
them to prevent action going ahead. Troops of 16 countries were able to repel the
invasion and preserve the borders between the two Koreas along the 38th parallel.

Though this was claimed by the West as a great success, it was in fact very much
the American operation – the vast majority of troops and the Commander-in-
Chief, General MacArthur, were American, and the US government had already
decided to intervene with force the day before the Security Council was taken
into confidence. Only the absence of the Russians enabled the USA to turn it into
a UN operation. When the USSR started vetoing further resolutions against North
Korea, the General Assembly passed its famous resolution, ―Uniting for peace‖,
as discussed above.
103
Conflict Management The Suez Crisis (1956)
On the sudden nationalization of Suez Canal by President Nasser of Egypt in
1956, Egypt was attacked by Britain and France (which owned shares in Suez
Canal Company) and Israel. When the Security Council resolution condemning
use of force by Britain and France was vetoed, the General Assembly under
―Uniting for Peace‖ resolution not only condemned the invasion (by majority of
64 to 5) but also called for a withdrawal of troops. In view of the weight of
opinion against them, the aggressors agreed to withdraw, provided the UN ensured
a reasonable settlement over the canal. It kept the Arabs and Israelis from
slaughtering each other. The UN General Assembly sent UN Peace Keeping
forces (5000 peacekeeping soldiers) to Egypt to supervise ceasefire agreement.
The Canadian diplomat, Lester Pearson, had invented the idea of Peacekeeping.
He received Nobel Peace Prize later for his contribution to world peace. The UN
was quite successful in maintaining peace in the region, though Russian and
American pressure was also important in bringing about ceasefire. However, the
UN was not so successful in the 1967 Arab-Israeli conflict.

The Hungarian (1956) and Czechoslovakia crisis (1968)

Though UN was successful in diffusing Suez crisis, it could not exert its influence
to resolve the Hungarian crisis. Let us explain what Hungarian crisis is. When
the Hungarians tried to exert their independence from Russian control, Soviet
troops entered the country to crush the revolt. The Hungarian government appealed
to UN, but the Russians vetoed a Security Council (SC) resolution calling for the
withdrawal of their forces. The GA passed the same resolution and set up a
committee to investigate the problem; but the Russians refused to cooperate with
the committee and no progress could be made.

The Czech crisis was almost a repeat performance of the Hungarian problem.
When the Czechs showed what Moscow considered to be too much independence,
Russians and other Warsaw Pact troops were sent in to enforce obedience to the
USSR. The SC tried to pass a resolution condemning this action, but the Russians
vetoed it, claiming that the Czech government had asked for their intervention.
Although the Czech denied this, there was nothing the UN could do in view of
the USSR‘s refusal to cooperate.

The Iran-Iraq War (1980-88)

The UN was successful in bringing an end to the long-drawn-out war between
Iran and Iraq. After years of attempting to mediate, the UN at last negotiated a
ceasefire, though admittedly they were helped by the fact that both sides were
close to exhaustion.

The 1991 Gulf War

The UN action on the war was impressive. When Saddam Hussain of Iraq sent
his troops to invade and capture the tiny, but extremely rich, neighbouring state
of Kuwait (August 1990), the UN SC wanted him to withdraw or face the
consequences. When he refused, a large UN force was sent to Kuwait. In a short
decisive campaign, Iraqi troops were driven out, suffering heavy losses, and
Kuwait was liberated. However, the critics of the UN complained that Kuwait
had received help only because the West needed her oil supplies. Other small
states, like East Timor (which was taken over by Indonesia in 1975) did not
receive help.
104
Bosnia Role of International and
Trans–National Institutions
In the civil war between Bosnian Muslims and Serbs, the UN failed to send
enough troops to impose law and order. This was partly because both the European
Community and the USA were reluctant to get involved. There was further
humiliation for the UN in July 1995 when they were unable to prevent Serb
forces from capturing two towns Srebrenica and Zepa – which the Security
Council had designated as safe areas for Muslims. UN helplessness was underlined
when the Serbs went on to murder around 8000 Muslim men in Srebrenica.

Iraq – the overthrow of Saddam Hussain

In March 2003 the USA and Britain launched an invasion of Iraq, on the grounds
that they intended to get rid of its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and to
free the Iraqi people from the brutal regime of Saddam Hussain. UN weapons
inspectors, deployed in Iraq, searching for WMD did not find them. Despite this
the attack went ahead. What is more, even the UN Security Council (SC) had not
given its authorization. The USA and Britain had tried to push a resolution through
the Council approving military action, but France, Russia and Germany wanted
to allow Saddam more time to cooperate with the weapons inspectors. When it
became clear that France and Russia were prepared to veto any such resolution,
the USA and Britain resolved to go ahead unilaterally, without putting the
resolution to a SC vote. They claimed that Saddam‘s violations of earlier UN
resolutions were a justification for war.

The US and British action was a serious blow to the prestige of the UN. Then
UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, speaking at the opening of the annual session
of the GA in September 2003 noted that their action had brought the UN to ―a
fork in the road‖. Until then, all states needed the authorization of the SC if they
intended to use force beyond the normal right of self-defense as required by
article 51 of the UN Charter. However, if states continued to act unilaterally
against a perceived threat, which would present a fundamental challenge to the
entire principles of world peace and stability, on which the UN Charter was
based. Moreover, Annan said, this could only set precedents resulting in ―a
proliferation of the unilateral and lawless use of force‖.

Why the UN is not so successful in enforcing peace in the world? There are five
reasons, given below:
i) The lack of a permanent UN army;
ii) Lack of unanimity among P5;
iii) Veto power of P5;
iv) Shortage of funds; and
v) Non-cooperation of member states.
The UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL): Successful peacekeeping,
and peace- building.
In 1999, UN peacekeepers moved into Sierra Leone to oversee a feeble
peace process. The UN disarmed more than 75,000 ex-fighters, including
about 7,000 child soldiers; assisted in holding national and local government
elections; helped to rebuild the country‘s police force to its pre-war strength
and contributed towards rehabilitating the infrastructure and bringing
government services to local communities. The UN also helped the 105
Conflict Management
government stop illicit trading in diamonds and regulates the industry. During
the war, rebels had used money from ―blood‖ or ―conflict‖ diamonds to buy
weapons which then fuelled the conflict.
At one point, in May 2000, the mission nearly collapsed when the rebel
Revolutionary United Front (RUF) kidnapped hundreds of peacekeepers
and renounced the ceasefire in a move that endangered the credibility of
UN peacekeeping. Outraged by the chaos that followed, the international
community put pressure on the rebels to obey the ceasefire and slapped
sanctions against RUF sponsors. Subsequently, UNAMSIL launched new
mediation efforts and brought the two adversaries back to the negotiation
table. It brought in more troops to monitor the ceasefire and began disarming
fighters from both sides.
In 2005 UNAMSIL‘s withdrawal marked the completion of most of the
tasks assigned it by the Security Council which included assisting voluntary
return of refugees and internally displaced persons; recruiting and training
police personnel, constructing and renovating dozens of police stations.
UNAMSIL monitored and trained dozens of Sierra Leoneans in human rights
and was instrumental in setting up the Special Court for Sierra Leone to try
those most responsible for war crimes. The mission also assisted the
government in setting up a Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

Arms Race and Disarmament

Since World War II global military spending is increasing. The end of Cold War
has not made much difference. The Stockholm International Peace Research
Institute Yearbook (SIPRI) for 2013 discloses that the annual global military
spending stands at US $1.756 trillion at current prices for 2012. This corresponds
to 2.5% of World GDP or approximately $249 for each person in the world. In
comparison to this the biennium UN budget was $5.404 billion, besides $8 billion
UN Peacekeeping budget. The UN budget is equivalent to just 1.4% of the current
US defense budget. In fact, UN budget is equivalent to one month of US military
spending in Afghanistan in 2010.

On the danger of nuclear weapons, Albert Einstein reportedly said: ―I do not

know with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be
fought with sticks and stones.‖

Naturally arms race between and among states will not contribute towards peace.
Indeed, it will create conditions of conflict and tensions around the world. There
is also a problem of illegal sales of weapons in black market; amounting annually
to $1 billion (legal trade of small weapons is $ 4 billion). One textbook (Mansbach
& Taylor 2012, p.405) mentions that in north-eastern Kenya, the barter rate for
an AK-47 weapon has dropped from ten cows in 1986 to its present level of two
cows. This book also reveals that in Sudan, an AK-47 can be purchased for the
same price as a chicken.

The UN Charter did not envision a major role for the UN with respect to arms
control/ regulation or disarmament, although Article 26 gave the Security Council
responsibility in this matter. Due to the use of atomic weapons in World War II,
disarmament appeared on the agenda of the General Assembly. By its very first
resolution, the Assembly established the International Atomic Energy
106 Commission/ Agency for promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy. It has also
set up Disarmament Commission in 1952, a specialised deliberative body that Role of International and
Trans–National Institutions
focuses on issues and meets for three weeks every year. It also established the
Conference on Disarmament in 1979 to serve as the primary multilateral
disarmament negotiating forum. The Conference negotiated both the Chemical
Weapons Convention, 1993, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT), in 1996. The former prohibits the development, production, stockpiling
and use of chemical weapons and requires their destruction, while the latter
proscribes any nuclear test explosions anywhere.

During the last 70 years the UN has adopted many international treaties on
disarmament and declared many regions as nuclear-weapon free zones. Let us
elaborate these two important roles of the UN. Some of the treaties of disarmament
are: Partial Test-Ban Treaty, Treaty of Tlateloco, Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty,
Biological Weapons Convention, South-east Asia Nuclear-Weapon Free Zone
Treaty, and African Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (www.un.org/
disarmament).

Terrorism and Counter-terrorism

The UN has consistently addressed the problem of terrorism at both the legal
and political level. It has also been the target of terrorism. From Afghanistan to
Algeria, from Iraq to Pakistan, the UN staff members have lost their lives in the
line of duty, in the service of peace, human rights and development. The UN
Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) was created in 2001 September by SC
resolution following 9/11 disaster in New York in 2001.
The UN has adopted the following Conventions and Protocols on Terrorism:
1) International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism,
1999;
2) International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing, 1997;
3) Convention on the Making of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection,
1991;
4) Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed
Platforms located on the Continental Shelf;
5) Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of
Maritime Navigation, 1988;
6) Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving
Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 1988;
7) Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material,, 1980;
8) International Convention against Taking of Hostages, 1979;
9) Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crime against
Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, 1973;
10) Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
Aviation, 1971;
11) Convention on the Unlawful Seizure of the Aircraft, 1970; and
12) Convention on Offences and Certain other Acts Committed on Board aircraft,
1963
107
Conflict Management Despite all these Conventions, terrorism is spreading in all parts of the world. It
is encouraging to note that the Indian government has presented the draft of a
Comprehensive international Convention against terrorism in 1996.
Unfortunately, this draft has not been accepted by the world community 20 years
after it was proposed in the General Assembly. Moreover, there is no
internationally agreed definition of terrorism. It is expected that a Comprehensive
treaty will address this problem (See www.un.org / terrorism).

7.1.4 University for Peace

On 5 December 2015, the United Nations – mandated University for Peace
commemorated its 35th anniversary. Established by the United Nations General
Assembly through its resolution 35/55, the University‘s mission is ―to provide
humanity with an international institution of higher education for peace and with
the aim of promoting among all human beings the spirit of understanding,
tolerance and peaceful coexistence, to stimulate cooperation among peoples and
to help lessen obstacles and threats to world peace and progress, in keeping with
the noble aspirations proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations.‖

The original vision of the University for Peace and its mission are still relevant,
perhaps more than ever. The authorities that imagined and delineated the role of
the University stressed that ―the persistence of war in the history of mankind and
the growing threats against peace in recent decades jeopardize the very existence
of the human species and require peace not to be conceived as a negative concept,
as the end of conflict or as a simple diplomatic compromise, but that it should be
conquered and secured through the most valuable and effective resource that
man possesses: education.‖ Likewise, they reaffirmed that peace is an inalienable
right achieved through education. Disarmament efforts are essential, but they
will not be successful without a major effort in the field of education; this is the
challenge faced by nations and humanity as a whole in the 21st century.

As it commemorates its 35 years of existence, the University for Peace is

undergoing a process of strengthening its core mission on the basis of contributing
more decisively to the four essential pillars of the United Nations, namely, the
ongoing search for peace; the promotion and protection of human rights; adopting
measures conducive to sustainable development; and achieving consensus among
all actors around the urgent need to halt the serious impact of climate change.

Headquartered in Costa Rica, the United Nations-mandated University for Peace

was established in December 1980 as a Treaty Organisation by the UN General
Assembly. As determined in the Charter of the University, the mission of the
University for Peace is: ―to provide humanity with an international institution of
higher education for peace with the aim of promoting among all human beings
the spirit of understanding, tolerance and peaceful coexistence, to stimulate
cooperation among peoples and to help lessen obstacles and threats to world
peace and progress, in keeping with the noble aspirations proclaimed in the Charter
of the United Nations.‖

To ensure academic freedom, the University was established under its own
Charter, approved by the General Assembly. UPEACE is not subject to UN
regulations and is directed by its own Council of renowned personalities with
expertise in peace and security matters. This has allowed the University to move
rapidly and to innovate, focusing its new, rigorous academic programme on the
108
fundamental causes of conflict through a multidisciplinary, multicultural-oriented Role of International and
Trans–National Institutions
approach.

The wider mission of the University should be seen in the context of the worldwide
peace and security objectives of the United Nations. The central importance of
education, training and research in all their aspects to build the foundations of
peace and progress and to reduce the prejudice and hatred on which violence,
conflict and terrorism are based is increasingly recognized. The Charter of the
University calls for UPEACE ―to contribute to the great universal task of educating
for peace by engaging in teaching, research, post-graduate training and
dissemination of knowledge fundamental to the full development of the human
person and societies through the interdisciplinary study of all matters related to
peace‖.

Funding of UPEACE programmes comes from the support of a number of donor

governments, foundations and institutions who believe in the mission of the
University. Fundraising for an endowment fund is in progress.

The vision of UPEACE is to become a network of collaborating UPEACE centers

and activities in different regions, guided from its headquarters in Costa Rica
and cooperating with a large number of universities, NGOs and other partners
on education and research for peace (www.upeace.org).

7.1.5 Role of Regional Organisations

Some of the IGOs were established with the aim of providing stability and security
in their regions. One of the significant IGOs in the contemporary world is the
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). It was established in 1949 in order
to provide collective defense against the Soviet Union threat. After the dissolution
of Soviet Union and collapse of Berlin Wall, NATO‘s role was changed due to
the impact of increased globalization processes which led to increased intra-
state conflicts. The member states that compromised this group required its
security mission be conducted in a larger context. As a result, new associations
such as the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council

and the Partnership for Peace (PfP)

were established. The PfP was NATO in Afghanistan
designed to prepare states for joint Post 9/11, NATO troops were sent
peacekeeping operations in the miles away to join the US led invasion
region in order to maintain stability of Afghanistan
in Europe. NATO has evolved in
many different ways. However, From August 2003 to 2014, NATO led
events after 9/11 (terrorist attack on the UN mandated International
World Trade Centre in New York on Security Assistance Force (ISAF.)
9 September 2001) changed its agenda markedly. At the Prague Summit in 2002,
the changing nature of security challenges was addressed. The current global
security problems such as terrorism and weapons of mass destruction led to
expansion of the activities of NATO outside the region. As a result, NATO began
to cooperate with other IGOs, the UN, and non-member countries and has
increased its military capacity.

109
Conflict Management Check Your Progress Exercises 1
Note: i) Use of the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss the role of United Nations role in the maintenance of International
Peace and Security since the end of World War-II
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NON-GOVERNMENTAL TRANSNATIONAL
ORGANISATIONS
The estimates of numbers of NGOs vary enormously. The 2008–2009 Yearbook
of International Organisations identified more than 8,000 non-governmental
organizations.

Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research

(TFF)
TFF is a transnational organisation. It was established on January 1, 1986 by
Christina Spannar and Jan Oberg as an independent, not-for-profit public charity
under Swedish law. It is an independent think tank, a global network that aims to
bring about peace by peaceful means. It inspires a passion for peace from the
grassroots to the corridors of power.

The themes of TFF, among others, are: nonviolence, reconciliation and

forgiveness, media, war and peace, nuclear abolition and pro-peace inspiration.
TFF is an all-volunteer global network. It promotes conflict-mitigation and
reconciliation in general, as well as in a more targeted way in a selected number
of conflict regions – through meticulous on-the-ground research, active listening,
education and advocacy. The Foundation is committed to doing diagnosis and
prognosis as well as proposing solutions. It does so in a clear, pro-peace manner.

TFF works in support of two major UN Charter norms – ―to save succeeding
generations from the scourge of war‖ and that ―peace shall be brought about by
peaceful means‖. The Foundation helps people learn to handle conflicts with
less violence towards other human beings, other cultures and nature. It is a
networking organisation with Associates all over the globe. It believes that
alternatives to the main trends of our time are desirable and possible - indeed
necessary for humankind to survive and live with dignity. TFF is critical and
constructive. It is and shall remain an experiment in applied peace research and
global networking.

Its goals are conflict-mitigation, peace research and education to improve conflict-
understanding at all levels and promote alternative security and global
110 development ideals based on nonviolent politics, economics, sustainability and
an ethics of care. The results, which are geared at decision-makers and citizens Role of International and
Trans–National Institutions
alike, combine innovative thinking and theories with workable, practical solutions.
TFF undertakes the following:
1) On-the-ground conflict analyses and mitigation as well as education, training
and reconciliation work. The countries we focus on include Burundi, the
former Yugoslavia, Iraq, Iran, Libya and other places in the Middle East as
well as the European Union, Sweden, Denmark. Its activities are conducted
by organised teams which are formed by the Foundation‘s Associates.
2) TFF is constantly developing its intellectual resource base. It provides
learning opportunities and inspiration. These are the pillars of our field
work and are made available to our website visitors, to students at courses
and training sessions, and everyone else around the world. Everything we
produce is free of charge.
3) Advocacy, training, education, media and other public outreach.
TFF works in conflict areas and their resource base that enable them to work
effectively in this third way. In the first five years after its inception, TFF focused
on academic research and the publication of comprehensive academic studies.
Since 1991 the Foundation has chosen to emphasize exploratory, in-the-field,
solution-oriented studies in conflict-mitigation and to let this experience inform
new theory formation and educational programmes in the future. TFF intends to
remain an experiment, a hybrid between research and practical on-the-ground
peace and reconciliation work.
Since 2007 TFF has made extensive use of social media and emphasized public
education. Post 2011 the Foundation has moved the balance between diagnosis,
prognosis and solutions further in the direction of the latter; this can be seen in a
more general pro-peace orientation and the opening of the virtual community
Imagine A Better World in 2012.
TFF as such is people-financed. The Foundation‘s day-to-day management
operates on donations from citizens around the globe who sympathize with our
goals and methods. In addition, it is based on unpaid voluntary work by all
Associates, the founders, volunteers, etc. (www.transnational.org/)

The International Committee of Artists for Peace (ICAP)

This is an organisation of passionately committed individuals using the creative
power of the artists to build a peaceful society. Collaborating with individuals
and organisations that share its mission for peace, ICAP employs dialogue and
the full creative power of the arts to instill the ideals of humanism and non-
violence in today‘s youth. Since 2002, ICAP has sponsored concerts, exhibits
and dialogues in support of the UN Declaration and Programme of Action on a
Culture of Peace.
The mission of ICAP is to establish peace and foster peacemakers through the
power of art. It does this through:
Performance: Members of ICAP, across a wide spectrum of genres, perform
the fine art of reconnecting audiences with their humanity;
Education through mentoring and arts: ICAP artists share their talents
and visions of peace with youth through school workshops, seminars and
joint performances; 111
Conflict Management Awards and Scholarships: ICAP recognizes and rewards individuals and
organisations that contribute to making the arts a vehicle for creating peace;
Collaboration: ICAP facilitates peace and performing-arts activities and
events with?other like-minded organisations toward creating a groundswell
movement for peace, culture and education;
Exhibits: ICAP-sponsored peace and culture exhibitions have been
presented at schools, organisational events and conventions. Their travelling
exhibit ―Building a Culture of Peace for the Children of the World‖ was
produced in support of the UN International Decade for a Culture of Peace
and Non-Violence for the Children of the World (2001-2010) and has been
showcased worldwide (www.icapeace.org/).

Check Your Progress Exercises 2

Note: i) Use of the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Examine the role of non-governmental organisations and transnational
organisations contribute towards building world peace? Illustrate with
examples.
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LET US SUM UP
Since the creation of the UN, over 100 major conflicts around the world have
left some 20 million dead. The post-Cold War period has seen many intra-state
conflicts. The UN was rendered powerless to deal with many of these crises
because of the vetoes – 279 of them – exercised in the Security Council by P5. In
section 2 of this Unit we have discussed nine major crises (Palestine, Korean
War, Suez, Hungarian and Czech crises, Iran-Iraq war, 1991 Gulf War, Bosnia
and Iraqi crisis of 2003) to explain the role of UN to maintain or enforce peace.
The General Assembly passed a ―Uniting for Peace‖ resolution to deal with veto
problem and undertake peacekeeping functions under the UN Charter. It was
largely successful in preventing these conflicts leading towards III World war.
Its efforts in peace-building are hampered by growing arms race among member
states. It is not able to eradicate the menace of terrorism. In fact, one should not
blame the UN for such a failure. It is only an association of states. Its members
do not want it to enforce peace in the world to serve their national interests. The
University of Peace, TFF and ICAP are also contributing towards promoting
peace. Peace can be established by IOs only in tandem with nation states. By
summing up we can say that until the ―United Nations‖ is composed of ―Divided
Nations‖, peace will remain the victim.
112
 Role of International and
SOME USEFUL REFERENCES Trans–National Institutions

Heikkurinen, Pasi (2017), (ed.), Sustainability and Peaceful Coexistence for the
Anthropocene, Routledge, New York.
Jacobson, Harold K., Networks of Interdependence: International Organisations
and the Global Political System, 2nd edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984)
Karns, Margaret P. and Mingst, Karen A., International Organisations – The
Politics and Processes of Global Governance (New Delhi: Viva Books, 2005)
.........................., The United Nations in the 21st Century – Dilemmas in World
Politics, fourth edition (Boulder, COL: Westview Press, 2012)
Mansbach, Richard W. and Taylor, Kristen L., Introduction to Global Politics,
Second edition (London: Routledge, 2012)
Pevehouse, Jon and Bruce Russett, ―Democratic International Governmental
Organisations Promote Peace‖, International Organisation, 60, 4, 2006
Rittberger, Volker & others, International Organisations, 2nd edition (Palgrave,
2012)
United Nations, Basic Facts of the United Nations (New York: United Nations,
2011)

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOU PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercises 1
1) Your answer should include role of United Nations, peacekeeping
organisations and regional organisations and their role.
Check Your Progress Exercises 2
1) Your answer should have the following points:
a) Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research
b) International Committee of Artists for Peace

113