SOLUTIONS

Lecture Notes

Vocabulary:
1. Aqueous: A solution in which the solvent is water.
2. Colligative Property: A property of a solution that is dependent on concentration. Examples include boiling point,
freezing point, and vapor pressure.
3. Molality: The concentration of a solution measured in moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
4. Molarity: The concentration of a solution measured in moles of solute per liter of solution.
5. Parts per Million: The concentration of a solution measured in mass of solute per mass of solution multiplied by one
million.
6. Percent by Mass: The concentration of a solution measured in mass of solute per mass of solution multiplied by one
hundred.
7. Percent by Volume: The concentration of a solution measured in volume of solute per volume of solution multiplied
by one hundred.
8. Saturated: Any solution that has the maximum concentration of a dissolved solute possible in a given quantity of
solvent at a given temperature. A saturated solution is a solution at equilibrium.
9. Solubility: The maximum quantity of a solute that may be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a given
temperature to make a saturated solution.
10. Solute: Any substance that is broken apart by a solvent and kept separate by the solvent particles.
11. Solution: A homogenous mixture formed when a solute dissolves into a solvent.
12. Solvent: Any substance that attaches to solute particles, breaks the solute apart, and then keeps the separated
particles apart in solution.
13. Supersaturated: A solution that has an excess of solute beyond the solubility point for a given temperature. Excess
solute will either precipitate out, or remain in an unstable dissolved state until the supersaturated solution is
disturbed. This causes the excess solute to precipitate from solution, leaving the solution saturated.
14. Unsaturated: A solution in which there are solvent particles that have no attached solute particles, and therefore has
the capacity to take more solute into solution.

Mixtures:
 A mixture is made by physically combining two (or more) substances without any type of chemical reaction occurring.
 Mixing ionic compounds with water forms aqueous solutions composed of dissolved ions. The polar water molecules
attach to the ions, separating them from other ions. The polar water molecules keep the ions separate, holding the
ions apart. This property is called molecule-ion attraction.

Solubility:
 The quantity of a solute that may be added to a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature and pressure is
known as solubility.
 Saturated: A saturated solution holds as many dissolved particles as it has the capacity to hold. Capacity is the
maximum “spaces” available for anything.
 Unsaturated: An unsaturated solution holds fewer dissolved particles as it has the capacity to hold.
 Supersaturated: A supersaturated solution is very rare solution in where the solution holds more dissolved solute than
is theoretically possible. A supersaturated solution is an unstable solution that will cause the excess solute to leave
(precipitate) if disturbed.

Factors affecting solubility:

 Three factors affect solubility: 1. Temperature 2. Pressure 3. Nature of solute and solvent

Temperature:
1. For solid and liquid solutes, solubility in water increases as water temperature increases.
2. For gaseous solutes, solubility in water decreases as water temperature increases.

Effect of temperature on solubility of a solid solute in water:

 An example of the effect of temperature on aqueous solubility of solids is the sugar water needed to form rock candy.
A saturated solution is formed at high temperature. As the saturated sugar solution cools, the sugar solute becomes
less soluble, causing some water molecules to “jump” off a sugar molecule and assist other water molecules in
holding other sugar molecules apart. This allows the now “free” sugar molecules to come out of solution, and as
more water molecules are pulled off sugar molecules, more and more sugar will precipitate from the solution as
sugar rock candy.

Effect of temperature on solubility of a gaseous solute in water:

 An example of the effect of temperature on aqueous solubility of gases is as easy to find as your favorite carbonated
beverage. Take two identical bottles of the same carbonated beverage, place one in the refrigerator overnight, and

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 leave the other on the kitchen counter. When you open both bottles side by side you will see that the colder
beverage will release much less carbonation (bubbles) than will the warmer beverage. The colder solution allowed
more gaseous CO2 to remain dissolved than did the warmer solution. If you keep observing both bottles, as the
colder beverage warms, it will continue to lose dissolved CO2 (bubbles) during the warming process, while the
warmer bottle will form fewer bubbles during the same elapsed time.

Pressure:
 For solids and liquids, pressure has either no effect or a negligible effect on solubility.
 For gaseous solutes, solubility increases as pressure increases.

Nature of Solute and Solvent (Like dissolves Like):

 Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents.
o Water is a polar molecule and therefore has partially charged ends that can attract other polar or ionic solutes.
This is why ionic solutes such as NaCl and polar molecular solutes such as glucose (sugar) may be dissolved in water.
o Water’s polar structure has little attraction for nonpolar molecular solutes like oil (remember Hank squishing
butter?) Oils will not mix (are immiscible) with water, and being less dense, will float on top of the water. This is why
water is NOT used to extinguish oil fires; the water will go under the fire, and float the fire to a new location.
Nonpolar gases such as CO2 and O2 are even harder to force into aqueous solution because of this.
 Nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
o Oils will not dissolve in polar water solvent, but oils will easily dissolve in the nonpolar organic solvent benzene
(C6H6). Whereas water is a great polar solvent, benzene is a good nonpolar solvent. Acetone is a nonpolar solvent
used to remove nonpolar mixtures such as nail polish.

Concentration:
 The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount of substance per unit of volume.
a. When discussing solutions, there are several ways to express concentration.
1. Grams of solute/100 g of solvent (water):
2. Molarity (M):
 Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solvent.
 Molarity is the most common unit of concentration used in the laboratory.
3. Parts-per-million (ppm):
 Parts-per-million is a mass-to-mass concentration for determining impurities or pollutants.
 Parts-per-million is used to determine trace amounts of ions in drinking water. PPM may also be used to
measure atmospheric or industrial air pollutants. For some very toxic materials concentrations may be
expressed in parts-per-billion.
4. Percent by Mass:
 Percent by Mass = (grams of solute/grams of solution) x 100
5. Percent by Volume:
 Percent by Volume = (mL of solute/mL of solution) x 100

A property of a solution that is dependent on concentration is known as a Colligative Property.

Colligative Properties of Solutions: (Electrolytes)
 An ionic compound or acid that forms an aqueous solution that conducts electricity is an electrolyte. Electrolytes
have free-moving ions in solution that allow the electrons to flow through the solution. Pure (distilled) water will not
flow electricity as it contains no dissolved ions.
 Electrolytes will 100% ionize in water in a reaction that resembles a decomposition reaction. The ionization
reaction is called dissociation, and is a physical change, not a chemical change. The more ions a solution forms when
it dissociates, the higher the boiling point and the lower the freezing point of the electrolytic solution.

Nonelectrolytes:
 Covalently bonded substances (except many acids) do not become electrolytes when forming aqueous solutions.
This includes polar molecules that dissolve, but not dissociate, in water.
 Examples of polar molecules that dissolve but don’t dissociate are sugars (C 6H12O6, C12H22O11), ethylene glycol
(CH2OHCH2OH), and ethanol (C2H5OH). These solutes have less of an effect on the freezing and boiling points of
solutions than do ionic compounds as they don’t dissociate further.

Nonelectrolyte examples:
1. C12H22O11(s)  C12H22O11(aq)
a. One mole of solid sucrose dissolves in water to form one mole of aqueous sucrose solution. No ions are formed,
and no charges exist to flow electrons.
2. CH2OHCH2OH(l)  CH2OHCH2OH(aq)
a. One mole of ethylene glycol dissolves in water to form one mole of aqueous ethylene glycol solution. No ions are
formed, and no charges exist to flow electrons.

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Colligative Properties of Solutions: (Phase change)
o '
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering: P A =X A P A ( Raoul t s Law)
2. Freezing Point Depression: ∆ T f =K f m; Freezing point ( FP )=FP solvent −∆ T f
 The freezing point temperature of water is depressed (decreased) when a solute is added to the water.
3. Boiling Point Elevation: ∆ T b=K b m ; Boiling point ( BP )=BP solvent + ∆ T b
 The boiling point temperature of water elevates (increases) when a solute is added to the water.
4. The higher the concentration of a solute in a solution, the lower the freezing point (larger depression) and the
higher the boiling point (larger elevation) for the solution.
5. The more particles that a solute dissolves or dissociates into, the lower the freezing point (larger depression)
and the higher the boiling point (larger elevation) for the solution.

6. Osmotic Pressure: π= ( Vn ) RT =MRT

 The pressure required to prevent osmosis by pure solvent is the osmotic pressure. The net movement of
solvent is always toward the solution with the higher solute concentrations.

Reading Solubility Curve

The graph below (on the next page) is known as a solubility curve and can be used to determine if a particular solution
is saturated at a given set of conditions and how much of the solute is dissolved under those conditions.
Whenever you are given a graph to analyze the first thing you should do is look at each axis to determine what information the
graph is showing.
X- axis – ___________________________ Y-axis – __________________________

Each line represents the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of H2O at a particular temperature.
Below the line  the solution is _______________________ On or above the line  the solution is ________________________
Above the line and all the solute is dissolved the solution is _________________________ (it must say that the solute is
completely dissolved)

For most substances, solubility increases as temperature

increases. What are the exceptions on the graph below?_____________

Use the graph to answer the following questions. REMEMBER UNITS!

1. What mass of solute will dissolve in 100mL of water at the
following temperatures?

a. KNO3 at 70°C ____________

b. NaCl at 100°C ____________

c. NH4Cl at 90°C ____________

d. Which of the above three substances is most soluble

in water at 15°C. ____________

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Illustrative Problems:
1. An aqueous solution contains 167 g CuSO 4 in 820 mL of solution. The density of the solution is 1.195 g/mL.
Calculate the (a) Molarity; (b) Percent by mass; (c) Mole fraction; and (d) Molality of the solution.
2. Concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) is 36.5% HCl by mass. Its density is 1.18 g/mL. Calculate the molality and
molarity of HCl.
3. The molality of a solution of chlorine and water is 0.0362 m. This solution contains 3500 g of water. How much
chlorine, in grams, was used to prepare this solution?
4. How many liters of 0.50 M glucose, C6H12O6, solution will contain exactly 100 g of glucose?
5. 0.00025 grams of a chemical is dissolved in 75 grams of water. (a) What is the concentration of the chemical in
parts per million (ppm)? (b) What is the concentration of the chemical in parts per billion (ppb)?
6. A solution of an unknown nonvolatile nonelectrolyte was prepared by dissolving 0.250 g in 40.0 g CCl 4. The
normal boiling point of the resultant solution increased by 0.357˚C. Calculate the molar mass of the solute. Kb=
5.02°C/molal
7. Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 0.600 kg of CHCl 3 and 42.0 g of eucalyptol (C10H18O), a
fragrant substance found in the leaves of eucalyptus tree. Kf for CHCl3 is 4.68 ˚C/molal and normal freezing
point is -63.5°C.
8. What is the vapor pressure at 25.0 °C of a solution composed of 42.71 g of naphthalene (a non-volatile
compound, MW = 128 g/mol) and 40.65 g of ethanol (MW = 46.02 g/mol). (The vapor pressure of pure ethanol
at 25.0 °C is 96 torr. )
9. Calculate the osmotic pressure of an urea solution at 25 oC which contains 5 g of urea (molar mass= 60)
dissolved in 100 cm3 of solution.
10. .Osmotic pressure of a solution containing 2 g of a protein (soluble in water) per 300 cm3 of the solution is
20mm of Hg at 27 oC .Calculate the molecular mass of protein.