Comparative Study of Multiphase IPMSMs for

EV Applications
Furkan Tokgoz1, Z.Q. Zhu1*, Xiao Chen1, Chaohui Liu2, Lianghui Yang3, Yiqing Yuan3, Han Yang3, and Yiming Huang3
1
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom
2
National New Energy Vehicle Technology Innovation Center (NEVC), China
2023 26th International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems (ICEMS) | 979-8-3503-1758-9/23/$31.00 ©2023 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ICEMS59686.2023.10345120

3
Xiamen NEVC Advanced Electric Powertrain Technology Innovation Centre, China
Email: [email protected]

Abstract—Three-phase, five-phase, dual three-phase, and

nine-phase interior permanent magnet synchronous machines winding structure may offer higher average torque with low
(IPMSMs) are optimized using the same structural parameters torque ripple for nine-phase machines [13].
of the reference Tesla Model 3 IPMSM for electric vehicles. Four machines have been designed and optimized in this
The optimized three-phase machine shows 20% higher torque
per permanent magnet volume compared to the reference
paper with the same design parameters of the reference Tesla
design by optimizing the machine structure. It is shown that
Model 3 interior permanent magnet synchronous machine
the multiphase machines offer higher average output torque (IPMSM) in order to investigate the feasibility of multiphase
and higher efficiency while using less amount of permanent machines for electric vehicle applications. Section II
magnets. Moreover, the torque ripples of the multiphase describes the parametrization of the IPMSMs. Three-phase,
machine are found to be inherently low even though no five-phase, six-phase, and nine-phase machines are globally
skewing or other core shaping techniques are employed. The optimized and analysed. As not all stator slot number and
torque-speed analyses of the multiphase machines demonstrate pole number combinations are feasible, the number of stator
enhanced efficiency regions attributable to the increased slots is chosen by comparing the alternatives for each
output power although this improvement is accompanied with winding. Section III discusses the results of the torque-speed
increased iron losses due to high winding factors of harmonics.
characteristics by finite element analysis (FEA) of
Keywords—dual three-phase, electric vehicle, five-phase, multiphase machines. Back-EMFs, torque waveforms,
multiphase, nine-phase, optimization, three-phase. losses, and efficiency maps, etc. of all four machines are
compared with the reference machine design.
I. INTRODUCTION
II. OPTIMIZATION OF FOUR MACHINES
The advancement of power semiconductor devices and
converter topologies has increased the popularity of All four machines are optimized using the same structural
multiphase machines in literature. Multiphase machines parameters of the Tesla Model 3 IPMSM. Oil cooling is used
have several advantages over their conventional three-phase for the stator and rotor, and the maximum operation speed is
counterparts. First, the fault tolerance and the redundancy 18000 r/min. The high speed makes the rotor design more
offered by the multiphase winding configurations have challenging, especially around iron bridges. The lamination
enabled the usage of these machines in critical operations has an arc notch at bridges to reduce leakage flux and also
such as aerospace [1]. Secondly, higher winding factors can reduce mechanical stress by utilizing an arc shape. The
be achieved with the utilization of multiphase windings that output torque also increases because of the reduced iron
results in an increase at the output torque [2]. Moreover, the bridge width. The rotor has NdFeB magnets with a standard
operation of multiphase machines is smoother and less noisy V-shape configuration and three-step skewing. The detailed
as they have less harmonics in the air gap flux density and machine parameters are given in Table I.
less torque ripple [3]-[4].
TABLE I SIZING PARAMETERS OF TESLA MODEL 3 MACHINE
In this paper, four multiphase machines, namely three-
phase, five-phase, six-phase, and nine-phase, are considered.
Parameter Value
Five-phase machines can have a significant advantage over
Stator outer diameter (mm) 225
three-phase machines since the third harmonic injection can
Stator inner diameter (mm) 151.3
be utilized [5]-[6]. Moreover, the end winding connections
Lamination length (mm) 134
of five-phase machines can be altered to extend the torque-
speed range of the machine [7]. The most commonly used Air gap (mm) 0.7
multiphase machines in literature are the six-phase machines Magnet dimension (mm) 33x21x6.5
since they can be configured as dual three-phases [8-10]. Remanence flux density (T) 1.44
Number of stator slots 54
Two sets of three-phase windings can be excited using
Number of poles 6
different three-phase inverters to increase redundancy and
fault tolerance. By splitting the power-sharing percentages
of independent three-phases it is possible to increase the The model of the IPMSM machine is firstly
torque- speed capabilities of the machine [11]. Lastly, parametrized. Fig. 1 shows the cross-section view of the
although not as popular as five and dual three-phase machine with parameters used in the global optimization.
machines, nine-phase machines exhibit performance
benefits such as improved efficiency and lower
harmonics [12]. The unbalanced
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 ripple and PM volume. The Pearson correlation coefficients
of the design variables are calculated by

𝜌𝑥𝑖,𝑦𝑖
𝑁 ∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑦𝑖−∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
= �𝑁 ∑ 𝑥2−(∑ 𝑥 )2�𝑁 ∑ 𝑦2−(∑ 𝑦 )2 
wr Lc 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

wm where 𝑁 is the number of samples, 𝑥𝑖 is the ith design variable,

wt 𝑦𝑖 is the ith design objective [14]. An analysis has been done
αm
by creating sample designs and evaluating the results with
wc tm three objective functions. Correlation coefficients are then
dm calculated with the formula. The results are shown in Fig. 2.
As can be seen, the coefficients that increase the average
output torque also increase the PM volume which creates the
rr contradiction between two objective functions as average
Fig. 1. Optimized structural parameters of IPMSM. output torque is set as maximizing function and while PM
volume is minimizing. Torque ripple does not show a high
Back-iron width of the stator 𝐿𝑐, teeth width 𝑤𝑡, and split correlation with any of the design parameters as it is mostly
ratio are the parameters that are used to optimize the stator related to a combination of multiple variables. Magnet
side. The split ratio is defined as width, magnet thickness, and centre post width are found to
be the most effective design parameters on average output
𝑟𝑟𝑟 torque
𝛾𝛾 =  and PM volume.
𝑟𝑠

where 𝛾𝛾 is the split ratio, 𝑟𝑟 and 𝑟𝑠 are the rotor and stator
outer radii, respectively. The maximum value of the back-
iron width is limited by the other design parameters such as
split ratio. As the split ratio becomes lower, the maximum
value of the back-iron width also decreases to eliminate
infeasible solutions from the optimization search space. The
rotor structure is defined by the split ratio, 𝛾𝛾, the width of
the ribs, 𝑤𝑟 , the centre post width, 𝑤𝑐 , the angle between
two magnets, 𝛼𝑚, the magnet thickness, 𝑡𝑚 , the magnet
Fig. 2. Pearson correlation coefficients of design variables.
width,
𝑤𝑚, and the distance of the magnets from the centre post, Another important part of the optimization is the design
𝑑𝑚. The maximum width of the magnet is limited by the constants which are shown in Table III. The outer diameter
other of the stator, air-gap length, slot opening width, and inner
parameters as the width of the duct changes with these diameter of the rotor are kept constant since they are limited
parameters. The iron bridge width is kept constant at 1.3 by mechanical constraints. The number of stator slots is kept
mm since it is limited by the mechanical stress created by constant for the three-phase IPMSM while it is changed for
the centrifugal force. In addition to these parameters, phase multiphase machines. The current density in the coils and
advance angle of the stator current, 𝛼𝑎𝑑𝑣 , is also added to the fill factor in the slot are constants to have a fair
the optimization algorithm since the maximum torque angle comparison between designs. Phase current is limited by the
will change as the rotor structure is changed. The upper and following equation:
lower limits of the design variables are presented in Table II.

TABLE II. LOWER AND UPPER LIMITS OF DESIGN VARIABLES.

Lower Upper
𝐼𝐿𝑚 3𝐼𝐿 
Variables Limit Limit = 𝑚

Tooth width, tm, (mm) 3 4.75 maximizing the average torque and minimizing the torque
Back-iron width, 𝐿𝑐, (mm) 10 35
Magnet angle, 𝛼𝑚, (deg) 130 170
Split ratio, 𝛾𝛾 0.55 0.75
Rib width, 𝑤𝑟, (mm) 1 10
Magnet distance, 𝑑𝑚, (mm) 0 18
Magnet width, 𝑤𝑚, (mm) 10 40
Magnet thickness, 𝑡𝑚, (mm) 2 8
Centre post width, 𝑤𝑐, (mm) 3 10
Phase advance, 𝛼𝑎𝑑𝑣, (deg) 40 60

Next, a sensitivity analysis has been done to see the

effect of these design variables on the objective functions of
the optimization. Three objective functions are set as
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where 𝐼𝐿𝑚 is the limit of the phase current for multiphase
machines, 𝐼𝐿 is the phase current of the three-phase
machine which is 1100 A, and 𝑚 is the number of phases
of the multiphase machines. The current limit restricts
the total current drawn from the battery which is also a
design constant limited by the battery architecture.
Another important parameter is the total copper loss of
the machine which is limited by thermal design. Thus, a
copper loss limit is also introduced to have a fair
comparison.
The phase resistance needs to be calculated with
winding parameters. The mean length per turn of the
winding and the end winding length need to be calculated
for each machine using (4) and (5).

𝑀𝐿𝑇 = 2𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 2𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑑 

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 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 𝜋 𝑝𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡  Table IV which shows that the 60-slot/6-pole machine has
the highest winding factor compared to other combinations.
where 𝑀𝐿𝑇 is the mean length per turn, 𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 and 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑑 are It also has a high winding factor for the third harmonic that
the machine axial length and the end winding length. 𝑝𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 is can be used to increase the average output torque of five-
the radius of the slot pitch. phase machines with the third harmonic injection method.
TABLE III. DESIGN CONSTANTS USED IN OPTIMIZATION
However, the effectiveness of the third harmonic injection is
determined by the winding configuration and the air-gap flux
Parameters Value density distribution. Although the winding used in the five-
Stator outer diameter (mm) 225 phase machine is suitable for having a high third harmonic
Rotor inner diameter (mm) 70 injection thanks to the high winding factor, the third
Axial length (mm) 134 harmonic at the air-gap flux density cannot be increased in
Number of stator slots 54
this IPMSM, since the pole arc is limited. The limited pole
arc results in cancelling out the third harmonic at the air gap
Slot opening width (mm) 2.5
flux density. Thus, the third harmonic injection is not used in
Airgap (mm) 0.7
the optimization of the five-phase IPMSM.
2
Current density (A/mm ) 37 The feasible slot/pole number combinations for the six-
Fill factor 0.4 phase machine are presented in Table IV. Although the 36-
Phase current (A) <1100 slot/6-pole machine has a higher winding factor it is not
Copper loss (kW) <20 chosen in this paper as it has a unity winding factor for all
harmonics and cogging torque frequency of the 36-slot/6-
The end winding shape is assumed to be semi-circular. pole machine is 12. This becomes an issue with a six-phase
𝑝𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 is calculated by machine since the torque ripple caused by the
electromagnetic torque is at the same frequency which results
in significantly high torque ripples in the output torque.
𝑝𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑄𝑄𝑠 TABLE IV. WINDING FACTORS OF DIFFERENT WINDING CONFIGURATIONS

where 𝑟𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 is the radius of the middle of the slot, 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 is the
Number of Stator
throw of the coil, and 𝑄𝑄𝑠 is the number of stator slots. The Slots
Fundamental Third Fifth Seventh
resistivity of the copper is dependent upon the temperature of Three-phase –
0.960 0.667 0.218 0.177
the coils with (7). 54-slot/6-pole
Five-phase –
0.973 0.772 0.462 0.176
40-slot/6-pole
𝜌𝑐𝑢,𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌𝑐𝑢(1 + 0.0039(𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 20)) 
Five-phase –
0.980 0.830 0.577 0.300
45-slot/6-pole
where 𝜌𝑐𝑢,𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 is the resistivity of the copper at the selected Five-phase –
0.982 0.848 0.616 0.344
50-slot/6-pole
temperature 𝜌𝑐𝑢 is the resistivity of the copper at 20 °C, and Five-phase –
0.988 0.891 0.707 0.454
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 is the temperature of the windings. The operating 60-slot/6-pole
temperature of the machine is chosen as 80 °C. The Five-phase –
0.980 0.830 0.578 0.303
remanence flux density and magnetic coercivity of the 70-slot/6-pole
Six-phase –
NdFeB magnets are changed accordingly. Finally, phase 36-slot/6-pole
1 1 1 1
resistance, 𝑅𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒, of the machine can be calculated by Six-phase –
0.991 0.924 0.793 0.609
72-slot/6-pole
Nine-phase –
𝑅𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝜌𝑐𝑢,𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝐿𝑇 𝑁𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑛 54-slot/6-pole 1 1 1 1
= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙


where 𝑁𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 is the number of series turn in one phase and

The machines are optimized with the non-dominated
𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 is the copper cross-section area which is calculated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) in ANSYS Maxwell.
using the slot area and the copper fill factor. The phase The results of the optimization are presented in Fig. 3. The
resistance is then used to calculate the maximum phase
purple dots represent the chosen optimum design. The cross-
current with an already-known copper loss limit. The
section views of all machines are shown in Fig. 4. The
optimization algorithm is limited by the maximum phase
changes in the design variables are presented in Table V.
current and the maximum copper loss on the machine.
The same number of stator slots is used for the three-
phase machine to have a fair comparison between the III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
reference design and the optimum design. The nine-phase
The machines are analysed in ANSYS Maxwell at open
machine has also the same number of stator slots as it is the
circuit and maximum load conditions at 5000 r/min. The flux
only feasible slot/pole number combination for the nine-
density distributions of the machines at full load conditions
phase machine.
are shown in Fig. 5. Six-phase machine shows slightly higher
Various slot/pole number combinations are investigated
tooth flux density compared to other machines as it has the
for five- and six-phase machines to find the one with the
highest number of stator slots which results in decreased
best performance. The winding factors of five-phase
tooth width. The machine parameters of the reference design
machines with different slot/pole number combinations are
and the three-phase machine are shown in Table V.
presented in

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 (a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 3. Optimization results of machines. (a) Three-phase machine. (b) Five-phase machine. (c) Six-phase machine. (d) Nine-phase machine.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 4. Designed multiphase machines. (a) Tesla Model 3 IPMSM. (b) Three-phase. (c) Five-phase. (d) Six-phase. (e) Nine-phase.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 5. Flux density distribution of designed machines. (a) Tesla Model 3 IPMSM. (b) Three-phase. (c) Five-phase. (d) Six-phase. (e) Nine-phase.

machines including the optimised three-phase machine

TABLE V. CHANGE IN DESIGN VARIABLES AFTER OPTIMIZATION. have higher average output torque with a lower amount of
Tesla
PM volume compared to the reference design. It can be
Three- Five- Six- Nine- seen that the optimized three-phase machine has 8% higher
Variables Mode
phase phase phase phase
l3 average torque and 10.7% less PM volume, resulting in
Split ratio 0.666 0.59 0.59 0.6 0.6 20% higher torque per permanent magnet volume. The
Tooth width (mm) 4.35 4.64 4.43 3.49 4.65 reason for the increase in performance is mainly due to the
Back-iron width (mm) 18 21.9 22 21 22.3 change in the split ratio. As the aim is to increase
Rib width (mm) 7.6 9.73 9.9 9.97 9.43 average electromagnetic torque, the magnetic flux density
Magnet width (mm) 21.6 18.8 20.38 20.8 20.5 in the air gap is increased. An increase in the air gap flux
Magnet thickness (mm) 6.5 6.66 6.15 6 6.11 density results in thicker tooth width and deeper slot back
Centre post width (mm) 3.2 3 3.26 3.26 3 iron to accommodate the higher flux density without
Magnet Angle (deg) 140 139.3 131.8 135.9 135.4
saturating the stator core. Since the copper loss of the
Magnet distance (mm) 1.27 0.62 0.43 0.19 0.4
designed machines is limited, the stator bore diameter is
Phase advance (deg) 54 55 56 58 54.7
reduced to increase the slot area and reduce phase
A. Comparison of Three-phase Machines resistance. Thus, the optimal split ratio of the machine has
decreased since the magnetic loading is increased [15]. The
The results of the finite element analysis are given in
torque ripple is higher than the reference design since there
Table VI. Note that, Tesla Model 3 has three-step skewing
is neither skewing nor core shaping applied to the rotor.
as mentioned above, while the other machines have no
skewing applied. The results showed that all the designed

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 TABLE VI. COMPARISON OF MULTIPHASE MACHINES AT 5000
R/MIN AND MAXIMUM PHASE CURRENTS IN MAXWELL torque ripple when compared to other multiphase
machines. The reason for this discrepancy can be
explained by the slot/pole number combinations. The
cogging torque frequency of a PM machine can be
Tesla Three- Five- Six- Nine-
Parameter
Model 3 phase phase phase phase
calculated by
Output power (kW) 230 248 255 261 254
Output torque (Nm) 439 474 488 499 485 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑐
Torque ripple (Nm/%) 16.2/3.7 55/11.6 18/3.7 24.4/4.9 43/8.9 2𝑁𝑠𝑓 
= 𝐺𝐶𝐷(𝑁𝑠,2𝑝)
PM volume (cm3) 18.8 16.8 16.8 16.73 16.83
Torque per PM volume
23.4 28.2 29.1 29.8 28.8 where 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑐 is the cogging torque frequency, 𝑁𝑠 is the
(Nm/cm3)
RMS phase current (A) 1100 1100 635 547 355 number of stator slots, 𝑓 is the electrical frequency,
Iron losses (kW) 0.87 1.04 1.11 1.05 1.11 𝐺𝐶𝐷(𝑁𝑠, 2𝑝) is the greatest common divisor of the
Efficiency (%) 91.7 92.2 92.37 92.56 92.33
number of stator slots, 𝑁𝑠 , and the number of poles, 2𝑝 .
TABLE VII. CHANGE IN IMPORTANT MACHINE PARAMETERS AFTER
The cogging frequency of a 54-slot/6-pole machine is the
OPTIMIZATION 18th harmonic of the electrical frequency. Similarly, the
torque ripple created by the electromagnetic torque of a
Tesla Model Optimum nine- phase machine is at the same frequency which
Variables 3 Design
creates an even higher torque ripple when combined with
Electrical loading (A/mm) 166 187
Magnetic loading (T) 0.8 0.96 the cogging torque.

B. Comparison of Multiphase Machines

The machines are calculated at 5000 r/min at open
circuit conditions. The resultant back-EMF and the
spectra are given in Fig. 6. The multiphase machines
show higher harmonics, especially the fifth and seventh
harmonics, compared to the reference design which have
resulted in higher core losses as presented in Table VI.
The reference design has the lowest winding factors at
high-order harmonics which reduces the iron losses.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Torque performance of machines. (a) Waveform with respect to
rotor position. (b) Spectra.

Fig. 8 shows the output torque per copper loss. All

designed machines have better torque performance than
the reference design. It can be seen that the dual three-
phase machine shows the best performance while all
multiphase machines have slightly better torque
performance compared to the optimized three-phase
machine.
(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Open circuit back-EMFs of machines at 5000 r/min. (a)

Waveforms with respect to rotor position. (b) Spectra.

The output torque waveforms and spectra are shown in

Fig. 7. While all designed machines show higher average
output torque compared to the reference design, the dual
three-phase machine has the best performance. The reason
for the difference is due to the higher flux density created
by the 72 slots used in the six-phase machine. The six-
phase machine has higher magnetic loading and higher
teeth flux density compared to other designs which makes
Fig. 8. Change of average output torque with respect to copper loss.
the output torque increase even further. The five-phase
and the nine-phase machine also show better torque Moreover, the torque-speed performances of the
performance compared to the optimized three-phase machines are also investigated using the maximum torque
machine due to improved winding factor. per ampere (MTPA) control algorithm with 350 V DC bus
The torque ripples of multiphase machines are lower voltage. The maximum rotational speed of Tesla Model 3
than that of the three-phase machine. However, they are IPMSM is 18000 r/min. The torque speed and the power
still higher than the reference design since no skewing and speed of the machines are given in Fig. 9. The six-phase
core shaping methods are applied to these machines. By machine shows the best performance in the constant
utilizing these methods in combination with the torque
multiphase winding, the torque ripple can be further region. The optimized three-phase machine has the highest
reduced to have a smooth operation. The nine-phase base speed since it has the lowest back-EMF as presented
machine shows a high in Fig. 6. As a result, it has the highest power when
comparing the power speed curves.
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 The efficiency maps of the machines are shown in Fig. are found to be inherently low even if no skewing or core
10. Note that, the mechanical losses are not considered in shaping is applied to the rotor body. Torque-speed
this analysis. The higher iron losses of the designed characteristic analysis shows that the dual three-phase
machines result in lower efficiency at high-speed regions machine offers the highest torque in the constant torque
as the frequency is increased. Overall, the efficiencies of region.
the multiphase machines are higher than that of the
reference design since the output power is increased by ACKNOWLEDGMENT
increasing the average output torque. This work is supported by Xiamen NEVC Advanced
Electric Powertrain Technology Innovation Centre, P. R.
China under Agreement No. HT0502-202203010928.
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