Journal of Youth and Adolescence

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01138-4

BOOK REVIEW

Ulf Schütze: Language Learning and the Brain: Lexical Processing

in Second Language Acquisition
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017, 179 pp, ISBN: 9781316665619

Stephanie Nicole Ryan1

Received: 22 September 2019 / Accepted: 24 September 2019
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

In Language Learning and the Brain: Lexical Processing in maintenance of the word in more detail. In this section,
Second Language Acquisition, Ulf Schütze accomplishes Schütze also considers how this process occurs ideally in
his mission of describing how learners acquire words in a the first language before the age three. He argues that,
second language. Schütze argues that much of a learner’s ideally, a second language is acquired before the age of six
success is based on how much the learner’s brain can handle when the learning of the first and second language can
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at a time. Therefore, he considers the conditions under complement each other. However, there are some advan-
which a learner can acquire, remember, and speak the words tages to learning a language later. At approximately age
of another language. Factors that determine these conditions eight, children can infer the meaning of words and have
are age, individual background, emotional connotation of developed grammatical skills; at twelve, children are cap-
words, and memory facilities. Schütze considers these fac- able of understanding abstract concepts; in the mid-twen-
tors, with special focus on cognitive psychology, to describe ties, the part of the brain that is responsible for creating a
how learners process a new, foreign word. Schütze does not record for the new word finally reaches its full potential. In
set out to create an instructional manual but connects his this chapter, Schütze successfully creates a framework for
findings to educational uses. The book achieves its mission understanding how learners acquire second language words.
with ample scientific evidence and accessible examples. In chapter two, Schütze discusses the three stages of
Chapter one addresses the learner’s first encounter with a word processing: coding, storage and retrieval. He describes
word including how the learner might encounter a word, the the process using an example of a native English speaker
brain processes that take place after the encounter, the ordering coffee at an airport in Germany. Schütze stresses
maintenance of the word in the memory, and how the word that processing the word in time is one of the greatest
may transition from the passive to the active vocabulary. challenges for a new language learner. The working mem-
Schütze defines several important linguistic terms to pro- ory serves to prolong the duration of time that the brain has
vide the vocabulary and framework for discussion. He next to go through the processing steps. A word is saved in the
discusses the process of connecting the sound and meaning working memory when it receives the learner’s attention and
of a word after the first encounter with it. If the process is is deemed important. When a word, saved in the working
successful, a synapse is created through which the learner memory, is not revisited in time, it will not be stored in the
has permanent access to the meaning of the word. However, long-term memory. Words compete for space in the working
he stresses that this synapse in not truly permanent. The memory, so there are limits to how much can be stored.
endurance of the connection depends on a number of factors Schütze supports his assertions with studies based on four
including the situation in which the word is first experi- technological methods: PET, fMRI, MEG, and EGG. He also
enced, the emotional connotation of the word, the word’s describes studies on victims of brain injuries to address
association with other words in the learner’s mind, and the where in the brain these processes occur. In this chapter,
later repetition of the word. Schütze then addresses the Schütze successfully develops his description of the word
acquisition process and supports it with scientific research.
In chapter three, Schütze describes the neuroscience
behind his assertions. First, he explains what a synapse is
* Stephanie Nicole Ryan
[email protected]
and how it is formed. He emphasizes that a synapse, though
often referred to as “permanent,” can be changed, and must
1
Indiana University Maurer School of Law, Bloomington, IN, USA be maintained. He describes various studies on synapse
 Journal of Youth and Adolescence

formation and maintenance. Through the use of these stu- highlights some of the advantages and disadvantages of
dies, he draws the following conclusions about language beginning at certain ages. He concludes that it is best to
learning: if a word is only encountered once, it is unlikely to begin learning a new language before age eleven, and it is
be retained unless it is tied to an emotional event, repetition equally important to continue to learn and practice the
increases the retention of a word, but repeating the same language beyond these years. To learn another language
word successively is ineffective in improving retention. He later than the mid-twenties will be significantly more diffi-
concludes that a word must be repeated at intervals with cult but is still possible with sufficient intrinsic motivation.
appropriately spaced breaks. These assertions were men- In this chapter, Schütze tied his theories on second language
tioned in previous chapters but were fully developed and acquisition to childhood development and provided con-
scientifically explained in this chapter. clusions applicable to educators and learners.
In chapter four, Schütze analyzes “the cognitive load,” In chapter six, Schütze poses a question: are words and
how much the memory can handle. He first notes that, when grammatical concepts in language-one and language-two
learning another language, the learner must acquire two processed with the same neuroanatomical circuits? He dis-
systems: vocabulary and grammar. He analyzes a study on cusses research in this area, especially fMRI studies, while
children which showed a negative learning relationship recognizing and explaining some of the weaknesses of this
between the two systems. When children were exposed to research. Schütze also addresses the question anecdotally
more grammatical forms, they retained fewer new words, and from the perspective of what would be more functional
and when they were exposed to more new words they for the speaker. Although he recognizes that science has no
retained fewer grammatical forms. These limits on the certain answer on this question, he concludes that there is
cognitive load are also demonstrated in some of the learning some indication that, in order to access words, a speaker
problems and language mistakes made by young children. uses one circuit regardless of the age of acquisition, but in
When young children face the challenge of learning many order to access grammar, learners older than eight must rely
new words they rely on temporary mental storage, which is on two circuits. In this section, Schütze addresses an
limited in capacity. The experience for adults is more important question in understanding how learners acquire a
complex. The adult learner is more likely to find a semantic second language. He recognizes the weaknesses of current
connection between the new word and a known word, so research, and the uncertainty of any conclusion.
temporary storage may not be needed. Additionally, older In chapter seven, Schütze further develops his argument
learners manage their cognitive load based on preferences. that spacing and repetition are needed to learn a new word.
Some people are content to know fewer words and be He develops the concept of distraction; the mind needs
inexact with grammar so long as they get their message another task to separate one experience with a word from
across, while others prefer a large vocabulary and exact another. Finding the ideal length of distraction and the ideal
grammar. Learners also show preference in the subjects that number of repetitions is important for maximizing learning.
they learn, for example, a person interested in cooking, will He also discusses the difference between remembering a
give priority to culinary words. Before age eight, pre- word in the short-term and the long-term. In this section,
ferences do not play a great role, making language learning Schütze analyzes a number of cognitive and educational
more predictable. In this chapter, Schütze develops a con- studies. He concludes that, for long-term retention, repeti-
cept key to his mission. He explains how learners are lim- tion over multiple days is necessary. In order to maximize
ited in acquiring new words and structures, and how they retention, learners should do production tasks with the new
may manage their limitations. word, not merely comprehension tasks. Although examples
In chapter five, Schütze describes the process of first- are helpful, too many examples can actually hinder learning
language acquisition with special focus on childhood and retention. Next, Schütze applies these conclusions to
development. He identifies five sensitive phases of language computer learning. He concludes that many computer lan-
acquisition: building connections, developing strategies, guage learning programs have the advantages of providing
analyzing abstractions, developing the cognitive loop, and spacing and repetition. They also keep track of which words
creating memories. He describes a child’s progress through the learner has acquired and can organize these words to
each of these phases while learning a first language. He ensure repetition in an appropriate time. However, computer
explains that a person who is exposed to a second language language learning programs can overwhelm a learner with
during one of these phases will have an advantage, and a too many examples. In this chapter, Schütze provides
person who is exposed to a second language during all of additional research for his argument about spacing and
these phases will be truly bilingual. Since most individuals repetition. Although Schütze develops this theme in pre-
do not have the opportunity to learn a second language vious chapters, he contributes to his mission by finding
simultaneously with the first, Schütze considers how a applications for his conclusions, especially in the relevant
second language can be learned at different ages, and area of computer language learning.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence

In chapter eight, Schütze discusses the distinction contribute any new theories or arguments. However, it did
between content words and function words. Content words provide a clear summary.
correspond to something in reality, while function words, Schütze was successful in his mission of describing how
such as conjunctions and prepositions, make the language learners acquire words in a second language. He analyzed
work grammatically. There are many more content words relevant research to make his conclusions. Some of these
than function words in any given language, but second conclusions seem obvious. Most teachers would avoid
language learners are slower to learn function words than overwhelming their students with too many new words and
content words. In order to make this conclusion, Schütze structures. It has become common knowledge that a second
discusses his own research on undergraduate students in a language is better acquired at a young age. But Schütze
beginning German class. He also uses his research to pro- provided more than a repetition of known language learning
pose ways to improve retention of function words. He truisms. He spelled out the specifics of these truisms, used
concludes that additional interval repetition of function up-to-date scientific research to explain them, and dispelled
words assists retention but shortening the word list does not. certain ineffective practices. It is useful to understand why
Finally, Schütze discusses how emotional activation can the brain feels overwhelmed, and what the ideal rate of
improve retention of a word. Perhaps function words are learning is. It is also useful to understand the specific
difficult to learn because, as words with little to no emo- advantages learners enjoy from beginning a language at
tional weight, they are usually learned without any emo- certain ages. Although Schütze did not set out to write a
tional activation. In this section, Schütze develops an teaching manual, the lessons of the book can be used by
important distinction between words which contributes teachers, learners, and education policy makers. Although
important information about how learners acquire words in the book considers language learning at all ages, the con-
a second language. clusions have significant implications for teaching adoles-
In chapter nine, Schütze summarizes the conclusions of cents a second language. Knowing the advantages that
the book and discusses how they can be applied to optimize learners enjoys at certain ages, and the disadvantages they
teaching and learning. Key themes include the need for may suffer can allow teachers and education policy makers
patience, and that learners should not be overwhelmed by to optimize adolescent second-language learning.
too many new words or concepts. Schütze also describes an
ideal language “trainer” that he created with other Compliance with Ethical Standards
researchers. Key features include requiring the learner to
participate by actively typing out words, keeping track of Conflict of Interest The author declares that she has no conflict of
interest.
the words the learner has acquired, and suggesting which
words should be practiced at any given time. Other than the Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
description of the language trainer, this chapter did not jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.