THEORY NOTES

(HORT-354)

Semester : V (New)
Course title : Production Technology for Ornamental
Crops, MAP and Landscaping
Credit : 2 (1+1)
Course No. : HORT 354
Complied by : Dr. Vinayak B. Shinde

SECTION OF HORTICULTURE
DADASAHEB PATIL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
VAIJAPUR (AURANGABAD)
HORT-354 DR. V. B. Shinde

Syllabus

Sr. No. Topic Weightage

(%)
1 Importance and scope of ornamental crops and landscaping 10
2 Importance and scope of medicinal and aromatic plants
3 Principles of landscaping 10
4 Landscape uses of trees, shrubs and climbers
5 Production technology of important cut flowers like rose under 10
protected conditions
6 Production technology of important cut flowers like gerbera, 10
carnation under protected conditions
7 Production technology of important cut flowers like lilium and 05
orchids under protected conditions
8 Production technology of important cut flowers like gladiolus, 10
tuberose under open conditions.
9 Production technology of important cut flowers like 10
chrysanthemum under open conditions.
10 Package of practices for loose flowers like marigold and jasmine 10
under open conditions.
11 Production technology of important medicinal plants like 05
asparagus, aloe, costus.
12 Production technology of important medicinal plants like
Cinnamon, periwinkle, isabgol
13 Production technology of important aromatic plants like mint, 10
lemongrass, citronella, palmarosa.
14 Production technology of important aromatic plants like
ocimum, rose, geranium, vetiver.
15 Processing and value addition in ornamental crops 05
16 Processing and value addition in MAPs produce 05
Total 100

Suggested Readings:
Book No. Title of Book Authors
1 Floriculture and Landscaping T.K.bose
2 Floriculture in India Randhawa and
Mukhopadhay
3 Fundamentals of Floriculture Laury
4 Complete Home Gardening Dey, S.C.
5 Landscape Gardening & Design with Plants – Supriya Kumar
Bhattacharjee
6 Landscaping principles and practices – Jack E. Ingels

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Definitions
1. Cut Flower: Cut flowers are fresh flower harvested in clusters / spike or in
single along with their stem.
2. Economic Flowers: Economical flowers are those flower crops which are
grown on a commercial scale as field crops in certain selected areas of the
State for large supply of flowers to market.
3. Loose Flowers: The flowers which are usually harvested without stalk and
used for Gajara, Veni and Garland.
4. Floriculture: It is a aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with
growing, selling designing and arranging flowers and foliage plant.
5. Commercial Floriculture: This branch deals with the cultivation of
economic flowers like Rose, Jasmines, Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus,
Tuberose etc. production of cut flowers and gift plants.
6. Vase Life of Flowers: How long the flowers kept in the containers remain
fresh is referred as vase life of flowers.
7. Landscape Gardening: It consists of planning and arrangement of home
gardens. Public garden for bio – aesthetic purpose.
8. Ornamental Horticulture: It refers to the study of various groups of
ornamental plants which are used to decorate indoor and outdoor gardens.
9. Bio-aesthetic Planning: It refers to the proper utilization of the available
flora and fauna in the beautification of the surroundings.
10. Photo Period: The duration of light during the course of day is called as
photo period.
11. Long Day Plant: The plants which require long light period combined
with short dark period to form flower bud and termed as Long day plants
e.g. China aster, Calendula.
12. Short Day Plants: The plants which need short light periods combined
with long dark periods to form flower bud is known as Short day plants
e.g. Cosmos, Chrysanthemum.
13. Day Neutral Plant: The plants which flower any time irrespective of the
number of dark or light period are known as day neutral plant e.g.
Tuberose, Carnation, Dianthus etc.
14. Aroid: A plant belonging to the Arum Family and including anthuriums,
diefenbachias, monsteras and philodendrons.
15. Corm: A specialized underground organ consisting of enlarged stem axis
with distinct nodes and intenodes and enclosed by dry, sale leaves.

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16. Bulb: A specialized underground plant organ consisting of a greatly

reduced stem (basal plate) surrounding by fleshy, modified leaves called
scales.
17. Bract: Modified leaf, often brightly coloured, which subtends a flower,
or which enfolds an inflorescence.
18. Rhizome: A rhizome is a subterranean sfem that arises from a lateral bud
from the main stem at ground level and extends underground near the
surface-horizontally.
19. Tubers: Tubers are short, thickened parts of subterranean branches, which
store large quantities of plant food, mainly starch. Tubers contain buds in
the axils of the reduced leaves.
20. Sucker: Some plants have capacity to produce new stems from the
adventitious buds formed on their roots, such new growth are called
suckers.
21. Garden : A garden may be defined as an area embellished with plants, a
valuable and pleasurable adjunct to a house. OR
A garden or an ornamental garden is a place where plants are arranged
in an aesthetic manner.
22. Medicinal Plants : Medicinal plants are those plants rich in secondary
metabolites and are potential sources of drugs. These secondary
metabolites include alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoids, steroids
etc.3-5 in Kharif and Rs. 5-10/spike in Rabi/Summer.
23. Aromatics Plants : Aromatic plants are those plants possess essential oils
in one or more plant parts.
24. Essential Oil: Complex mixture of odoriferous steam volatile compounds,
which are deposited by plants in sub-cuticular spaces, granular hairs, cell
organelles, excretory cavities, canals and heart wood.
25. Dry flowers : refer to dried or dehydrated flowers or plant part or
botanicals (roots, leaves, stem, bark or whole plant) that can be used for
ornamental purposes.
26. Flower bouquet is a collection of flowers in a creative arrangement.
27. Ikebana is the Japanese art of flower arrangement.
28. Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique
wherein the micro climate surrounding the plant body is controlled
partially or fully as per the requirement of the vegetable species grown
during their period of growth.

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Importance of Floriculture in India

Besides food and nutritional security, the aesthetic value is also equally
important for our daily lively hood as well as for environmental purity.
Floriculture is important from the following point of view;
1. Economic point of view
2. Aesthetic point of view
3. Social point of view

1. Economic point of view:

• Floriculture is a fast emerging major venture in the world, especially as a
potential money-spinner for many third-world countries.
• Many flowers and ornamental plants are being grown for domestic as well
as for export market will provide more return/unit area than any other
agricultural/horticultural crops.
• Gestation period of flower crop is very less compared to other crops.
• Modern-day floriculture refers to the production of high-value cutflowers
such as Rose, Gladiolus, Carnation, Orchids, Tuberose, Anthurium,
Lilium, Gerbera etc,.
• Now days, growing of these cutflower crops, suited for flower
arrangements/decorations for bouquets preparation, and for floral boskets,
have increased substantially and its share of the total trade has also
improved.
• The sales of loose flowers of Jasmine, Crossandra, Marigold, China Aster,
Chrysanthemums and Gaillardia etc., are a roaring busyness in south India.
• The present trend in floriculture is for making dry flowers, extraction of
natural colours and essential oils.
• There is lot of demand for good quality flower seeds and ornamental plant
materials.
• At present the global ornamental crop industry is worth about US$ 70
billion.
• The global consumption of the flowers is about US$ 35 billion.
• More than three lakhs hectare are under flower production in different
countries of the world.
• Floriculture generates self employment opportunities round the year. The
employment opportunities in this field are as varied as the nature of work
itself.
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• One can join the floriculture field as farm/estate managers, plantation

experts, supervisors and project coordinators etc.
• Research and teaching are some other avenues of employment in the field.
• Marketing of Floriculture products for different ventures is emerging as a
potential segment of this field.
• Besides one can work as consultant, landscape architect etc. with proper
training.
• One can also work as entrepreneur and offer employment to others.
• In addition to these careers which involve research and actual growing of
crops.
• Floriculture also provides service career opportunities which include such
jobs as floral designers, groundskeepers, landscape designers, architects
and horticultural therapists.
• Professional qualification combined with an inclination towards gardening
and such other activities produces efficient floriculturists and landscaping
professionals.
• Presently more than 145 countries are involved in flower production on
commercial scale.

2. Aesthetic point of view:

• Lot of scope for landscaping and is considered as billion dollar earning
industry in states which ultimately adds the monitory value of any building.
• To a Japanese flower arranger each flower expresses one or more meaning
(eg. Ikebana).
• The wealth of any nation is linked with the health of its people. Unless we
can ensure the healthy development of our citizens, especially the younger
generation, by providing for them open breathing places through bio-
aesthetic planning and landscape gardening, we cannot expect to build up
a healthy society and prosperous nation.
• Horticultural therapy - is the new dimension of horticultural science to heal
the psychic debility and the science is to use garden, landscape plants, parts
of plants, growing activity as tools to work.
• The bio-force of plants offer a permanent solution to the problems of bio
force of human thus, bio aesthetic horticulture is emerging as a new
occupational therapeutic tool to restore the lost rhythm and harmony back
to human self or inner environment.

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• It is being utilized in psychiatric hospital, general hospitals, physical

rehabilitation center, homes for elderly, prisons and schools.
• The patients can achieve higher level of personal development and
satisfaction.

3. Social point of view:

• Flowers symbolize the purity, beauty, peace, love, adoration, innocence
and passion etc. Hence, many flowers are used to express the most
sensitive, delicate and loving feelings eloquently what our words fail to
express.
• In our society no social function is complete without the use of flowers,
floral ornaments, bouquets or flower arrangements they are invariably used
in all social functions.
• Used in social gatherings, birthday parties, welcoming friends or relatives
and honoring dignitaries. The concept of Valentine’s Day is fast catching
up in India also.
• The arrival of new born is rejoiced with flowers,
• To an Indian, especially for Hindu’s, flowers have a much greater
significance in religions offerings. It has estimated that more than 30-40 %
of the total flower productions are being consumed in Kolkata city alone
used for worshiping purpose.
• Floral garlands, gajras and venis are required in marriage ceremonies for
adornment of hairs by women of all ages, especially in the south India.
• In the present modern era sicks are wished for speedy recovery by offering
beautiful cut flowers, while the deads are bidden farewell with flowers
along with tear of sorrow.
• Flowers are very closely associated with mankind from the dawn of human
civilization. There is increasing habit of ‘saying with flowers.’ Any Indians
born with flowers live with flowers and finally dies with flowers.

Scope of Floriculture in India

• India is blessed with varied and dynamic agro-climatic condition, good
quality soil and water made suitable for floriculture.
• Geographically India is well located between two major markets i.e.,
Europe and East Asia.
• Winter is being very mild and hence there is lot of scope to export Indian
flowers to temperate countries during the winter season, when the
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demand is in peak because of important winter festivals like Christmas,

New Year Day and Valentine’s Day.
• Labour cost is very low in India, nearly 10-15 times cheaper than that of
similar employees in the Netherlands, Israel and Japan.
• The Government of India has identified floriculture as ‘Extreme Focus
Thrust Area’ for export during IX plan.
• With the implementation of GATT agreement European nations has
brought down the import duty on floricultural products, which at present
is 15 %.
• The International market is growing @ 8-10 % annually. The
International demand is around Rs. 90,000 crore/ year and domestic
market at 20-25 %. Hence, the scope to enter floriculture industry in India
is unlimited.
• The Govt. of India has setup the infrastructure for floriculture industry in
major cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru,
Pune etc.
• APEDA is giving financial assistance to some extent for various
activities connected with export of floriculture products.
• Easy bank financing for hi-tech floriculture.
• 100 per cent export-oriented units (EOU’s) are located in and around
Hyderabad (Andra Pradesh), Bengaluru, Hosur, Doddaballapur,
Devanahalli (Karnataka) in South and Gurgaun (Haryana) in North,
Lonavala and Pune (Maharashtra) in West.
• For 100 % EOU’s the government has allowed to sale 50 per cent of
produce in domestic markets.
• 100 per cent tax exemption has given on implements / raw materials used
in greenhouses.
• The rules and regulations related to import and exports have been
minimized.
• Singapore is the nearest International standard flower auction centre,
helpful for Indian exports.
• Floriculture products posses 25-30 time more foreign exchange earning
ability than cereals or any other agricultural/horticultural products.
• Floriculture is capable of attracting and retaining large number of
progressive farmers / entrepreneurs.

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• Due to ample sunlight and optimum temperature during winter, it does

not require artificial lighting or heating for green house production of cut
flowers.
• The Government of India has identified product specific zones for
selective research and development (Table-1) of floriculture.
• APEDA and GOK have established four flower auction centers including
one in Bengaluru, Noida (UP), Mumbai and New Delhi.
• APEDA also has setup a marketing center at Aalsmeer (The Netherlands)
to promote Indian produce.
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Medicinal plants are those plants rich in secondary metabolites and are
potential sources of drugs. These secondary metabolites include alkaloids,
glycosides, coumarins, flavonoids, steroids etc.
These plants form the main base for the manufacture of drugs of Indian
systems of medicine (Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha) and Homeopathy. These
plants are found in various parts of the country in different environmental
and climatic conditions. Plants which grow wild in forest regions,
classified as minor forest produce, supply a substantial amount of raw
material required for the indigenous drug industry.
Importance and scope for cultivation of medicinal plants in India :
1. India is one of the few countries where almost all the known medicinal
plants can be cultivated in some part of the country of the other. Among
the various plants in great demand in the country and abroad are Opium
poppy, tropane alkaloid bearing plants, sapogenin bearing yams, senna,
psyllium husk and seeds, cinchona and ipecac.
2. The ancient Indian System of Medicine (ISM) is predominantly a plant-
based material medica making use of most of our native plants. It caters
to almost the entire rural population of our country mainly because of the
scarcity of modern allopathic health care in our villages
3.ISM offers most appropriate or first line therapy against many diseases
like jaundice, bronchial asthma, rheumatoid arthiritis, diabetes etc, for
which allopathic medicines have as yet no cure. It is well known that
most allopathic medicines have as yet no cure. It is well known that most
allopathic medicines produce many morbid side-effects. It is for this
reason that more and more people in the western societies are showing

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increasing interest and preference for organic drugs and their

preparations.
4. India has about 2,000 species of medicinal plants and a vast geographical
area with high production potential and varied agro-climatic conditions.
Most of these plants can subsist under stress conditions and are thus
suited even for rainfed agriculture. Cultivation of medicinal plants offers
considerable scope for rural employment and export for foreign-ex-
change earnings.
5. India is already a major exporter of medicinal plants. It is estimated that
rupees 86 crores worth of raw materials and drugs from medicinal plants
are exported from India. It holds monopoly in the production and export
of psyllium and senna and is second largest exporter of Opium latex.
6. Many of the medicinal plants required by the trade are gathered mainly
from the wild growth thus depleting the vegetation of its valuable
medicinal plant wealth (eg: Rauvolfia, Dioscorea). On account of this
practice, many species of medicinal plants in our country have become
extinct or endangered. This should be prevented and herbal
gardens and gene-banks covering important medicinal plants should be
established to conserve them.

AROMATIC PLANTS
Aromatics Plants which possess essential oils in one or more plant parts.
Wood - sandal; Bark - cassia; Foliage -
lemon grass; Flowers - jasmine; Fruits -
citrus; Seeds - coriander.
Essential oils are secreted in oil glands.
Essential oil: Complex mixture of odoriferous steam volatile compounds,
which are deposited by plants in sub- cuticular spaces, granular hairs, cell
organelles, excretory cavities, canals and heart wood.
Uses of aromatic crops:
1. In food and flavour industry - spices and condiments
2. In perfumery, soap and cosmetics
3. Pharmaceutical and drug industries.
4. To manufacture pesticides, disinfectants due to antifungal, antiseptic
and insecticidal properties.
5. In pain industry - as solvents.
6. Distilled wastes are used in manufacture of card boards, cheap paper,
packing material.
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Essential oil industry in India:

In India it is a cottage industry. India is the traditional producer of essential
oils such as sandal wood, palmarosa, lemon grass. Indians use the plants and
products in rituals, ceremonies. Some aromatic plants find place in materia
medica, sandle wood, mint and fennel etc. Distillation process was mentioned
in charaka and sushrita samhita (written over 3000 to 4000 years ago). India
is endowed with various agro-climatic conditions, suitable for growing
different aromatic plants.
Essential oil industry is not strong in India because:
1. Farmers are not aware of the significance and profitability.
2. Lack of marketing facilities.
3. High initial investment.
4. Price fluctuation
5. Competition for land domestically.
6. Lack of scientific knowledge on cultivation.
7. Deadly diseases like spike disease of sandal wood or fusarial wilt of
Geranium1
8. Lack of germplasm collection and maintenance.
9. Risk, as the produce is priced on the basis of the principle.
10. Larger quantities are required.
11. Lack of testing facilities.
12. Cheaper synthetic substitutes.
13. Dearth of trained personnel.

Importance of Aromatic Plants:

Aromatic plants are from a numerically large group of economically
important plants. These are increasing demand for essential oils, aroma
chemicals drugs and pharmaceuticals in the world market since two decades.
Aromatic compounds are present in plants i.e. in root, wood, bark, foliage,
flower, fruit, seed etc.
1. Aromatic plants produce essential oils, perfumes and flavours are in use
with our civilization since several thousand years.
2. Due to Vast area and varied agro-climatic condition, it can be commercial
cultivated in different part of India successfully.
3. Essential oils and aroma chemicals are indispensable in various human
activities.

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4. They are adjuncts of cosmetics, soaps, pharmaceutical preparation,

perfumer confectionery, ice-cream, aerated waters, disinfectants, agarbatti etc.
5. Some of the important aromatic plants like Lemon grass, Citronella,
Palmarose, Vetiver, Geranium, Lavender, Dawana etc. have great demand in
our country.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING
Importance -
The landscape gardening is not only aesthetic which is meant to beautify
places but also functional and important. Surroundings make a significant
contribution to our quality of life. The word 'landscape' does not only mean
attractive scenery, but represents a rich historical record of natural features,
molded by human activity over the centuries. It forms the context for our
everyday lives and is reflected in our literature, music and painting.
• The art of landscape gardening will involve considering the total
environment of any new development and then shaping it using natural
elements such as landform, trees, shrubs, and water to form a pleasing
harmony.
• This can make a constructive contribution to the improvement rather
than the destruction of environment.
• Plants that form an important element in landscape design aid in
reducing the pollution of the environment and minimizing some of the
effects of heat, sound, wind, air etc.
• Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthetic
process and purifying the air.
• Plants with thick foliage also trap pollutants, which are later on washed
away by the rains.
• Some plants, such as Hydrangea, Mustard, and Hyacinth absorb toxic
material from the environment they are in.
• Plants can block, diffuse, guide or channel winds. Plants can be used to
direct wind so that the wind flushes out the polluted air.
• Plants control erosion caused due to excessive wind, rain or snow.Plants
with good branching and deep root system and also those with fibrous
surface roots help reducing the loss of fertile top soil.
• Plants reduce radiated heat thereby bringing down temperature.
• In winter, deciduous trees which shed their leaves allow lights to pass
through, thereby warm the space.

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PRINCIPLES -
The importance of landscaping is now realized by everyone in the world. The
gardens serve the purpose of public recreation by refreshing the body and the
mind. They are virtually a retreat for the public from the harsh strains and
stresses of public life.
Landscaping is done with a view to create a natural scene by planting of lawn,
trees and shrubs. It is the imitation of nature in the garden and improves the
total living environment of the people. We live in a vast planet which is
characterized by different types of landscaping depending upon prevailing
geographical and agroclimatic conditions. There are mountains, hills, glens,
valleys, seas, rivers, forests, plains, deserts, lakes, swamps, streams, etc. which
comprise major part of natural landscape. Man has copied the natural elements
for improving landscape around him and converted certain areas in the form
of garden for his pleasure.

Basic Principles
Before actually drawing the master-plan, the following points should be kept
in mind in home landscaping.
(1) Background : The background in a garden, whether a wall, tall trees or a
hedge should be neutral in nature; that is to say this should not become a
distracting feature over the main features of the garden.
(2) Contrast : The design should be such that it should break monotony. To
achieve this, a variation in form, texture, or colour has to be brought in.
(3) Balance or Proportion : A balance has to be maintained between
different components (masses, forms, colour, etc.) of a garden. In a formal
garden, this is achieved by balancing the quantity or by objects, whereas in an
informal garden this can be achieved by planting a small mass of colour in
front of a large neutral mass. Overcrowding of plants or other garden features
should be avoided.
(4) Focalization : Any good design has a focal point – the place where the
viewer’s eye is first attracted. Focalization is sometimes referred to as
focalization of interest or simply focal point. The focal point is the strongest
element in the design in any given view. A home’s focal point is often the
front door. The landscape focal point is often something close to the front door
to enhance the entrance of the home.

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Each area of the landscape may include a focal point, but it is certainly not
necessary. Landscape designers should not overuse focal points. In any view,
people are attracted to interesting plant forms, bright colors and artistic,
architectural design as well as art or sculptures. Mix it up, have some fun and
create interesting focal points.
(5) Simplicity : Simplicity is what the name implies – simple. Keeping
landscapes simple, not cluttered or fussy is always a good practice. This is not
the opposite of complexity. Many landscapes have very complex features,
including the architectural design, water features and extensive lighting
features. Landscapes that make people happy and comfortable avoid using too
many colors, shapes, curves and textures, but in no way does this mean
simplistic, boring or lack of imagination.
(6) Repetition : The repetition or duplicating some features of a garden helps
achieve rhythm, balance, and unity. In a formal garden, generally the same
feature is repeated. But for an informal design this need not be so. Here one
may repeat the colour tone without disturbing the texture, form, or quantity. If
there is a circular path this can be repeated by having two or three consecutive
circular shaped beds of annual flowers, hedges, and shrubbery border. Thus,
though the shape is repeated, the variation in texture, colour, and form ensure
that the design does not look monotonous.
(7) Rhythm : A landscape designer should have an artistic sense to understand
how to bring in rhythm in the design. Arranging the different elements
haphazardly, without harmony, does not enhance beauty. Harmonious lines,
often artistically curved, bring in rhythm to the landscape. A group of shrubs
in front of a rockery breaks the rhythm. Repetition of certain elements, such
as form, enhances the rhythm.
(8) Variety : To break the monotony in a garden, variety is essential. This is
achieved by contrast of colour, form, and texture. Planting of different
seasonal flowers all in red colour, does not necessarily mean variety.
Besides these, a design should be simple, easy to maintain, and provide
comfort for inmates.
(9) Unity : The principle of unity is easily measured if the other five landscape
principles have been properly executed throughout the landscape. Unity in
design simply means all the separate parts of the landscape work together to
create a great total design. Colors, shapes, sizes, textures and other features
work together to create a unified space. Patterns and colors are often repeated.
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Lighting, special features, bed shapes and hardscapes such as walk ways all
need to work together to create a pleasing look and a unified landscape.

GARDEN
A garden or an ornamental garden is a place where plants are arranged in an
aesthetic manner.
Importance of garden:
In modern cities with growing slums and factories gardens are essential to improve
the environment and to provide healthy air for the inhabitants. They are really the
lungs of the city. Gardens serve to beautify the country. Gardens are said to be the
yardstick of the culture.This is true to some extent as they reflect the aesthetic taste
of the people and are the chief pieces of art that confront a visitor and help him asses
the cultural standards
of the region.
An ornamental garden is a place where plants are arranged in a manner. Plants can
be grouped together in various ways to give an aesthetic effect. Each such grouping
is called a Feature. Any garden comprises some of all of such features and hence
the features are also called the components of garden. Some of the important
features found in most of gardens are

1. Fence: Fence is the outer most boundary to prevent tres pass and to ensureprivacy
in home gardens. Fences can be created, either by using closely planted thorn
bearing plants, hedges and shrubberies or structures where wood, bamboo, wire
netting and chain links are used. Various climbers can be trained over the fences to
enhance attractiveness.
Ex. Casuarina equisetifolia –sarugudu,Prosophis juliflora,Caesalpinia pulicherima

2. Hedges: are useful to divide the garden in to sections, to line the drives so as to
direct the visitors to a central object.They aresown and grown in the same manner
as the fence and plants are pruned to a height of 3-4 feet.
Ex. Clerodendron, Duranta, Lantana camera, Lawsonia inermis

3. Edges:These are row of plants which do not exceed one foot height. They are
grown along with paths and around the flower beds.Non-living materials like bricks,
tiles are also used for this purpose. Live hedges are more in harmony with the garden
than features. The foliage hedges are not trimmed.
Ex. Alternanthera sps, Eupatorium cannabium, Pilea, Aerus tomentosa,
Tradescantia

4. Drives and paths: can be primarily functional facilitating easy and purposeful
movement within a garden, providing access to all features with in a garden or can
be included for their decorative value, usually designed to provide a visual line
between separate areas. Cobbles, granite, flagstones, brick, concrete or wooden
materials may be used. They should be laid with easy gradients and perfect paving
and leveling.

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5. Lawn: Lawn focus the background colour in the garden picture against which the
colour of shrubbaries and flower beds is brought in to relief. Whether the garden is
big or small it must have a lawn. In fact a lawn and a mass of flowers beyond it will
constitute a garden without any other features.
The lawn should be sown only to a single species of grass so as to give a uniform
colour.
The most common lawn grass is Cynodon dactylon. It prefers slightly acidic soils
(pH 5.5 -6.0). It does not grown well undershade of a tree. Dichondra ripens a new
type of ground cover that has been recently introduced can stand sun and grows well
under shade. Festuce is the quick growing and finest of lawn grass.

6. Shrubbaries and shrub boarders:When the plants are grown in a row but not
trimmed the feature is called border. Borders are planted to different species of
plants, while hedges are generally planted to a single species. Boarders may be of
herbaceous plants they are called herbaceous borders or comprises of shrubs they
are called as shrubborders. The shrubborders may be grown along wall or infront of
fence of tree and also to seen together but are not in the row the feature is known as
Shrubery.The
border of the shrubbery consists of more than single row of plants.
Ex. Crotans – Codium variegatum pictum, Hibiscus rosasinensis, Acalypha
marcinata, Cestrum nocturnum, dracera

7. Flower beds: These are also known as annual flower bedsas they are planted with
annuals or herbaciousperennials which are treated as annuals.
They should be planted to a single species and variety so that each bed is of single
colour. A flower bed should be behind a lawn or in the middle or atleast should have
a strip of lawn in front of it.
Ex. Marigold: Zimnnia, Cosmos:Petunia, Phylo: Celosia

8. Carpet beds: Plants of different colour foliage which can be clipped close to the
ground are choosen for planting in an intricate design on the ground. Such a feature
knownas carpet bed. The design may be conventional, geometrical ones or map or
clock or a sundial.
Ex. Alternanther Sps. (Purple and green varieties)

9. Topiaries: Certain plants which can stand severe and constantpruning and which
posseses small foliage and relatively short internodes can be trimmed in to globes,
ovals or in to fancy shapes of animals etc. These are generally found in formal
gardens.
Ex. Thuja orientalis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Murraya paniculate, Polialthis
longifolia

10. Arches and pergolas: Arches can be semicircular or rectangular shaped and are
used to link one part of the garden with another. Arches are constructed near the gate
or over paths. Its proper place is astride a path and its purpose is to support climbing
plants. Pergola is a narrow vista consisting of a series of arches connected with

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climbers preferably leading to some other interesting feature of a garden. Pergolas

are constructed over pathways. It brings height to the flat planes of a level
compound.
Ex. Bougenville, Quisqualis indica, Vernomis, Allamonda catharties

11. Fern house (Fernery): Plants of the humid tropical, subtropical and temperate
regions cannot be grown in the open in the plains exposed to glaring sun. Such shade
loving plants are grown in a structure calle the fern house. In the centre of fernery,
a cement tub is constructed and is filled with water so as to increase the humidity
inside and also facilitating watering of potted plants. The beauty of fernery depends
on the proper arrangement of plants like ferns, begonies, anthurium, caladiums,
diffenbechias, dracaons, palms etc.are grown pots and kept on galleries.Small pots
with orchids, pilea etc., are hang from the roof.

12. Orchids: Orchids are humid tropical and subtropical plants loving shade.
These are becoming great favourites because the flowers have gorgeous colour.
They often assume shapes of birds, moths, butterflies and last longer.

13. Pot galleries: Circular galleries are constructed of masonry and on the steps of
which potted plants are arranged. The height of each step and pot on the lower step
should be the same. The plants grown should be taller than the height of steps so
that the pots and the masonry structures are both hidden behind plants and present
the apperence of a mound of plants.

14. Lily pool: Aquatic plants are grow in lily pools which may be dug in the ground
and abetted with stones so as to look natural or may be constructed in cement of
regular shape. In cement pools there should be an inlet at the bottom and an outlet a
few inches below the top of pool, so that a constant level of water is maintained.
Ex. Nelumbium speciosum, Pistia, Nymphea, Eichornia crassipes

15. Rockery:Plants growing on rocky situation are grown in the garden is rockery.
The rockery is constructed by keeping up manured soil to a desired height and
embedding rocks into it. The plants are set in the crevices between rocks. It can be
raised under the tree or separately. Generally both foliage and flowering succulents
as well as xerophytes are grown.
Ex. Opuntia, Eupatoria, Agave, Coleus, Sansveria, Bryophyllum, Tradescantia

16. Single specimens: In an extensive lawn the monatany can be broken by single
beautiful tree of exiting quality without blocking the view of the other features
beyond. Trees like Polyalthis pendulus, Aracariacolummeris, Ravenalis
medagescrensis are useful for such a purpose.

In planning a garden, several factors like the size of the house, and the space
available for gaden, availability of water, cost of the laying the garden and its
maintenance, have to be taken in to consideration. A garden is planned primarily to
suit the tastes of the people of the house hold and locality. There is no rigid system
in garden planning and each system is open to modification to suit the environment
and other factor.
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Styles of Gardening :
A gardener may think that a landscape garden can be laid out only on a gently
undulated land, but it is not so. The goal in landscape gardening is to improve
landscape with an idea of developing view or design. The other two familiar terms,
which associate landscape gardening, are formal and informal gardens.

Formal gardens: It is laid out in a symmetrical or Geometrical pattern. Everything

is planted in straight lines. If there is a plant on the left hand side of a straight road
similar plant must be placed on the right hand side also. Flower beds, borders and
shrubbery are arranged in Geometrically designed shapes. Trimmed formal hedges
Ashoka trees, Topiaries are the typical features of a Formal garden.

Informal gardens: The whole design looks informal. Features are arranged in a
natural way without any hard and fast rules but here also the work has to proceed
according to a well set plan. The idea behind this design is to imitate nature.

Wild garden: William Robinson in the last decade of 19th century made the idea of
wild garden. His main idea was
i) to naturalize plants in shrubberies.
ii) Grass remains unmoved as in nature and
iii) Few bulbous plants should be grown scattered.

A garden enthusiast has to study the different styles available in the world to gain
some knowledge. In India even though we were interested in the gardening since
Ancient times there was no style to denote as Indian style of gardening.
Even the famous garden style of India i.e. Moghul garden is a replica of Ancient
Persian garden.

The major garden styles of the world are :

1. English garden
2. Moghul garden
3. Persian garden
4. Italian garden
5. French garden
6. Japanese garden
The Moghul, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of Formal gardens
whereas the English and Japanese garden are classified in the informal style of
garden.

English garden: Natural ground cover in the English countryside is grass. The main
idea of British gardeners is that the gardens should look like country side.
The main features of English garden that are known in India are:
a. Lawn
b. Herbaceous borders
c. Rockery
Most of the flowering annuals we see today in India with few exceptions of
Amaranthus, Balsam, Gomphrena, Marigold, etc. were brought here by Britishers.

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Japanese gardens:
Persian and Japanese gardens were based on the ideas of heaven. Japanese continued
the same style of gardening and still remain popular. Japanese gardens were planned
with so much of care though appears so casual.
Immutability is another strong basis of Japanese gardens. Except some seasonal
changes other strong, visible changes are hardly observed in Japanese gardens. They
remain beautiful even in winter. The immutability is achieved rather than going for
flowers, shrubs etc, more emphasis is placed on natural elements such as simple
rocks, stepping stones, streams, waterfalls, bridges. Stone lantern and so on. Three
elements of Japanese gardens are:
1. water 2. stone 3. plants
Features of Japanese gardens: Ponds, Streams, Waterfalls, Fountain, Wells,
Islands, Bridges, Stone Lantern, Stones,Pagodas,Fences and Gates.
Mughal Gardens:These were laid out during the rule of Mughal emperors in India.
They are similar to the Persian styles. The main features of Mughal gardens are
largely borrowed from Persian style.
1. site and styles of design 4. terrace 7. tomb or mosque
2. walls 5. nahars or running waters 8. trees.
3. gates 6. baradari
Baradari: It is arbour like structure made up of stone and masonry with pacca roof
and raised plat form for sitting. They were provided with 12 or more doors and they
were used to watch the dances.

Formal Garden

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Informal Garden

PROTECTED CULTIVATION practices can be defined as ‘a cropping

technique wherein the micro climate surrounding the plant body is controlled
partially or fully as per the requirement of the vegetable species grown during
their period of growth.’

Advantages of Protected Cultivation :

• Year round cultivation of flowers.
• Helps to grow high value flower crops for export market.
• The crop yields are the maximum level per unit area, per unit volume
and per unit input basis.
• The control of the microorganism allows the production of higher
quality products which are
• Free from insect attack, pathogens and chemical residue.
• Conserve moisture thus needs less irrigation.
• Income from the small and the marginal land holdings maintained by
the farmer can be increase by producing crops meant for the export.

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FLOWER CROPS
1) ROSE
Botanical Name - Rosa indica Family - Rosaceae
Rosa hybrida Origin - USA
Rosa sinensis 2n = 14
King of Flowers, Queen of Flowers
Most favourite flower of world. It ranks first in global cut flower trade. Also
grown for essential oil, rose water and gulkand.

Classes of Roses –
Roses are broadly classified under two groups:
i. Old Garden roses or Wild roses
ii. Modem Garden Roses

i) Old Garden Roses:

i) Old garden roses includes the crosses between:
a) European Roses x wild roses- and
b) Asian or China roses x wild roses
European roses are having tendency to produce the bloom only once in a year
i.e. during summer while Asian or China roses are having habit to produce the
flowers throughout the year or at least twice in a year. Due to the
development modem roses old garden roses have become out dated.
ii) Modern Garden Roses:
Modern garden roses are developed as a result between the crosses of
European Roses x Asian Roses (China roses) and have occupied the place in
Commercial gardening. Modem garden roses includes: a) Hybrid Tea (H.T.)
b) Floribunda c) Miniature (d)Polyantha (e) Ramblers (f) Creepers (g)Shrub

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Hybrid Tea :-They bear large & highly scented flower. e.g. John F. Keneddy,
Gladiator, Superstar, Papa Meilland, First prize.
Polyantha :-Dwarf plants &small flower. e.g. Echo, Flamboyent, Snow
princess.
Floribunda :- Hybrid T X Polyanthus, bear both character. e.g. Banjaran,
Iceberg, Red gold, Queen Elizabeth, Sea pearl.
Grandiflora/Ramblers:- Hybrid T x Floribundus, bear flower in cluster &
large flower. e.g. American pillar. Excelsa, Dorothy.
Miniature- Hardy plants , bear small leaves and flowers. e.g. Red flush, pixie,
Baby masquarade, Baby goldstar, Cri-cri.
Climbers: They have bigger size flowers. The climbers are most suitable for
arches, pergola, pillars e.g. Golden showers, Royal, gold, Delhi white pears.
Shrub: Plants smaller than climbers and provide continuous flowering.
Suitable for hedge and shrubbery e.g. Fountain, Cock tail, Butterfly wings.
Types of Roses -
1. Long stemmed roses (70-90 cm) - Large flower :-Hybrid tea
2. Medium stemmed roses (50-70 cm) - Intermediate flower :-Floribunda
3. Short stemmed roses (30-50 cm) - small flowers:- Sweet heart roses
4. Spray Roses -Spray:- Spray floribundas
5. Miniature roses- small flowered:- Sweet heart roses
Forms of Rose flowers :
1. Single : Having less than 8 petals
2. Semi double : Having 8-20 petals
3. Double : More than 20 petals
Flower Colour Type :
1. Single : Petals similarly coloured throughout
2. Bi-colour : Colour of outside of each petals differ from inside.
3. Multi colour : Colour of the petals changes distinctly with age. Flower
trusses have several colours at the same time.
4. Blend : Two or more colours merge on the inside of each petals.
5. Stripped : Two or more different colours on each petals, one of
which is in the form of distinct bonds.
Varieties -
The major cut flower varieties suitable for greenhouse cultivation are First
Red, Sonia, Kiss, Lambada, Konfetti, Golden Gates, Golden Time, Vivaldi,
Grand Galla, Black Magic, Cobra, Mercedez, Noblesse, Starlite, etc.
Pusa Mohit - Thornless variety
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Soil & Climate –

The ideal soil for rose cultivation should be well drained, medium loam soil
with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Heavy and saline soils are not suitable for rose
cultivation.
The ideal temperature range for rose cultivation is 15-270 C. Most commercial
rose cultivars are best grown at 15.50C night temperature. A relative humidity
of around 60 to 70 percent can be regarded as ideal for roses; high humidity
particularly in conjunction with low temperature for long periods can causes
diseases problems such as downey mildew and botrytis.

Propagation -
Roses are generally propagated through T-budding or shield budding.
Normally one-year-old budded plants having at least 3 canes on rootstocks
like Rosa indica var. odorata or R. canina or R. manetti are most ideal for
greenhouse cultivation.

Land and Bed Preparation -

Land should be ploughed thoroughly and brought to a fine tilth after removing
unwanted materials.
Add well decomposed FYM @ 8-10 kg/m2. Generally in greenhouse, roses
are grown on raised beds to assist in easier movement and better drainage.
Beds should be prepared having 30-40 cm height, 90-100 cm width and length
as per availability of space in the greenhouse. The path should be 60 cm in
between two raised beds.
Double row system: 50 cm between two rows & 15 cm between two plants.6-
7 plants/m2
Hy. Tea: 120x120cm
Floribunda : 60x90cm
miniature: 30x60 cm
climber: 90x120cm
Planting should be done preferably in 2-row system.
Soil sterilization: It should be done with any one of following chemicals
(Before preparation of the beds)
1. Formaline (1%)
2. Chloropicrin etc
3. Basamid granuales @ 40g/m2

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Planting –
shallow planting roses seedling is done. Due to shallow planting there will be
faster sprouting of roses. Excessive roots length should be cut before planting
the seedling. Immediately after planting watering is to be done. Small plant
are planted in April-May & bigger in Aug.-Sept.
Budded plants are in active growing stage at the time of planting. Such
plants needs the environmental humidity. Similarly the thin layer of
polyethylene is applied as a mulch. Rose plants required nitrogen at early stage
of development if the soil media is less content of nitrogen then it should be
applied at the time of first irrigation.
Irrigation - Two most widely used system are mist and Drip irrigation.
The water requirement of rose plants depends on the types of soil, temperature,
humidity and stage of the growth. Generally a rose plant requires 7-8 litres
water /m2 /day. Irrigation is done by drip irrigation system, having emitters at
30 cm apart on the lateral line.
Fertigation -
Fertilizers were applied through drip irrigation which is called Fertigation. It
is important to analyse the nutrient status of the media at regular interval for
determining the fertilizer requirement of rose plants.
Fertigation Schedule Dose (ppm)
N P K
Vegetative stage 80 50 60
Flowering and harvesting flush 100 60 80
Flowering and harvesting normal 80 50 80
Special Cultural Practices -
For proper growth of rose plant and high production special cultural practices
are to be carried out as follows:
Bending: It is done to encourage the plant for healthy framework at the bottom
and to active more number of side shoots. Bending is also practiced for
obtaining quality flowers with long stalk length. The place to be bent should
be close to the original bush as possible (maximum 5 cm), without breaking
the branches. The buds should be removed from the bended stem in order to
check the incidence of thrips and bud rot. Only weak and blind shoots are
selected for bending. The first bending is done on 35th days after planting and
the second bending is done after 2 years to strengthen the plants. Bending is
done on 1st or 2nd five pair of leaves. One can also grow roses in greenhouse

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without bending by keeping some blind shoots on plants in standing position

for extra photosynthesis & uptake of water nutrients.
Bottom break : Soon after bending the first bottom break or ground shoot
will start coming from the base. These bottom breaks are most important for
life time of plants, because they will carry the production. Strong ground
shoots should be cut at 5th five pair of leaves and medium ground shoots
should be cut at 2nd or 3rd five pair of leaves.
Defoliation: The removal of leaves is known as defoliation. It is done mainly
to induce certain plant species to flower or to reduce transpiration loss during
periods of stress. Defoliation may be done by removal of leaves manually or
by withholding water. The shoots are defoliated after pruning.
Shoot thinning: Unproductive shoots and water suckers are to be occasionally
removed for getting good quality flowers.
Pruning: It is recommended once a year during 2nd or 3rd week of October.
Pinching: Removing the terminal growing portion along with a portion of
stem is called pinching.
This helps to get good quality flowers and buds and avoids wastage of energy
in the development of auxiliary bud if done at right stage and right time. It
leads to apical dominance.
Bud capping: Bud caps are placed on the flower bud when they are of pea
size. This helps to increase the bud size and shape to meet customer demand
with required specification.
Pruning : For development of frame work and maximum flowers yield
Light pruning (June), Medium Pruning (Oct.), Hard pruning (Oct.)

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Harvesting -
The stage of harvesting depends upon the cultivars, importer’s requirement
and distance to the market. Generally, rose flowers should be harvested at tight
bud stage when one or two petals begin unfold with the help of sharp
secateure. Red and pink cultivars are harvested when first 2 petals are
beginning to unfold and calyx is reflexed below the horizontal lane, whereas,
yellow cultivars are harvested slightly earlier and white cultivars slightly later
than red and pink type cultivars. There should be 1-2 mature leaves (those with
five leaflets) left on the plant after the flower has been cut.
The reason for leaving these matures leaves is to encourage production of new
strong shoots. Harvesting is done preferably during early morning hours.

Flower Yield -
Approx. 250-350 stems/m2 is considered to be ideal. Flower yield can be
increased by spraying BAP 50-100 ppm before flowering flush. Burning of
saw-dust during winter months in the morning hours (7-10 AM) increases
flower yield and quality significantly

Post-harvest Handling -
Roses cut stems must be placed in a bucket of water inside the polyhouse
immediately after harvesting and transported to cold storage (2-4°C). The
length of time depends upon the variety and quality of the roses. The rose
flowers are graded according to the stem length and the quality of flower bud.
Graded flowers are grouped together in bunches of 10, 12, 20 or 25. A bundle
of 20 stems is usually preferred. Packing with polypropylene (24 micron) is
highly effective storage technique for rose, to maintaining post storage quality
and vase life.

Pre-cooling

PLANT PROTECTION

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Pest management -
Aphids (Macrosiphum rosae)
The incidence is more in the months of January-February on leaves and flower
buds. These are small, black in colour with green tinge. The young and adult
both suck the sap from the young twigs, buds and flowers. They suck the cell
sap, discolour the leaves and affect flower buds which fall and lose their
beauty. This can be effectively controlled by spraying 0.1% Malathion or
Metasystox (0.1-0.2%) or Rogor (0.1-0.2%).
Red scale (Lindigapsis rosae)
It is very serious pest of roses which attack mostly in August and September.
The branches are covered with reddish-brown encrustations under which the
insect sucks the juice of the plants. These pests can be controlled by spraying
Malathion (0.1%) or Parathion (0.25%) in April and again in October.
Chaffer beetles (Onycetonia varsicolor)
The adults of these beetles appear in August-September and cut away the
leaves. This can be controlled by Monocrotophos (1ml/l) or Dimethoate (1.5
ml/l).
Disease Management -
Dieback (Diplodia rosarum)
This is a very serious disease of roses and appears after pruning. The drying
up and blackening of pruned shoots start from top to downwards. The stems
become black and die. At the point where dry and healthy twigs meet, there
appears brown lining and also black spots appear at these places. The
conditions favourable for the prevalence of the disease include: application of
large fertilizers and manure, excessive irrigation and poor drainage facility,
incidence of stem borer, continuous incidence of mites, less light penetration.
For its effective control, the infected portion should be dehisced and burnt and
the cut ends should be painted with Chaubattia paste (4 part Copper Carbonate
+ 4 part Red lead + 5 parts linseed oil) or Bordeaux paste, application of
optimum dose of fertilizer and by facilitating proper drainage or spray of 3g/
litre of Copper oxychloride (50%).
Black spot (Diplocarpon rosae)
This disease appears in during the humid months. Conspicuous circular black
spot (less than 1 cm) with fringed margins appear on either side of leaf; leaves
become chlorotic, dry up and prematurely drop. It can be easily controlled by
spraying Carbendazim (1g/litre of water) or Captan (0.2%) fungicide at
fortnightly intervals.
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Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae)

It is a serious disease that occurs when days are warm & nights are cool.
Young growing shoots and leaves are covered with white powdery growth.
Infected leaves turn purplish and drop. Flower buds may fail to open. It can
be checked by removing all the infected leaves at the time of pruning so that
the source of infection is damaged or dusting with 80% Sulphur or spraying
0.1% Kerathane fungicide at fortnightly interval.
Physiological disorders
Blind wood -
The normal flowering shoot on a greenhouse rose possesses fully expanded
sepals, petals, and reproductive parts. The failure to develop a flower on the
apical end of the stem is a common occurrence. Such shoots are termed as
blind wood. The sepals and petals are present, but the reproductive parts are
absent or aborted. Blind wood is generally short and thin, but it may attain
considerable length and thickness when it develops at the top of the plant. This
may be caused by low temperature, insufficient light, chemical residues,
insect, pests, fungal diseases and other factors.
Bull heads or malformed flowers -
The center petals of the bud remain only partly developed and the bud appears
flat. They are common on very vigorous shoots, particularly bottom breaks,
and it is possible that there is a lack of carbohydrates to develop the petals.
The cause of bull heading is yet unknown, however, thrips infestation will
also cause malformed flowers. Also at low temperature, some varieties will
form bull heads.
Colour fading -
The off-coloured flowers are seem to be a problem with some yellow varieties.
In these varieties the petals may be green or a dirty white instead of a clear
yellow. Raising the night temperature several degrees will reduce the number
of off-coloured flowers. Occasionally the pink or red varieties develop bluish-
coloured flowers. This is very often associated with use of organic phosphate
and various other kinds of insecticides.
Limp necks -
The area of the stem just below the flower “wilts” and will not support the
head. This may be due to insufficient water absorption; cutting off the lower
1 to 2 inches of stem and placing the cut stem in water at 37°C will revive the
flower.

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Blackening of rose petals -

This is caused by low temperature and high anthocyanin content. GA3
treatment causes accumulation of anthocyanin in petals of Baccara roses. This
effect was more pronounced at low temperature (20°C at day and 4°C at night)
than in higher temperature (30°C at day and 20°C at night).
Nutritional disorders -
Iron deficiencies can cause pale foliage. Adjusting the pH of the soil may
solve this problem.

2) CARNATION
Botanical name : Dianthus caryophyllus Family : Caryophyllaceae
Chromosome no. (2n)- 30

The term dianthus was coined by Greek botanist Theophrastus, and is derived
from the Ancient Greek words for divine ("dios") and flower ("anthos"). Some
scholars believe that the name "carnation" comes from "coronation" or
"corone" (flower garlands), as it was one of the flowers used in Greek
ceremonial crowns.

Importance and Uses:

Winter season flower Important cut flowers
Used for bedding, pots, edging vase decoration and bouquets

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Types of carnation
1. Border carnation : Large flower , double fragrant
2. Marguerite carnation: self coloured, round yr flushes, good vase life
3. Perpetual carnation :single, double, easy to cultivate

Varieties
Standard type varieties: Damingo, Master, Baltico, Algar, Fuente, Falico etc
Spray type varieties: Aveiro, Fancy, Foego, Osiris, Celebration, Abril, Belon
Variety as per colour of flowers -
Red: Scania, Tanga, Red William, Granda, Espana, Master, Killer
Pink: Pamir, Nora, Lena, Sharina, Pink Sim, candy, Manon
Yellow: Pallas, Raggio di Sole, Candy, Yellow Dusty, Murcia
White: White Sim, Roma, Candy, Calypso, Sonsara
Orange: Tangerine Sim, Orange Triumph.
Others: Charmeur, Aurthor Sim, Toledo, Solar, Laurella, Vanessa
Indian cultivars: Arka Flame and Arka Tejas

Soil and Climate:

Light texture loam or sandy loam soil which is well drained and aerated. pH:
5.5-6.5 Photoperiod (long days over 13 hours). Temperature: 10-15° C (night)
& 18-24° C (day) for excellent growth. Relative humidity: 50-60% favour
growth & production. CO2 level should be 500ppm during day time.

Preparation of Media & Bed

To create suitable growing media pH should be 5.5-6.5 with good quantity of
organic manure. It is recommended to work soil deeply upto 80-100 cm before
bedding. Best ratio of soil mixture: 50% sand, 30% loam, 20% clay is used.
Soil should be well drained. He media should be sterilized before use by steam
or chemicals. Raised bed of 30cm height, 80cm width and as per requirement
length is kept. A minimum distance in between two beds must be 50-60cm.

Propagation
Carnation propagated by seed, cutting & layering
1. Terminal stem cuttings: Terminal cutting of 8-10 cm long is taken in
Nov.- Feb. Shear off lower most 1-2 leaf pairs. Give sharp cut below node.
Dip the cuttings in a solution of Dithane M. 45 (0.1%) + Bavistin(0.1%) for 5
min. Put the lower end of cuttings in a solution of NAA or IBA 500 ppm for

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5 sec. Plant the cuttings in sterile sand at a spacing of 3 x 3 cm. Spray water
4-5 times in a day so that 90% or more humidity is maintained. Rooting occur
in 3-4 weeks
2. Seed: Sowing on raised bed in Sept.- Oct. Germinate within week. One
month seedlings are use for transplanting. Seed rate is 400 to 500 gm/ha

Planting: Deep planting of cutting should be avoided.

Best time of planting- Oct.- Nov.
Spacing - 15x 15 cm, 20 x 20cm.

Irrigation: After planting spraying of water through mist has been found to
be more effective than the surface watering. After 3 weeks of planting drip
irrigation has been given. Through drip irrigation: 4-5 lits /sq. mt. /day.
Stagnation of water should be avoided.

Nutrition Requirements:
5-10 kg FYM and 20:20:10 gm NPK per sq. mt. At the time of planting
250:80:200:125:40 gm N, P, K, Ca, Mg per Sq. mt every year in 20-24 split
doses at 15 days interval will give good plant growth and production of quality
flowers.

Special cultural practices

a) Pinching: In pinching terminal growing shoot about 2-3 cm long is
removed to overcome apical dominance and to promote side branching when
the plants are at 6-8 leaf pair stage.
Types of pinching -
1.Single pinching: In single pinching terminal growing shoot about 2-3 cm
long is removed once in all the shoots.
2. Pinch and a half: First pinching is done in all the shoots. When the side
shoots are 6-8 cm long and this stage occur at 40-50 days after pinching, then
half of the shoots are again pinched. This increases the duration of flowering.
3.Double pinching: First pinching is done in all the shoots. When the side
shoots are 6-8 cm long and this stage occur at 40-50 days after pinching, then
again do the pinching in all the shoots. This delays the flowering and flower
quality is also poor.
4. Pinch plus pull pinch: First pinching is done in all the shoots. Later on keep
removing the

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shoots by pulling up to 2 months, so as to get single large peak flowering.

In marguerite and annual carnations pinching is done at 40 and 60 days after
transplanting.
b) De-shooting: When the side shoots after pinching are 3-5 cm long then
retain 3-5 shoots per plant in standard cultivars. When the side shoots after
pinching are 3-5 cm long then retain 6-10 shoots per plant in spray cultivars.
c) Disbudding: Disbudding is the removal of visible (5-10 mm diameter)
undesirable buds. In standard cultivars terminal bud is retained and all the
lateral buds are removed. In spray cultivars terminal bud is removed and
lateral buds are retained.
d) Staking : Wire mesh, plastic nets, string or bamboo canes are used to
support plants. Wire mesh or plastic nets having inner size of 10-15 cm
squares are placed on the squares are placed on the ground in three layers,
which are erected at 20, 35 and 50 cm above the ground level with the growing
plants.String or rope is erected in three rows at the same distance along the
rows.

Harvesting & Yield:

Harvesting 4 months after planting
Standard varieties: Tight bud or cross bud condition
300 to 350 flowers / sq. mt /year
Spray varieties: At least two flowers are opened & other buds show colour
250 flowers / sq. mt /year 8-10 flowers per plant per year

PLANT PROTECTION
Pest Management :
Aphids : Myzus persicae
Feeding usually occurs in buds and undersides of leaves. Feeding on young
leaves results in distorted leaves as they continue to grow. Older leaves may
display patches of chlorolic spots. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the
leaves, stems and flower buds in colonies.
Control - Spraying the plants with Thiomethoxam 1ml/litre or Imidachloprid
@ 2ml/litre or Asatap (Acephate) @ 0.5 to 1.0 gm/litre.
Thrips: Thrips tabaci
Both the nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and flower. They excrete
brown droplets, which afterwards true black. Leaves may fade and shrivel in
case of heavy infestation and foliage becomes silvery.

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HORT-354 DR. V. B. Shinde

Control - Spraying of Fipronil 1.5 ml/lit (or) Imidachloprid 2ml/litre or

Dimethoate 30 EC @ 1ml/litre.
Red spider mites- Tetranychus urticae
These have ability to produce fine silk webbing, spider mites are very tiny and
very small and are difficult to identify. They suck sap from the leaves which
results in tiny yellow or white speckles. Once the foliage of a plant becomes
bronze it often drops prematurely. Heavily infested plant may be discoloured
stunted.
Control -
• Apply Abamectin (Vermitec) 1.9EC @ 0.5ml/litre
• Spray Azardiractin 50,000ppm 3ml/litre
• Discard the plant and leaf debris.
Bud borer : Helicoverpa armigera
Caterpillers infest the leaves and flower buds. Bore holes are clearly visible
on flower buds. Finally the infested flower buds are fail to open. The attack
by this pest is most during warm season.
Control -
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis 2g/litre.
• Release 1 lakhs of Trichogramma egg parasitoid per acre.
• Set up Helilure sex pheromone trap @ 4 Nos/acre
• Spray spinosad 0.75ml/litre or Thiodicarp 0.5 ml/litre
Diseases :
Fusarium wilt: Soil drenching with Carbofuran @ 0.1 % or Difenoconazole
@ 0.05 % or Pseudomonas fluorescens as soil application @ 25 g/m2 and
foliar application @ 0.5 % at monthly intervals or soil drenching with Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens @ 0.5 % at monthly intervals
Alternaria leaf spot: Bacillus subtilis as soil application @ 25 g/m2 followed
by foliar application @ 0.5 % at monthly intervals

Physiological disorders :
Calyx splitting
The sepal beneath the flowers are united to form a cylindrical calyx which
support the base of petal. As the buds open and petals approach their full size
the calyx may plit down.
Causes:
1. Genetical : Epson, Palmir etc. are less prone
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HORT-354 DR. V. B. Shinde

2. Environmental: High temp. a sharp drop in night temperature.

3. Nutritional: low, N, Boron deficiency, over feeding
4. Cultural Control: This can also be reduced by placing a rubber band or 6mm
wide clear plastic tape is used around the calyx of the flowers which are just
start opening. Spray borax @0.1% Insect pest
Curly tip -
This disorder affects the growing tips which curl and become distorted. Tips
of the young shoots fail to separate and continuation of growth results in a
characteristic curvature. Poor light and other adverse conditions are thought
to be the causes of the disorder. Water stress and potassium deficiency are
suspected causes for a physiological curly tip and die-back of carnation
flowers.

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HORT-354 DR. V. B. Shinde

3) MARIGOLD
Botanical Name : Tagets erecta, (African Marigold)
Tagets patula (French marigold)
Family : Compositae
Origin : Mexico
Chrom. No. (2n) : 24
African Marigold

French marigold
Importance:
Marigold is one of the most commonly grown flowers for garden decoration
and extensively used as loose flowers for making garlands for religious and
social functions. It has gained popularity amongst the gardeners on account of
its easy culture and wide adaptability. Its habit of free flowering, short
duration to produce marketable flowers, wide spectrum of attractive colours,
shape, size and good keeping quality has attracted the attention of flower
growers.
Marigolds are ideal for cut flowers, especially for making garlands. They can
be planted in the beds for mass display or grown in pots. The French Marigolds
are suitable for hanging basket and edging. The demand for Marigold flowers
during Dashara and Diwali is very high.

Soil and Climate:

It requires well drained loamy soil. It can be grown well in hot and dry as well
as humid climate. It can not stand severe cold.

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HORT-354 DR. V. B. Shinde

Types of Varieties of Marigold:

Varieties of Marigold are grouped in two groups :
A) African Marigold: Tall growing plant / big size flowers
B) French marigold: Dwarf plant with small flowers
Varieties:
A) African Marigold : Cracker jack. Climax, Yellow supreme, Hawai,
New Alaska, Aapricot, Glitters, Happiness, Primrose, Fiesta
B) French marigold : Rusty red, Star of India, Red Bokardo, Flash, Petit
spray, Harmony, Gypsy, Lemon drops
Pusa Basanti Gainda, Pusa Narangi Gainda
Propagation: By seed
Seed Rate: 1 to 1.5 kg per ha
Raising of Seedlings and Transplanting :
For raising seedlings, well dried flowers are crushed by hand and seeds are
broadcasted on the raised bed during May - June and watered regularly. When
seedlings will attend the age of one month or a height of 10-15 cm then those
seedlings are transplanted in well manured and fertilized bed at the spacing of
60 x 60 cm or 45 x 45 cm or 45 x 35 cm. One side planting on ridges &
furrows.

Nutritional Requirements:
20 to 25 tones FYM + 25 kg N + 25 kg P + 25 kg K per hectare
25 kg N after 30 days.

Special Culture Practice:

Three weeks after transplanting earthing up is done and then one week after
earthing up or 1 month after transplanting the seedlings, pinching is followed
for bushy growth of the plant and development of lateral branches. Pinching
results into production of more number of flowers.

Irrigation:
Constant moisture supply be maintained from bud formation to harvesting of
flowers.

Harvesting of Flowers:
French Mangold starts flowering 1 to 1 1/2 months after transplanting while
African Marigold 1 1/2 to 2 months after transplanting of seedlings. For
Section of Horticulture, DPCOA, Vaijapur (Auranagabad) 36 | P a g e
HORT-354 DR. V. B. Shinde

Garland stalk less fully opened flowers (loose flowers) are picked, white for
vase decoration also fully opened flowers with stalk are plucked.
Loose flowers are packed in a bamboo basket, while flowers with stalk are
bunched in bundles and transported to market. From one plant near about 100
to 150 flowers are obtained. Blooming duration is near about 3 months.
Yield:
6000 to 8000 kg flowers per ha, 100 to. 150 qtl flowers per ha.

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests:
Mealy bug -
Mealy bugs are crowdly present in young shoots, stem and leaves. Flattening
and crinkled with dark green leaves. It’s segregate honey like substances
because of that leaves are converted into black sooty mould. Apical parts of
the shoots show retarted growth.
Control -
• Spray prophenophos or dimethoate @ 2ml/litre.
• Spray Fish oil rosin soap @ 25g/litre
Thrips - Thrips tabaci
Discoloured or distorted plant tissue is clues that thrips were present. Thrips
prefer to feed in rapidly growing tissue. Damaged leaves become papery and
distorted. Infested terminals may discolour, rolled and drop leaves
prematurely. Petals may exhibit “colour break,” which is pale tissue that was
killed by thrips feeding before buds opened.
Control -
• Set up yellow sticky trap 20 per acre
• Released Amphelicies cucumeris spider parasitoid.
• Fipronil 1.5ml/litre or spiromesifen 0.75ml/litre or azardiractin
3ml/litre
Cut worms and Helicoverpa armigera
Spray spinosad 45 SC @ 0.75ml/litre. Spinosad 45 SC is quickly
biodegradable and is accepted by the importers
Bud borer - Spray Spinosad @ 0.75 ml / l
Red spider Mite - Spray Abamectin 1.9 EC @ 0.5 ml/l or Fenazaquin @ 2
ml/l or Exodus (natural lactones) @ 2 ml/l
Spider - It can be controlled by spraying Kelthane 1 ml/lit of water

Section of Horticulture, DPCOA, Vaijapur (Auranagabad) 37 | P a g e

Diseases:
Leaf spot - Foliar application of Hexaconazole @1ml/litre or Mancozeb @
2g/litre or Bavistin 1 g / lit of water
Root rot - Drench 1 g/lit of Bavisitin to control root rot.

4) GLADIOLUS
Botanical Name : Gladiolus tristis
Family : Iridaceae
Origin : South Africa
Chrom. No. (2n) : 30
Queen of Bulb
The name "gladiolus" is derived from the
Latin "gladius" which means sword,
which refers to the leaf shape.
Importance and Uses of Gladiolus
1. Gladiolus is one of the important Bulbous plants which is valued in the
gardens for its beautiful flower spikes.
2. It is ideal as a cut flower, very good for beds, herbaceous border, for
making bouquets and does well in pots.
3. Among the different bulbous plants, the gladiolus top the list in its beauty,
glamour keeping quality, various colours and shades, shapes.

Soil and Climate:

Well drained fertile loamy soil is preferred for Gladiolus cultivation. Water
logged, heavy sticky soil will result in decaying of corms.
Site selected for gladiolus planting should have a sunny situation protected
from stormy winds. It produces bigger size flowers in areas with moderate
humidity.

Varieties
Tropic Sea, White Prosperity, Priscilla, Summer Sunshine, Pusa Swarnima,
Jackson Ville Gold, KKL.1, Archana, Basant Bahar, Indrani, Kalima, Kohra,
Aarti, Arka Kesar, Darshan, Dhiraj, Agnirekha, Archana, Bindiya, Shree
Ganesh, Suchitra, Pusa Suhagan, Sapana, Yellow stone, Hunting Song etc.
MPKV, Rahuri - Phule Ganesh, Phule Prerana, Phule Tejas, Phule Neelrekha

Prof. A. C. Jadhav, Assits. Professor, Dept. of Horticulture, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 38
Propagation:
Gladiolus is propagated by Corms. A corm weighing 20-30 gm at least 4-5 cm
diameter is best suitable. It should be healthy and disease free. Conical shaped
corms preferred over flat one as it gives better flowers.
Seed treatment- Mancozeb @ 0.3 %

Planting:
Spacing : 45 x 15 cm on ridges and furrows or 30x20 cm in flat bed
Planting time: Oct-Nov. Shallow planting of corms i.e. at the depth of 5 to
10 cm is essential.
Seed Rate: 1,60,000 corms per ha or 3200 kg per ha.

Nutritional Requirements: 20 tons FYM/ha, 300:200:200 kg NPK/ha ,P &

K at time of planting & dose of N is apply in 3 split doses at 2,4,6 leaf stage.

Irrigation: must not be allowed to suffer from water stress especially when
spikes are emerging. Regular irrigation at the intervals of 7 to 10 days. Over
watering should be avoided.

Cultural Practices:
Earthing up is essential after 6-8 weeks of planting. or before the emergence
of spike. But if planted as ridges such operation will not be necessary. These
plants need staking for its satisfactory growth, if not staked may fall or break
by high wind velocity. when plant will attend the height of 25 cm staking is
done.

Harvesting and Yield-For internal market, they are cut when 1-2 lower most
florets on the spike have opened and for external market when the colour has
fully developed in mature unopened buds. Harvesting is done after 80-90 days
after planting.
Yield- 2-2.5 lack spikes/ha 20,000 kg corms per ha

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests -
Thrips: Spray Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/l or Fenitrothion 50 EC @ 2ml/l or
Malathion 50 EC @ 2ml/l
Semi looper and Helicoverpa: Methyl Demeton 25 EC or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/l

Prof. A. C. Jadhav, Assits. Professor, Dept. of Horticulture, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 39
Diseases :
Leaf spot: Foliar application of carbofuran @ 1g/l or Mancozeb @ 2g/l
Core or spongy rot or Storage rot: Foliar application of Benomyl @ 1 kg/ha
Bacterial scab blight and spots: Dipping the corms in 1:100 Mercuric
chloride solution for 12 hours before planting.
Blight disease can be controlled by spraying Mancozeb @ 0.2 %
Wilt : Drenching of Bavistin (0.2%) at fornight intervals controls the wilt
disease.
Fluoride injury -
Leaf scorch of gladioli is observed due to the presence of fluorine compounds
in the atmosphere which got accumulated on the tips of leaves. The injury is
associated with heavy application of super phosphate.

5) GERBERA
Botanical Name : Gerbera jamesonii
Family : Asteraceae
Origin : South Africa,
America & Asia
Chrom. No. (2n) : 50
Arberton daisy, Transvaal daisy, &
Barbertonse madeliefie

A Scotsman named Robert Jameson

was responsible for discovering this
flower somewhere near Barberton in
South Africa. Although the flower was
initially discovered in 1884, it was not
until about 40 years later that the bloom
was first cultivated. Gerbera daisies are
named after a German botanist,
Traugott Gerber.
The fifth most popular flower in the world, Gerbera daisies can mean
innocence, purity, and cheerfulness.

Soil and Climate: A well drained, rich, light, neutral or slightly alkaline soil
is most suitable for gerbera production. The growth of plants is adversely
affected in ill-drained soil. pH:5.5-6.5.

Prof. A. C. Jadhav, Assits. Professor, Dept. of Horticulture, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 40
Moderate climate, Day temp: 22-25oC and night temp:12-15oC, Photoperiod:
8 hours, CO2 level: 700ppm

Variety- Amber, Winter queen , Flamingo, Dusty, Salmarosa, Valentine, etc.

Red : Ruby Red, Sangria
Yellow : Doni,Supernova, Mammut, Talasa
Rose : Rosalin, Salvadore
Pink : Pink Elegance, Marmara, Esmara
Orange : Carrera, Goliath, Marasol
Cream : Farida, Dalma, Snow Flake, Winter Queen
TNAU Varieties : YCD-1, YCD-2

Propagation- Seeds propagation, however is not always satisfactory.

Vegetative Propagation:
Division: This method involves in dividing large clumps into smaller units.
Cutting: The buds in the axils of the leaves are detached and rooted in rooting
medium. They are ready for transplanting in 2 or 3 months. Approximately
40-50 plants can be produced in 2-3 months form a single mother plant.

Bed preparation:
Soil mixture: FYM, sand, and paddy husk (2:1:1)
30 cm height, 1 mt. Width, Path distance 30-45 cm
Planting
Gerbera grows on raised beds : 30-40 cm. Row distance 30cm plant distance
Spacing : 40 x 30 cm or 30 x 30 cm

Manures and Fertilizers- 10 kg FYM ,20:20:15 gm NPK /Sq.m at the time

of planting,10:15:20 gm NPK/sq.m for three months at one month interval.

Irrigation
Drip irrigation is done once in 2 – 3 days @ 3.75 litre/drip/plant for 15 – 20
minutes. Average water requirement is about 500 – 700 ml/day/plant.

Harvesting and Yield- Harvesting is done 3 months after planting. Crop can
retain 3 - 4 years in protected condition. Harvested when outer two rows of
disc floret perpendicular to stalk.
Yield- 200 - 250 Flowers /sq.m /Year.

Prof. A. C. Jadhav, Assits. Professor, Dept. of Horticulture, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 41
PLANT PROTECTION -
Pests :
Aphids: Apply Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL @ 1 ml/l or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l
Whitefly: Spray Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL @ 2 ml/l or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l
Thrips: Spray Fipronil @ 2 ml/l or Dimethoate 30EC @ 2 ml/l
Red spider mite: Spray Abamectin 1.9 EC @ 0.4 ml/l or Propargite @ 1 ml/l
Nematode: Soil application of Bacillus subtilis (BbV 57) or Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha at the time of planting for the management of root
knot nematode.

Diseases:
Flower bud rot: Spray copper oxychloride @ 2 g/l
Powdery mildew: Spray wettable Sulphur @ 2g/l or Azoxystrobin @ 1g/l

Bushiness: An abnormality characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles

and small laminae, which gives some cultivars of gerbera a bushy appearance
known as bushiness. Nodes are not clearly distinguished and no internode
elongation is seen.
Stem break : It is a common post harvest disorder in cut gerberas. This is
mainly caused by water imbalances. It could be ethylene controlled and
associated with early senescence caused by water stress.
Yellowing and purple margin : Nitrogen deficiency causes yellowing and
early senescence of leaves. Phosphorus deficiency causes pale yellow colour
with purple margin. Increase in levels of nitrogen and phosphorus were found
to promote development of suckers and improve flowering in gerbera.

6) JASMINE
B.N. : Jasminum sambac (Mogra)
J. officinale (Jai)
J. auriculatum (Jui)
J. grandiflorum (Chameli)
J. pubescens (Kunda)
Family: Oleaceae
Origin : East indies
2n : 26

Prof. A. C. Jadhav, Assits. Professor, Dept. of Horticulture, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 42
Importance:
Jasmine flowers are white, scented and preferred for making Veni. Garland
and Floral decoration. These are also used for making attar or essential oil for
perfume. Among the various fragrant species of Jasmines - Mogra has a high
commercial value.

Soil and Climate:

It requires well drained, porous and fertile soil. It requires hot and dry climate
for higher yield. pH:6-7

Varieties:
1. Mogra : Motia, Madanban, Ramban,, Bela, Virupakshi, Rai
2. Jui : Co-1,Mullai, Parimuiii, Large round, Short point
3. Chemali or Jai : Co-1, Coimbatore, Pink pin.

Propagation:
Jasmines are generally propagated by cutting of almost mature wood and also
by layers. The best time for propagation is rainy season.

Planting:
A jasmine plantation remains productive for 10-15 years. So land should be
prepared thoroughly by addition of manures. The planting is usually done in
rainy season.

Planting distance:
1. Mogra : 75 cm x 1 m
2. Jui : 1.8 m x 1.8 m
3. Chemali or Jai :1.8 m x 1.8 m

Irrigation: Irrigation should be given at an interval of 3-4 days till the

establishment of sampling if no rains in rainy season. Afterwards, the jasmines
may be irrigated at the interval of 15 days.

Nutrition Requirements :
15-20 ton FYM/ha + 100:50:50 kg NPK per ha. This dose split up in 2 doses
First: at the time of pruning during January-February and
Second: at the time of flower bud formation i.e. during March.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Special Cultural Practices:
1. Bahar Treatment:
Bahar treatment is essential for flowering in jasmines and accordingly
withholding of water is done for 40-50 days prior flowering or till the plant
shed its leaves and go into dormancy for rest. Withholding of water is usually
done in the month of November December. After shading of the leaves,
irrigation is started i.e. it will be started from January - February.
2. Pruning:Pruning is a regular practice of inducing flowering in Mogra. In
Mogra flowers are borne only on new growth and thus, pruning stimulates the
new growth, secondly it keeps the bushes in manageable size.
For commercial crop, pruning is usually done after 2 years of its planting and
followed in the month of January - February. Generally pruning is done 45 to
50 cm from ground level.

Harvesting of Flowers:
Jasminum species start flowering from first year of planting but commercial
yield starts after second year.
Mogra is having a very short post harvest life. The unopened-fully developed
flowers buds are picked very early in the morning and transported within 2 to
3 hours, to the market. For Gajara and Veni fully developed unopened buds
are picked while for extraction of oil fully opened flowers are picked.

Yield:
Mogra: 10-12tons/ha, Jai& Jui : 3-4 tons/ha, Kunda: 5-6 tons/ha

7) LILIUM
Botanical name : Lilium candidum, Lilium longiflorum
Family : Liliaceae
Origin :
Northern hemisphere
Chromo. No. (2n) :
24
Day lily, toad lily &
surprise lily are known
as ‘not true lily’.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Soil: Well drained sterile medium (preferably leaf mould, cocopeat and FYM
in equal parts) with pH 5.5 to 6.5 is ideal. Fumigate the beds with Dazomet @
30g/m2.

Climate: Liliums are best grown in green houses. Day temperature of 18-22°C
and night temperature of 10-15°C are ideal.

Varieties:
Asiatic hybrids : Dreamland (yellow), Brunello (orange), Novona (white),
Pollyanna (yellow), Yellow Giant (yellow), Vivaldi (pink), Black Out (Deep
red)
Oriental hybrids: Star Gazer (Pink & white), Nerostar, Siberia, Acapulco
and Casablanca
Eastern lily (L. longiflorum): Elegant Lady, Ace, Snow Queen, White,
American, Croft and Harbor

Propagation: Liliums are commercially propagated through bulbs. A six

week cold storage period at 2o C to 5o C is needed to break dormancy.

Spacing: 20 x 15 cm, 15 x 15 cm or 15 x 10 cm
(plant density varies between 30 and 60/m2 depending on cultivar and bulb
size)
Irrigation: 6- 8 litres/m2/day during summer and 5 - 6 litres/m2/day during
winter

Nutrition: The following fertigation schedule can be adopted.

Nutrients Quantity (g/m2/week)
Nutrients Quantity (g/m /week)
Asiatic Oriental

Calcium Nitrate 2.5 2.5

19:19:19 0.5 0.5
Potassium Nitrate 2.2 2.3
Micronutrient 1.2 1.2
mixture
Crop support: Supporting plants with nylon mesh is advisable.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Harvest: Harvesting is done when lower most bud shows colour (colour
breaking stage) but is not open.
Crop duration:
Asiatic hybrids : 8 - 10 weeks
Oriental hybrids : 14 - 16 weeks
Yield: The average yield is 30 - 40 flower stems/m2

PLANT PROTECTION:
Pests:
Aphids: Apply Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL @ 1 ml/l or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l
Mites: Spray Wettable sulphur @ 1.5 g/l or Abamectin @ 0.4 ml/l or
Propargite @ 2 ml/l.
Thrips: Spray Methyl demeton 25EC @ 2 ml/ or Dimethoate 30EC @ 2ml/l
Diseases:
Grey mould: Spray Zineb @ 2g/l
Bulb and scale rot: Soil drenching with Carbofuran @ 1g/l or
Difenoconazole @ 0.5ml/l
Foot rot & Root rot: Soil drenching with Metalaxyl @ 0.1%
Botrytis Blight: Dark brown spots on leaves, spraying of carbofuran @ 2g/lit
of water effectively control the disease.

8) CHRYSANTHEMUM
B.N.- Chrysanthemum indicum
Family: Asteraceae
Origin : Asia
2n = 18
Soil and Climate- Well drained, sandy
loam
It is short day plant, it require 20 - 28 o
c temperature with 70- 75 % humidity
Variety- Raja, Zipri, Sonali Tara,
Yellow Gold, Pusa Anmol, Pusa
Sentevary, Arka Swarna, Arka Ganga,
Bindiya, Co-1 (Yellow coloured ) Co-2
(Purple colour) Indira, Ravi Kiran,
Pankaj etc
PKV Shubra - (PDKV Akola) Sweet Heart

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Types of chrysanthemum
1. Incurved: These are the giant blooms of the chrysanthemum genus.
The florets (petals) loosely incurve and make fully closed centers. The
lower florets present an irregular appearance and may give a skirted
effect.
2. Reflexed: The florets in this class curve downward and overlap, similar
to bird plumage. The tops of these blooms are full, but somewhat
flattened. Doreen Statham (1995) Flower Size: 4-6 inches.
3. Spider type: Spiders have long tubular ray florets which may coil or
hook at the ends. The florets may be very fine to coarse.
4. Korean single
5. Korean Double
6. Decorative: A flattened bloom with short petals. As in classes 1-3 the
center disk should not be visible. The upper florets tend to incurve, but
the lower petals generally reflex.
7. Anemone: These blooms are similar to the semi-doubles, but have a
raised cushionlike center.
8. Pompon

Propagation:
It is propagated vegetatively by suckers, terminal cutting or by micro
propagation.
1. Suckers: In this method of propagation, after flowering the stem should be
cut back just above the ground level. This induces the formation of side
suckers which should be separated from the mother plant and should be
planted in sand bed. Apart from this, well rooted suckers can be directly
transplanted in the field. Generally, 1,10,000 suckers should be required to
cover the 1 ha. Area. To protect against wilt diseases, roots of the suckers
should be dipped in fungicidal solution. These suckers should be planted
during rainy season at 30 cm x 30 cm spacing on one side of ridge. Pinching
should be carried out once in a month after planting to induce more lateral
branches on the plants.
2. Terminal stem cutting: These terminal cutting should be taken from a
healthy stock plant. Length of cuttings should be about 5-7 cm. the cuttings
should be dipped in 2500 ppm IBA. These cutting should be put in sand
beds in shade conditions.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Spacing and Planting- 30 x 30 cm
Season- April- May, 1 to 1.25 lac cuttings /ha

Manures and Fertilizers- 10 to 15 ton /ha 100:50:50 kg /ha half dose of N is

apply 30 DAP
Micronutrients: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.25% + MgSO4 0.5%.
Biofertilizers: Soil application of 2 kg each of Azospirillum and
Phosphobacteria per ha at the time of planting. It is to be mixed with 100 kg
of FYM and applied.
Growth regulators: Spray GA3 @ 50 ppm on 30, 45 and 60 days after
planting.

Intercultural operation- Pinching, Disbudding, deshooting, staking

Pinching: Done 4 weeks after planting to induce lateral branches.
Desuckering: Remove the side suckers periodically.

Harvesting and yield- 5 - 6 months after planting, fully open flowers are
harvest 70-80 quts /ha
Standard types - Flowers are harvested when 2 - 3 rows of rays florets are
perpendicular to the flower stalk.
Spray types - When 50% flowers have shown colour for distant markets;
when two flowers have opened and others have shown colour for local markets

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests : Thrips, aphids and leaf eating caterpillars: Spray Acetamiprid @ 0.3
g/l or Indoxacarb @ 1 ml/l
Diseases :
Root rot: Soil drenching with Copper oxychloride 2.5 g/lit or Trifloxystrobin
+ Tebuconazole @ 0.75 g/litre or Difenoconazole @ 0.5ml/l
Leaf spot: Foliar application of Mancozeb @ 2.5g/l or Azoxystrobin @ 1g/l

Chrysanthemum mosaic disease

1. Cuttings should be obtained from virus – free indexed stocks.
2. Removal and destruction of infected plants.
3. Destruction of the weed host.
4. Controls the vector by spraying for sucking pests and reduces the disease.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

9) ORCHID
Botanical name : Dendrobium sp.
Family : Orchidaceae
Origin : South and Central America
2n = 18 to 50
Important genera:
1.Dendrobium 2. Cattleya,
3. Phalaenopsis 4. Cymbidium

Importance and Uses:

• Important cut flower, more vase life
• They exhibits wide range of diversity in form, size, colour, & texture of
flower.
• On plot it remain good for 1-3 months.
• Good indoor plant, grown in garden, pots, basket etc.
• Flowers are use in special functions

Types of orchid:
1. Sympodial type: Prostate rhizome whose growth terminates periodically
with an upright pseudobulb, leaf & flowers eg Dendrobium, Cattleya,
Cymbidium
2. Monopodial type: Form aerial roots from the stem as they are produced in
their upward growth. Eg. Phalaenopsis
Varieties
Sonia 17, Sonia 28, Emma White, Sakura Pink.

Climate
75% green shade net with 70 - 80% humidity, 18 - 28°C temperature and light
intensity of 1500-2000 foot candles is ideal for growing this tropical orchid.
In high rainfall zones, the shade net house should be provided with a rain
shelter.

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Growing media: Most common potting mixture consists of charcoal, broken
pieces of bricks and tiles, coconut husk and fiber.
Propagation: Division of clumps, back bulbs and tissue culture plants.
Containers and support : perforated earthen pots are ideal and the plants are
staked with bamboo sticks

Irrigation: Mist or overhead sprinkler to provide water and to maintain

humidity.

Nutrients: Foliar application of NPK 20:10:10 @ 0.2% at weekly intervals

starting from 30 days after planting.

Growth regulators Foliar application of GA3 50 ppm at bimonthly intervals

starting from 30 days after planting. Orchids need repotting regularly,
usually every two to three years.
Splitting or division of plants: Plant grown to a large clump with 2 or 3 old
canes and new shoots, - divided before repotting. Each division - at least one
old cane of two years' growth, one new shoot & some new roots.

Harvest: Dendrobium flower fully matures only 3 or 4 days after it opens.

Harvesting the spike when 75 per cent of the flowers are open and remaining
buds are unopen.
Yield: 8 - 10 spikes/plant/year

PLANT PROTECTION :
Pests:
Snail and Slug: Hand pick and destroy them immediately.
Diseases:
1. Bacterial soft and Brown rot (Ervinia spp.)
Foliar application with Streptomycin Sulphate @ 0.5 g + Copper Oxy
Chloride @ 2 g/l.
2. Bacterial Brown spot (Acidovorax sp.)
Foliar application with Streptomycin Sulphate @ 0.5 g + Copper Oxy
Chloride @ 2 g/l.
3. Black rot (Pythium sp. and Phytothora sp.)
Foliar application of Metalaxyl 2 g / lit. (or) Dimethomorph 50% WP 0.5 g /
lit.
4. Anthracnose – Foliar application of Thiophanate Methyl 2 g / l (or)
Difenoconazole 0.5 ml/l

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

10) TUBEROSE
Botanical name : Polianthes tuberosa
Family : Amaryllidaceae
Origin : Mexico
2n : 60

Varieties
1.Single flowered: 5 petals
Calcutta single, Phule Rajani, Bangalore
single, Coimbatore single
2. Semi double: 10 petals
3. Double: more than 10 petals, Pearl
4. variegated: leaves with yellow on
margin
5. Variegated single: Rajat (White margin)
6. Variegated double: Dhawal (Golden margin)
7. Other: Shrungar, Prajwal, Suhasini, Vaibhav.

Importance and Uses:

It is one of the important cut flowers used for vase decoration and bouquets.
The flowers stalk is 75 to 100 cm long bearing white colour. The spikes or
tuberose are used as a cut flowers due to its delightful appearance, sweet
fragrance and good keeping quality.

Soil and Climate:

Medium sandy loam with good drainage is best for production of flowers and
bulbs. For luxurious growth of the crop moderate humidity with mild
temperature is essential. Very high temperature or frost may damage the crops.

Propagation and planting: The tuberose is propagated by bulb having a

diameter of 1.5 to 2.0 cm and weight above 30 g. And healthy free of pests
and diseases. Before planting bulb should be treated with 0.1 % Carbofuran
for 30 minutes.

Planting: Best time of planting- April -May . Spacing - 30 x 30 cm, 30 x 20 cm.

Seed Rate: 5000 - 6000 kg bulb /ha; 1,60,000 -2,50,000 bulbs /ha

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Nutrition Requirements: 20 tonnes FYM per ha. 200:150:200 kg NPK/ha.
N apply in two split doses i.e. 45 and 90 DAP.
Micronutrients: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5% + FeSO4 0.2% + Boric acid 0.1%.
Growth regulators: Foliar application of GA3 at 50 to 100 ppm thrice at 40,
55 and 60 days after planting.

Harvesting of Flowers: 3-4 months after planting

For Cut flower-, the spikes are to be cut when the lower most 1-2 florets have
opened. Immediately after cutting the spike the base of spikes are immediately
placed in a bucket full of water.- After the harvesting of flowers, flowers are
placed in shade in wet cotton cloth or in a gunny bag.

Yield: Bulb once planted gives the commercial yield upto 3 year, 7-8 lack
spikes/ ha or 7-7.5 ton loose flower. (For preaparation of Veni, Garlands,
Gajara)

PLANT PROTECTION
Pests :
Thrips: Spray Dimethoate @ 1.5 ml/lit or Fipronil 5 % SC @ 1.5 ml/ l
Aphids: Spary Dimethoate @ 1.5 ml/lit or Imidacloprid @ 1.5ml/l
Root knot nematode: Apply Carbofuran 3 G 1 g/plant near the root zone and
irrigate immediately to control nematode infestation.
Diseases :
Basal rot (or) stem rot: Soil drenching with Carbofuran @ 0.1 %

Bulb of Tuberose

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 B. MEDICINAL CROPS

1) PERIWINKLE
Botanical name : Catharanthus roseus
Family : Apocyanaceae
Origin : West indies
Chromosome no. (2n) : 16
Plant part used : Leaves, seeds, roots, flowers
Importance:
Periwinkle is a perennial ornamental herb found throughout India on
waste lands and sandy tracts. It has medicinal importance owing to the
presence of indole alkaloids raubasin (ajmalicine) and serpentine in its root
which have anti-fibrillic and hypertensive properties.
The leaves contain two alkaloids viz., Vinblastine and Vincristine
which form the constituents of patented cancer drugs and vincristine alkaloids
are distributed in different parts of the plant but the roots contain the maximum
(0.75 t to 1.20%) followed by the leaf (0.60 to 0.65%).
Uses
1. Leaves used in curing blood cancer
2. Leaves useful in treating menstrual disorders, diabetes mellitus.
3. Decoction of leaves & roots active on hypertension.
4. Roots control high blood pressure.
Botany:
It is a perennial herb, often grows in garden for its pink and white
flowers which bloom throughout the year.It bears flexible long branches with
simple opposite leaves. Flowers 2-3 in cymes, axillary and terminal clusters.
Fruit is a cylindrical follicle with many black seeds.
Varieties:
There are no recognized varieties but there are three local types based
on the colour of the flowers viz., alba with white flowers roseus with pink rose
coloured flowers and ocillata with white flowers having rose purple spot in
the center are recognized.
Climate and Soil:
The cosmopolitan distribution of the plant shows that it has no specific
climatic requirements. Its natural environments are, however, tropical and
sub- tropical areas. A well distributed rainfall of 100 cm or more is considered
ideal for raising it as commercial crop under rainfed conditions.

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 Similarly, it grows on any type of soil except those which are highly
alkaline or waterlogged. It grows wild in coastal area. Light sandy soils rich
in humus are preferred for large scale cultivation of the plant. pH should be
upto 8.5.
Propagation:
Method of propagation: Seeds
Fresh seeds are preferable as they lose viability on long storage.
1. Direct sowing method
About 2 to 3 kg seed is required for raising one hectare.
The seeds are mixed with sand about 10 times its weight for even distribution
and are sown during beginning of monsoon.
2. Seedling Transplanting method
Seed rate: 500 grams/ hectare.
The seeds are sown in well prepared beds during March or April in rows about
1.5 cm deep, covered with light soil and leaf mould mixture and are watered
to keep the bed moist. In about 10 days time the seeds germinate and in 2
months time (height 6-7 cm ) they become ready for transplanting. 200 square
meters bed is required for producing seedlings for one hectare.
Planting: Seedling are transplanted at a spacing of 45 cm x 30 cm or 45 cm x
45 cm during monsoon season.
Weeding: The crop requires two weedings, the first one about 60 days after
sowing or transplanting and the second one in another 60 days.
Irrigation: The plant do not require much water as they have drought resistant
capacity. In areas, where rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, no
irrigation is required, but in areas where monsoon is restricted, 4 to 5
irrigations are required during the life of the plant to get good yield.
Manuring: They are not generally manured, however, for getting a good yield
of both leaves and roots, farm yard manure at about 15 tonnes per ha should
be applied and a fertilizer mixture of N (20 Kg), P205 (40 Kg) and K2O
(40Kg) per hectare is applied as a basal dose and 6 kg N is further drilled in
rows in 3 spits at thinning, 90days and 120 days after planting.
Harvesting: The crop becomes ready for harvest of roots after one year. But
two leaf strippings can be taken, the first one after 6 months and the second
after 9 months of sowing. Third stripping of leaves can also be taken when the
whole plant is harvested after one year. For seed collection, matured fruits are
hand picked and dried in shade and threshed lightly. This method ensures
mature seeds with even germination. But the usual practice is to uproot the

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

plants, dry them in shade and thereafter thresh lightly for seeds. The seeds
obtained by this method, are not uniform and their germination is poor.
For harvesting of roots, the crop is cut about 7.5 cm above the ground and
dried for stems, leaves and seeds and then the whole field is copiously irrigated
and ploughed and the roots are collected. The roots are washed well and dried
in shade and later made into bundles for marketing.
Yield: Under rainfed conditions about 0.75 tonne of roots, 1.0 tonne of stems
and 2 tonnes of leaves (all dry basis) may be obtained from one hectare. But
under irrigated conditions, 1.5 tonnes each of roots and stems and 3 tonnes of
leaves per ha can be obtained.

2) ISABGOL
Botanical name : Plantago ovata
Family : Plantaginaceae
Origin : West indies
Chromosome no. (2n) : 28
Plant part used : Seeds and husks

Introduction:
Isagbol or Psyllium is important for its seed and husk which have been
used in the indigenous medicine for many countries. The husk yields a
colloidal mucilage consisting mainly of xylose, arabinose and galacturonic
acid.
Botany:
It is a stemless annual herb often attaining a height of 30 - 40 cm, with
rosette leaves. The plant bears erect ovoid or cylindrical spike with minute
white flowers about 45 - 68 protogynous. Fruit is capsule, each seed is encased
in a thin, white, translucent membrane, the husk, which is odourless and
tasteless. Climate and soil:
It requires cool and dry weather and hence in India, the crop is grown
in winter i.e. from November - December to March-April. Humid weather at
maturity results in shattering of seeds. A light well drained sandy loam to rich
loamy soil with a pH of 7 - 8 is ideal.
Uses
1. It has the property of absorbing and retaining water (40-90%) and
therefore it works as an anti- diarrhoea drug.
2. The seed has also cooling and demulcent effect and is used in ayurvedic,
unani and allopathic medicines.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 3. It is beneficial in cronic dysenteries of amoebic and bacillary origin,
constipation, also control inflammatory condition of mucocus
membrane of gastro intenstinal and urinary tracts.
4. Used as stabilizer in ice cream, as ingredient in chocolates & base for
cosmetics.
Varieties:
Gujarat Agricultural University has released two improved varieties
viz., Gujarat Isabgol - 1 and Gujarat Isabgol -2 which have a yield potential of
800 -900 kg and 1000 kg per ha respectively. Niharika, IR-89, RRL-011, Sel-
10 etc.
Climate and Soil:
Require cool & dry weather with bright sunshine during its growth
period hence grow in winter. Strong wind, humid weather 7 rainfall at maturity
result in shettering of seeds.
Light, well drained sandy loam to loamy soil rich in organic matter with
pH of 7.08.5 is ideal.
Preparation of land:
Field must be free of weeds and clods and should have fine tilth for
good germination.The land is laid into flat beds of convenient sizes i.e. 1.0 m
x 3.0 m or 2.5 m x 2.5 m
Sowing:
Fresh seeds from the preceding crop season should be sown for getting
high per cent germination. Sowing is done inNov.-Dec. The seed rate varies
from 4 - 5 kg and is sown after pretreatment with thiram @ 3 g per kg of seed
to protect the seedlings from the possible damage of damping off. The seeds,
being small and light are mixed with sufficient quantity of fine sand before
sowing. The seeds are sown broadcast and are swept lightly with a broom in
one direction to cover them with some soil. Light irrigation will give to
facilitate germination. Seed germinate 6-7 days after sowing.
Weeding : Timely weeding is important to encourage good growth of the
plants. After 20-25 days of sowing, first weeding is done and 2-3 weeding are
required within 2 months of sowing.
Manuring: 25 kg N/ha and 25 kg P/ha are applied as basal dose at the last
Ploughing and another dose of 25 kg N/ha is top dressed 30 days after sowing.
Irrigation: Immediately after sowing light irrigation is essential. First
irrigation should be given with light flow of water. The seeds normally
germinate in 6 - 7 days.If the germination is poor, second irrigation may be

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

given. Later on, irrigations are given as and when necessary.Last irrigation
should be given at the time when maximum number of spike have reached the
milk stage.
Harvesting and processing:
The crop will be ready in about 110-130 days after sowing. When mature, the
crop turns yellowish and the spike turns brownish. The seeds are shed when
the spikes are pressed even slightly. At the time of harvest, the atmosphere
must be dry and there should not be any moisture on the plant. The plants are
normally cut at the ground level or are uprooted if the soil is loose textured.
The harvested plants are threshed and winnowed, and the seeds repeatedly
sifted until clean. The seeds may be marketed whole or the husk may be sold
separately. Seeds are fed to a series of shellers, in each sheller the grinding
pressure is so adjusted to remove only the husk. This is separated by fans and
sieves at each sheller and the ungrounded material is sent to the next sheller.
The husk: seed ratio is 25:75 by weight. The average yield is about 500-
1000kg/ha

3) ASPARAGUS
Botanical name : Asparagus officinalis
Family : Asparagaceae
Origin : South Africa
2n : 20
Plant part used : Tuberous Root
Medicinal use of Asparagus:
Asparagus has been cultivated for over 2,000 years as a vegetable and
medicinal herb. Both the roots and the shoots can be used medicinally,
1. They have a restorative and cleansing effect on the bowels, kidneys and
liver.
2. The plant is antispasmodic, aperient, cardiac, demulcent, diaphoretic,
diuretic, sedative and tonic. The freshly expressed juice is used.
3. The root is diaphoretic, strongly diuretic and laxative.
4. An infusion is used in the treatment of jaundice and congestive torpor of
the liver.
5. The strongly diuretic action of the roots make it useful in the treatment of
a variety of urinary problems including cystitis.
6. It is also used in the treatment of cancer.
7. The roots are said to be able to lower blood pressure.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

8. The roots are harvested in late spring, after the shoots have been cut as a
food crop, and are dried for later use.
9. The seeds possess antibiotic activity. Another report says that the plant
contains asparagusic acid which is nematocidal and is used in the
treatment of schistosomiasis.
Soil and Climate
Plant usually grows in a variety of soils including medium black having pH 7-
8. It can be easily grown in sub-tropical & Sub-temperate agro-climatic
regions up to 1400 m.
Land Preparation
The soil is given 20-30 cm deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings after
few days. Grasses and weeds are removed. The land is properly levelled and
40-45 cms broad ridges are prepared for plantation, leaving 15-20 cms furrow
space as a channel for irrigation.
Method of propagation: Seeds, Division
1. Seed propagation
Seed - pre-soak for 12 hours in warm water and then sow in spring or as soon
as the seed is ripe in early autumn in a greenhouse. It usually germinates in 3
- 6 weeks at 25oC.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to
handle and grow them on in a sunny position in the greenhouse for their first
winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early
summer.
2. Vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation is by division of rhizomatous disc present at the base
of the aerial stem. The rhizomatous disc develops several vegetative buds
around the aerial shoots. The disc is divided in such a way that each piece
possessed at least two buds along with 2-3 tuberous roots. These pieces are
planted conversing the buds with 1 cm of soil followed by irrigation. The
sprouting commenced in 8-10 days after plantation.
Weeding
Two weedings are carried out during the rainy months, thereafter one in next
2-3 months.
Irrigation:
Irrigation is given after the rainy season is over, at the rate of two irrigations
in winter season and one per month in summer season.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Manures and Fertilisers :
The medicinal plants have to be grown without chemical fertilizers and use of
pesticides. Organic manures like, Farm Yard Manure (FYM), Vermi-
Compost, Green Manure etc. may be used as per requirement of the species.
Harvesting/Post Harvesting
The plant are harvested after 40 months in winter. The roots are dugout
collected and cleared. The roots are peeled off with the help of sharp knife
immediately after harvesting. It is observed that in case the roots are not peeled
off within a few days, it is a bit difficult to remove the skin as such. In such a
condition the roots are kept in boiling water for about 10 minutes, followed by
cold-water treatment to facilitate peeling. After removing the skin, it is cut
transversely into small pieces and dried in shade.
Yield
Estimate yield of 5-7 tons/hectare dry roots is reported Precaution may be
taken for rodents and rats which occasionally eat tender shoots.

4) COSTUS
Botanical name : Saussurea costus
Family : Compositae
Origin : India
2n :18
Plant part used : Roots

Medicinal use of Costus:

Roots contain Diosgenin and steroidal sapogenins
1. Costus is a commonly used medicinal herb in China and is considered to
be one of their 50 fundamental herbs.
2. It is also used in Ayurvedic medicine where it is valued mainly for its tonic,
stimulant and antiseptic properties.
3. It is said to be aphrodisiac and to be able to prevent the hair turning grey.
4. The root is anodyne, antibacterial, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
carminative, skin, stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vermifuge.
5. It is used internally in the treatment of abdominal distension and pain, chest
pains due to liver problems and jaundice, gall bladder pain, constipation
associated with energy stagnation, and asthma.
6. The root is harvested in the autumn or spring and either dried for later use
or decocted for the essential oil. It is normally used with other herbs.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 7. The root is also used in Tibetan medicine where it is considered to have an
acrid, sweet and bitter taste with a neutral potency.
8. It is used in the treatment of swelling and fullness of the stomach, blockage
and irregular menses, pulmonary disorders, difficulty in swallowing and
rotting/wasting of muscle tissues. An oil from the root is very beneficial
in the treatment of rheumatism.
9. An essential oil obtained from the roots is used medicinally, in perfumery,
incenses and as a hair rinse when it is said to darken grey hair.
10. It has a strong lingering scent. The smell is at first like violets, but as it
ages it can become more fur-like or eventually become unpleasantly goat-
like.
11. The roots are cut into lengths about 8cm long and then dried before being
exported. Smaller pieces of the root are ground into a powder and then
used to make incense sticks.
12. The longer clean pieces are cut into very thin slices and then burnt at
shrines or used as a tonic in hot baths.
Climate:
A casual in irrigated areas, 2000 - 3300 metres from Pakistan to Himachel
Pradesh. Usually found in moist shady situations in Kashmir, sometimes
forming the undergrowth in birch forests. . The plant grows in temperate and
sub-alpine region. High humidity and minimum temperature 13 o C is best for
cultivation.
Soil: Sandy textured loam soil, rich in moisture and organic carbon is best for
germination as well as better survival of seedlings and productivity. pH- 5.7-
7.5
Propagation: Seeds, stem cutting and rhizomes
Commercially it is being propagated only through rhizomes cuttings.
Selection of rhizomes for planting is however important. The rhizomes have
a number of nipple shaped buds most of them being concentrated around the
stem scar and the tips. The formation of buds on the rhizomes is poor during
April. Cuttings of rhizome pieces weighing around 40 g should be selected.
Seed rate: 2000-2400 kg Rhizomes per ha
Seed: Suggest sowing the seed in a cold frame in the spring. Surface sow, or
only just cover the seed, and make sure that the compost does not dry out.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to
handle and grow them on in the greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Plant them out in late spring after the last expected frosts. Division in spring
might be possible.
Planting - The seeds are sown in April or May in nursery. When the seedlings
are 15 cm long, it is transplanted in field. Ridges and Furrow
Spacing when rhizomes used: 50 x50 cm with 8-10 cm sowing depth
Irrigation - The crop requires 5-6 irrigations between May-September. The
land is irrigated when seeds are sprouting.
Manures, Fertilisers: -15 tonnes/ ha FYM
45:30:30 NPK kg/ha in two spit doses
Irrigation: 2-3 irrigation per month
Harvesting/Post-Harvesting: Usually in 2-3 years well grown mature root
tubers are developed. However, yield is obtained form 3 years old crop. Root
is harvested in early September or October or early spring. The roots are
cleaned with water and dried for processing.
Yield : After 2-3 years of planting about 200-300 kg. of dry tuberous roots per
hectare can be obtained (28-30 tonnes fresh rhizomes per ha.).

5) CINNAMON
Botanical Name : Cinnamomum verum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Family : Lauraceae
Origin : Sri Lanka and Malabar
Coast of India
Chromo. no. (2n) : 24
Plant Part use :Bark and Leaves
Old Known Spice

Uses: Leaves of cinnamon also yield oil,

main constituent of which is Eugenol,
cinnamaldehyde, cinnamate, cinnamic acid.
The oil possesses strong odour. Used for
digestive system, diabetes, loss of appetite, bronchitis, fungal infections.
Soil:
The quality of the bark is greatly influenced by soil, Well-drained, . Sandy
loam soil rich in humus content is most suitable. Red dark brown soils free
from rock, gravel are also good for cinnamon cultivation.
Climate:
Cinnamon requires hot and humid climate. Average temperature of 27°C are
ideal.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Varieties
• Navashree - It has high and stable regeneration capacity (6-7
shoots/year), high yield
• Nithyashree.
• Konkan Tej: Released by BSKKV Dapoli in 1992.
Variety has high volatile oil in bark (3.2%)
Sweet Cinnamon and Honey Cinnamon.
Propagation: Cinnamon is commonly propagated through seed, cuttings
and air Layers. Cinnamon flowers in January and fruits ripen during June-
August. The fully ripe fruits are either picked up from the tree or fallen ones
are collected from the ground. Seeds are. removed from fruits, washed free of
pulp and sown without much delay, as the seeds have a low viability. The
seeds are sown in sand beds or polythene bags .The seeds germinate within
10-20 days. The seedlings require artificial shading till they become 6 months
old.
Planting: Pits of 50 cm are dug at a spacing of 3 x 3 m. They are filled with
compost and-topsoil before planting. Cinnamon is planted during June-July to
take advantage of monsoon for the establishment of seedlings. One-year old
seedlings are planted. Partial shade in the initial years is advantageous for
healthy and rapid growth of plants.
Manuring and Fertilization:
1st year: 20 g N, 18 g P205, and 25 g K20/seedling.
Three years after planting: 30 kg F.Y.M., 4 kg neem cake, 150 g N, 75 g P205
and 150 g K2O per plant.
The fertilizers are applied in two doses during first week of September and in
March.
Training and Pruning:
When the seedlings become 2-3 years old, the shoot is cut back to a height of
30 cm from ground level to produce side shoots. This is called 'Coppicing'.
Harvesting:
Harvesting is done 2- 3 year after planting. Ideal time for harvesting shoots is
from September to November. Side shoots having finger thickness and
uniform brown colour are ideal for bark extraction. A 'test cut' can be made on
the stem with a sharp knife to judge the suitability of time of peeling. If the
bark separates easily, the cutting can be commenced immediately. The stems
of 2-3 cm diameter thickness and 1.0-1.25m length are cut close to the ground.
Harvested shoots are bundled together and transported to the pack house for

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

further post harvest procedures. Peeling is done with a small knife having a
round edge at the end. Harvesting and Peeling should be done on same day.
Cut stem earthen up with soil to encourage growth of new shoot.
Yield:
a. 3-4 year and onwards' - 62 to 125 kg quills/ha.
b.10-11 year and onwards - 225 to 300 kg quills/ha.
1 ton /ha leaves which yield 1 to 1.25 kg of oil are obtained per year.

6) ALOE
Botanical Name : Aloe vera or A. barbadensis
Family : Liliaceae
Origin : Eastern and South Africa
Chrom. no. (2n) :14
Plant Part use : Leaves, roots, seeds
Uses:
1. Anthelmintic-used for helminthiases in
children and used as purgative.
2. Used for local applications in painful inflammations, chronic ulcers and
ophthalmic
3. Juice is used for flatulence, constipation, abdominal tumors, piles,
sciatica, lumbago
4. Used for curing skin diseasesand uterus disorders.
Soil: Aloe is a hardy crop which can be grown on wide variety of soils. It
growth well in sandy coastal and loamy soils with pH up to 8.5 water logged,
problematic soils not suitable. Climate: Wide adaptability, hence cultivation
is possible throughout the country and prefers dessert and dry situations.
Grown in hot and dry climate with 35-40 cm annual rainfall.
Varieties: IC- 111266, IC-111267, IC-111271, IC-111273
Propagation: Root suckers or rhizome cuttings
Planting: 15-18 cm long root suckers, rhizome cuttings are planted with a
spacing of 60 x 30 cm or 60 x 45 cm and buried 2/3 portion under the ground.
To get seedlings a nursery may also be raised through seeds. One year old
seedlings may be planted in the field.
Planting: The field should be ploughed 3-4 times and soil is brought to fine
tilth. 15-20 tonnes of FYM is added to the field at the time of land preparation.
15-18 cm long root suckers or rhizome cutting are planted in flat beds or ridge

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

and furrows with a spacing of 60x30cm or 60x45 cm. during planting the 2/3rd
portion of suckers/cutting is buried in the soil.
Manuring and Fertilization:
50 g N, 25 g P205, and 25 g K20 /ha.
Irrigation: Very hardy crop resistant to drought. Immediately after planting
needs one irrigation and 4-5 irrigations are given during summer at 15-20 days
interval.
Harvesting: leaves are cut manual with sickle or plant are harvested with
tractor sfter 812 months after planting. Commertial yield are obtained from
second year up to five years.
Yield: Fresh leaves: 10,000-12,000 kg/ha.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 C. AROMATIC CROPS
1) LEMON GRASS
Botanical name : Cymbopogon flexuosus
Family : Graminae
Origin : India
Chrom. No. (2n) : 20
Plant part use : Leaves

Three types of lemon grasses viz.

1. East Indian lemongrass (C flexuosus): C. flexuosus grown commercially
in Kerala and nearby adjacent state, its oil is popularly known as "Cochin oil"
as it is shipped mainly through Cochin port. 90% oil is exported.
2. West Indian lemon grass (C. citrates)
cultivated in West Indies
3. Jammu lemongrass (C. pendulus)
India is annually producing nearly 1000 MT per year while the world demand
is much more. Annually, we are exporting lemon grass oil in a tube of about
Rs. 5 crores. Our country is facing a critical competition from Gautemaja in
the International market.
Uses of Lemon Grass:
1. The chief constituent of the oil is the citral. It is the starting material for
the preparation of important ionone viz. A - Ionone, used in flavors,
cosmetics and perfume and P - Ionone- used in the manufacture of
synthetic vitamin A.
2. Oil has bactericidal, insect repellent and medicinal uses.
3. The spent grass is a source of good cattie feed and can be converted into
good silage.
4. Spent grasses are also useful for the manufacture of card boards and
papers or as fuel.
5. In culinary flavouring in alcoholic & non-alcoholic beverages, frozen
dairy dessert, candy, baked foods, gelatins & pudding, meat & meat
products
6. Use in preparation of soap and detergent making
Climate and Soil:
Tropical plant. The plants are hardy and grow under a variety of conditions.
The most ideal conditions are a warm and humid climate with, plenty of
sunshine and rainfall of 250-280 cm per annum, uniformly distributed. Day
temp. 25-30oC is optimum for good oil production. Regarding the soil, it can

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

be grown from poor soils, in the hill slopes. Soil pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5 is
ideal. As it has good soil binding nature, they can be grown as vegetative cover
over naked, eroded slopes.
Varieties of Lemon Grass:
Varieties of East Indian lemongrass :
1.Sugandhi(OD-19 ): by The Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research
Station, Odakkali (Kerala), Odakkali, Kerala,
herbage yield: 50-55 t/ha, oil: 80-85kg/ha
oil recovery:1.2-1.5% citral content:80-85% suitable to all soil types &
climate
3. SD-68: by CIMAP, Lucknow
using ionising radiation oil yield:375kg/ha/year
Citral content: 90-92%
3. Pragati (LS-48): by CIMAP, Lucknow
Through clonal selection from OD-19 Oil contain 63-86% citral
4. Kavery,
5. Krishna
Varieties of Jammu lemongrass
1. RRL-16
2. Praman
3. VKP-25
4. Chirharit
Propagation: seeds, slips.
Slip propagation is better in Andhra Pradesh. Seed propagation covers larger
area.
a) Seed propagation: Nursery
Seeds are formed in November - December. Seeds are collected in January -
February. Seeds are sown at 10 kg per 25 cents nursery per ha. Nursery beds
are prepared and sowing is done during April - May. After sowing nursery
beds are lightly irrigated. Seedlings will be ready in 60-75 days when hey
attain 5-7 leaf stage and height of 12-15 cm.
b) Slips: Mature clump is divided. Slips are treated for rooting. Rooted slips
are used for propagation.
Field Preparations:
The land is cleared of the underground vegetations and pits of 5 cm cube are
made. Splits from old clumps can also be used for propagations.
Layout: Ridges & furrow

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Season: June-July
Spacing :60x45 cm.
Place 2-3 slips per hill
Manures and Fertilizers: 100:50:50 NPK kg/ha
Irrigation: only in low rainfall area one day interval upto one month after
planting and then 7-10 days interval
Harvesting :
Harvest 90 days after planting and subsequently it is harvested at 50-55 days
interval. The grass is cut 10 cm above the ground level and 5-6 cuttings can
be taken in a year. Depending upon the soil and climatic conditions, the crop
can be retained in like field for 5 to 6 years.
Average oil yield on 1st yr: 25 kg of oil /year /ha
on 2nd yr: 80 to 100 kg oil /year /ha
Rainfed condition: 80-100 kg of oil /year /ha
Irrigated condition; 150 -200 kg of oil /year /ha
Oil is extracted by steam distillation method
Oil constituents: Citral: 80-85%

2) CITRONELLA
B.N. : Java citronella : Cymbopogon winterianus
Ceylon citronella : Cymbopogon nardus
Family : Gramineae
Chrom. No. (2n) : 20
Plant part used : leaves

Uses :
1. Starting material for production of Geraniol & citronellal.
2. Perfumery, soap & cosmetics
3. Preparation of detergent, household cleaners, insecticide, polishes
4. In pharmaceuticals
5. In flavouring industries
6. As an ingredient in deodorants, mosquito repellent cream & allied
products.
7. Also spent grass in paper preparation & as fuel.
Soil:
Soils rich in humus having good water holding capacity and good drainage
sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 5.0-7.5 Alkaline water logged soils are
detrimental for crop growth.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Climate:
Humid climate with warm temperature with well distributed rainfall favours
growth of Citronella. Abundant sunlight well distributed rainfall of 200-250
cm with 75-90% RH. Under shade growth is poor.
Improved Varieties:
RRL JOR-3-1970: oil % - 46.2 %
IW 31243, IW 31245 (NBPGR, Delhi)-Java
CIMAP/Bio 13
Manjusha, Mandakini.
Propagation: Slips.
Due to irregularities in Meiosis, viable seeds are not formed. Therefore
citronella is propagating through slips, obtained by dividing healthy mature
clumps. Each slip should have 2-3 tillers. At the time of planting trim fibrous
roots and leaves. 0.05 ha of 1- 4 year old plantation is enough as planting
material i.e. slips for planting in 1 ha of main field.
Planting Time:
Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June - July
Spacing:
Transplanted on ridges and furrows.
60 x 90 cm (Plant population:18,000 plants/ha),
60 x 60 cm (Plant population: 28,000 plants/ha)
Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting
material get established. Earthing up: done up to 4 months
Manuring:
Recommended dose: 200:80:80kg NPK/ha per year
Usually 8-10 tons of compost mixed with 60 kg P205 and 50 kg K20 per hectare
before plantation. N should be applied in 4 split doses.
Irrigation:
For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently.
Irrigation interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for
good yield.
Harvesting:
Three cuttings may be obtained in the first year commencing 6 months after
planting. Leaf blades contain more oil than sheath and hence harvesting is
done 15-20 cm above the ground level.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Optimum oil yield is obtained when the sixth leaf is well developed. After 1
year the harvesting is needed at 2.5 months interval. Crop is economical for
4-5 years
Yield: a) Herbage yield
First year: 25-30 t/ha/year
Second year: 40-45 t/ha/year, b) Oil yield
First year: 200 - 300 kg/ha,
Second year: 320 - 450 kg/ha,
Oil constituent: Citronellal-32-45%, Geraniol-12-18%, citronellol-11-15%,
geranyl acetate-3-8% .

3) PALMAROSA
Botanical name : Cymbopogon martinii
Family : Gramineae
Origin : India
Chrom. No. (2n) : 20
Plant part used : Tender stem, leaves & flower stalk

Uses :
1. Essential oil from palmarosa is used to extract Geraniol.
2. Used for incenting soap, perfumes, toiletries and flavoring tobacco.
3. The oil impacts rose like aroma due to Geraniol which is a perfume
itself hence heavy demand.
4. It is also used as an adulterant in Turkish attar of roses.
Soil:
Fertile Soils rich in humus having good water holding capacity and good
drainage sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 6-8 Sensitive to water
stagnation.
Climate:
Hardy and drough resistant tropical plant. grow well in warm and humid area
receiving 100-150cm rainfall. Susceptible to frost and low temperature.
Ecposure to sunlight is essential. It does not perform well under shade
condition.
Improved Varieties:
IW31244, IW3244, IW 3629, RRL(B)-77 and RRL(B)71, Trishna, Jam Rosa
(RRL-82), Vaishnavi, CIM Harsha
Propagation: by seeds and rooted Slips. First a nursery is raised. Beds are
raised well prepared and well manured.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

a) By seeds:
Due to irregularities i n Meiosis, viable seeds are not formed. Therefore
citronella is propagating through slips, obtained by dividing healthy mature
clumps. Each slip should have 2-3 tillers. At the time of planting trim fibrous
roots and leaves. 0.05 ha of 1-4 year old plantation is enough as planting
material i.e. slips for planting in 1 ha of main field. Seeds @ 2.5 kg per ha is
sown at 15-20 cm spaced lines. Sowing is done during May-June. Nursery
beds are irrigated daily. Germination will be completed within 2 weeks and
seedlings ready in 30-40 days (15-20 cm height).
b) By Slips:
Slips: Slips are collected from elite clump. They are separated and planted
during April - May. Ready for transplanting after 3 months during June- July
or August -September.
Oil yield is higher with clonal propagation. Per cent of establishment is higher
with seedlings.
Planting Time: Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June - July
Spacing: Transplanted on ridges and furrows. Spacing: 60 x 45 cm 60x30cm
and 45 x 45cm
Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting
material get established.
Earthing up: done up to 4 months
Manuring: 10t/ha FYM
Recommended dose: 20:50:40kg NPK/ha per year- Basal
dose and 40 kg/ha N for Top dressing in 4 split doses.
Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently.
Irrigation interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for
good yield.
Harvesting: First harvest is taken in 6 months after planting. Leaf blades
contain more oil than sheath and hence harvesting is done 15-20 cm above the
ground level. Subsequently harvest the crop at 3-4 months interval. Yield
increase up to 4th year with an economical life is 8-10 years.
Yield : Oil yield : First year: 20 kg/ha,
Second year: 60 kg/ha
Oil constituent: Geraniol-90-5%,.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 4) OCIMUM
Botanical Name : Ocimum sanctum
Family : Labiatae
Origin : India
Chrom. No. (2n) : 24
Plant part used : Leaves, Seeds and roots
Tulsi leaves contain a bright yellow volatile oil which is useful against insects
and bacterial. The principle constituents of this oil are eugenol, eugenol
methyl ether and carvacrol. The oil is reported to possess anti-bacterial
properties and acts as an insecticide. It inhibits the in vitro growth of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus.
Uses :
1. Oil is used for flavouring food stuffs, bekary products, confectionary,
condiments and in toiletry products like mouth washed and dental
cream.
2. Anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal properties.
3. Aromatic carminative, antipyreo, expectorant, diaphoretic
4. Effective in viral encephalitis in children
5. Recognized as a febrifuge and antimalarial plant
6. Used in snake bite, mosquito bite, and scorpion sting.
7. Dropped into ear in ear ache and malarial fever.
8. Used in bronchitis, gastric disorders
9. Cures skin diseases and destroys intestinal worms.
10.Seeds used in disorders of genitourinary system, for treatment of
constipation and piles.
Soil: can grow in wide range of soil. From rich loam to poor laterite soil.
Fertile Soils rich in humus having good water holding capacity and good
drainage sandy loam should be referred. pH: 4.3-9.1.
Climate:Favourishes well under tropical and subtropical region with medium
rainfall and humid climate upto 1800 m above main sea level. Long day and
high temperature favors plant growth and higher yield. It can tolerate drought.

Types:
• Green type (Sri Tulsi)
• Purple type (Krishna Tulsi)
• Clove basil (Lavang Tulsi)

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Different Ocimum species from India. (A) Ocimum basilicum, (B) Ocimum
americanum, (C) Ocimum kilimandscharicum, (D) Ocimum africanum, (E) Ocimum
santum - Shri (Ram) tulsi, (F) Ocimum adscendens, (G) Ocimum santum - Krishna
tulsi, (H) Ocimum gratissimum - Lavang tulsi, (I) Ocimum viride
Improved Varieties: RRL-OC-9, RRL-OC-11, RRL-01
The Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu has done extensive crop
improvement programme in ocimum and evolved newer promising types,
which are now recommended for commercial cultivation. The varieties are:
O. americanum - RRL-02
O. viride - RRL-08
O. gratissimum - RRL-08
O. basilicum - RRL-07
O. basilicum - RRL-011
Synthesized Amphidiploid of Ocimum - RRL-015
Propagation: by seeds
Generally seeds are mixed sand (1:10 proportion) and are sown in March-
April in nursery on raised beds with seed rate 125-200 gm seeds/ha. Seed
germinate within 10 days and seedlings are ready for transplanting in 7 weeks
or at 4-5 leaf stage with height of 8-10cm.
Planting Time: Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June -
July

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Spacing: Transplanted on ridges and furrows. Spacing:60 x 45 cm 60x60cm
Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting
material get established.
Earthing up: done up to 4 months
Manuring: 10t/ha FYM, Recommended dose: 40:40:40kg
NPK/ha per year
Irrigation:
For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently. Irrigation interval of
15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for good yield.
Harvesting:
Harvesting is done when plant is in full bloom stage and lower leaves starts
turning yellow. Crop is harvested on bright sunny day by cutting he plants 15-
20 cm from ground level. First harvest at 85-100after planting and subsequent
harvests after 65-75 days intervals crops gives economical yields for 6-7 year.
Yield: 15-20 tonnes of herbage/ha, 65-70 kg of oil /ha, Whole herb contains
0.1 - 0.23% essential oil. Oil constituent: Chavicol-70-80%

5) MINT
B. N. : Mentha spp.
Family : Lamiaceae
Origin : North America
2n : 66, 72, 84, 120
Plant part used: Roots, Leaves
Uses :
1. The oil and its principle aroma compound menthol have cooling and
gastro-stimulant properties, for which it is used in pharmaceuticals in
pain balms, cough syrup, cough lozenges, tablets and oilment.
2. Oil enhances the shelf life of edible products and grains because of anti
microbial property of menthol.
3. Mint oil is extensively used in flouring toothpastes, candies, beverages,
confectioners, chewing gums, pan parag, mouth washes and betal
related products.
4. Mints are also used in shaving creams, tobacco, cigarettes, aerosols,
polishes hair lostions.
5. Mint oil is used as a soothing ingredient in cosmetics, colognes,
deodorants, aftershave lotion, perfume bases, etc.
6. Spent grass is used as a manure or mulch and also utilized in making
paper boards and paper.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Soil: Well drained, deep, Fertile Soils rich in humus having good water
holding capacity. Sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 6.0-7.5. since it is
shallow feeder can not withstand the water stagnation.
Climate: Long day, temperature, annual crops grown upto 1000 m elevation
in subtropical region of North India. 1000-1200 mm rainfall well distributed
all aroung the growing season
with bright sunshine during harvest is ideal for higher herbage and oil yield.
Shade and frost are unsuitable for mint.
Improved Varieties: Kosi, RRL-118/3, Himalaya, Saksham, Kushal, Gomati.
Japanese mint – MAS-1, MA-2, CIMAP/Hybrid-77, Shivalik (oil has high
menthol content-75-80%) and EC-41911
Spear mint – MSS-1, MSS-5 and Punjab Spearmint-1
Bergamot mint – Kiran
Pepper mint - Kukrail
Propagation: by stolons/suckers
Commertial propagation is clonally by stolon/suckers. 400-500 kg fresh juicy
stolon/suckers from 0.1 ha healthy, vigorous plantation are enough as a
planting material for 1.0 ha area.
Planting Time: Mid January- early February .
Stolon of 6-10 cm length with 2-4 growing points formed during winter are
planted either in flat beds or on ridges and furrow layout at 2 cm depth at
40x10 cm, 45x15 cm spacing. Hey should be dipped in 0.1% Captan or
Bavistin solution for 2 minutes. A day temperature of 20-25o C and light
showers favours rapid growth.
Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting
material get established., Earthing up: done up to 4 months
Manuring: 20t/ha FYM,
Recommended dose: 50:75:37kg NPK/ha per year: Basal dose. Remaining
75kg N as top dressing dose splits into 3 doses.
Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently.
Irrigation interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for
good yield.
Harvesting: Harvesting is done at flowering stage on dry sunny days. First
harvesting is done after months with appearance of flowers and yellowing of
lower leaves. It should be done the onset of monsoon. Subsequent 2 harvests
are made in Sept. an Nov. or Dec. The crop cut 5-10 cm

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

above the ground with sharp sickle. Harvesting on cloudy or rainy day
deceases menthol content in its oil significantly.
Yield: 25-30 tonnes of herbage/ha per year.
150-200 kg of oil /ha. Oil constituent: Menthol-70-80%

6) GERANIUM
Botanical Name : Pelargonium graveolens
Family : Geraniaceae
Origin : South Africa
2n : 22, 44, 66 & 88
Plant part : Terminal stem (with 6-12 leave)
> Chief constituents are Geraniol (68-75%)
and citronellol (23-24%)
> Oil demand is 40-50 tonnes per year.
> Internal production is only 20 tonnes. So, India import geranium oil at
higher cost.
Uses:
• Widely used in perfumery and cosmetic industries due to its agreeable
and very profound rose like odour.
• In expensive soaps, perfumes.
• Used for production of Rhodinol which forms part of most high grade
perfumes. Tannins obtained as a byproduct from stems and leaves after
extraction of oil.
Types of geranium
1. Rose geranium:
2. Ornamental geranium: only use as ornamental plant
In rose geranium two types
1. Algerian or Tunician:
Produce dark pink flower Not suitable for wet soil Grown in Nilgiri hills
2.Bourbon or Reunion:
Produce light pink colour flower Suitable for wet soil Oil quality is superior.
Grown in Nilgiri and Annamallai hills
Varieties: Kodaikonal-1, Hemanti, Kunti, IIHR-8, Egyptian, etc.
Soil: Well drained, deep porous, slighly calcareous Good drainage. pH: 5.5-7.0
Climate : mild climate. Opt. Temp: 20-250C. Resistant to drought.
Susceptible to frost.
Propagation: Terminal Stem cutting. Period : November

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Land preparation: Crop stand for 3-10 yrs so land is prepared thoroughly.
Layout: Ridges and Furrow Spacing: 60 x 60 cm Period June- July / Dec.- Jan.
30,000 cutting / ha is needed
In close planting: 45 x45 cm
Maintained Plant Population: 57,000/ha gives higher herbage yield
Manuring: farm yard manure at about 10-20 tonnes per ha 40-60 Kg : N, P205
and K2O per hectare as basal dose 200 kg N: in 6 split doses for top working
Irrigation: weekly interval
Harvesting : First harvest: 4-6 months after planting
Maturity indices:
• Appearance of flowers
• Leaves turn light green in colour with lower leaves turning yellow
• Lemon like odour of leaves changes to that of rose.
Harvesting once in 3-4 months
Yield: 20-30 tonnes /ha: Herbage yield 20-30 kg/ ha: Oil yield

6) VETIVER
Botanical Name : Vetiveria zizanioides
Family : Gramineae
Origin : India & Sri Lanka
Chrom. No. (2n) : 20
Plant part used : Roots
Contain : Vetiver oil
Uses:
• Vetiver oil is a perfume by itself.
• In expensive soaps, perfumes.
• Used in perfumes, soaps, attars, and skin care products.
• Tobacco, pan masala and cold beverage industries.
• Roots used with cloth in cupboard to repel insect
• Roots are cooling, bitter, stomachic, stimulate the immune system,
relieve headache, burning sensation, ulcers and blood diseases.
• Soil and water errosion
• Dry roots: mats, mattresses, fans, screens, pillows, baskets, bags etc
articles
• leaves : fodder and bedding for horses and cattles, substrate for
mushroom cultivation, composting, mulching

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Soil: It withstand under prolong dry spell and water stagnation. Loose well
drained sandy loam should be preferred. pH: 6-8. Compact heavy soil restrict
root growth and harvest off roots is difficult..
Climate: Long day with plenty of sunlight. It prefer warm and humid area.
Cultivated in 60-400cm in South India as well as in Bharatpur area in
Rajasthan receiving scanty rain. It does not perform well under shade
condition.
Improved Varieties:
1. Seeding type: growth in North India, set seed, Having superior oil
aroma Eg. Akhila, Bharatpur, Musanagar, Dharini, Gulabi, Khesai
2. Non-seeding type: in South India, do not set seed, more root and oil
yield. Eg. Nilambur, ODV-3, Hybrid-7, Hybrid-8, CIMAP/KS-2, Sugandha,
KH-8, KH-40
Propagation: tillers and slips
Tillers take long time, hence slips are preferred. Collect slips from previous
crop with rhizome portion intact having 15-20 cm aerial portion. Seeds take
long time and having dormancy of 3 months. Seeds propagation is limited to
breeding purpose only due to heterozygous nature hence slips are preferred.
Planting Time: Onset of monsoon or at the middle of rainy season i.e. June -
July
Spacing: Transplanted on ridges and furrows. Plant 2-3slips per hill
Spacing:22.5x 22.5 cm (Plat population2-2.5 lack /ha), 60x25cm (Plant
population 60000/ha)
Weeding: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting
material get established.
Earthing up: done up to 4 months
Manuring:10t/ha FYM
Recommended dose: 80:50:50kg NPK/ha per year- Basal dose and
N in 4 split doses.
Irrigation: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently.
Irrigation interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in summer is required for
good yield.
Harvesting: Roots ready for harsting 16-18 months after planting.
Maturity indices:
1. Roots should expose a hard surface when the skin is peeled off.
2. They should be thick hard long and wiry
3. Should give bitter taste when chewed

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Oil content and yield are less during rainy season as the oil is diffused into
soil. Harvesting roots during dry period is more preferable.
Above ground portions are cut to 15-20 above the ground. Clump are
uprooted by digging forks or by disc plough. Soil I dug up to 30-40am to get
50% roots. Clumps are then shade dried for 7-10 days to reduce moisture
content, beaten to remove adhering soil and roots are separated from the stem
portion with sharp knife. Clean the roots thoroughly in running water and send
for distillation.
Yield :5-6 tonnes fresh roots per ha.
Oil yield:15-20 kg/ha, and 1-105% oil on dry weight basis.
Oil constituent: Veteverol: 65-75 %

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 PROCESSING AND VALUE ADDITION IN
ORNAMENTAL CROPS

A) DRY FLOWERS
Definition : 'Dry flowers' refer to
dried or dehydrated flowers or plant
part or botanicals (roots, leaves, stem,
bark or whole plant) that can be used
for ornamental purposes. Dried
flowers are also known as everlasting
flowers or dehydrated flowers.

Economic importance:
• The dry flower industry is a Rs. 100 crore industry in India and such dry
decorative materials are globally accepted as natural, eco-friendly, long
lasting and inexpensive.
• India is one of the major exporters of dried flowers to the tune of 5%
world trade in dry flowers. This industry is growing at 15% annual
growth rate.
• Easy and year-round availability of a wide range of raw materials from
forests and availability of manpower for labour intensive craft making
are the reasons for development of dry flower industry in India.
• This industry provides direct employment to around 15,000 people and
indirect employment to around 60,000 people.
The Indian dried flower export market is classified into four main
product segments as detailed below.
1. Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk.
2. Potpourri
3. Arrangements
4. Floral handicrafts
Tips for collecting plant materials for dry flower making
• Avoid collecting plants when they are wet or moist from dew.
• Use a sharp knife or pruning shears to cut flowers and plant materials.
• Select plant materials that are without insect or disease problems.
• Place stems in water while harvesting to prevent wilting. Some flowers
may hold coluor better if allowed to stand in water for a few hours.
• Start the drying process as soon as possible after cutting.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Processes in dry flower making
A) DRYING
i. Air drying
Tie the flowers in loose bunches and hang upside down until they are dry in a
room with good ventilation and darkness. It is the ideal method for seedpods,
grasses and many flowers having more cellulose material. Crisp textured
flowers like Helipterum, Helichrysum and Limonium could easily be dried
either by hanging or positioning them erect in containers for 1-2 weeks.
Gomphrena flowers from half to full bloom maturity take 7-9 days for air
drying and roses take 5-10 days.
Acacia, amaranths, castor flowers, citrus leaves, cockscomb, corn flower,
fennel, fern, golden rod, gypsophila, grasses, herbs, ear heads of wheat, oat
and rye, hydrangea, lavender, protea, marigold, poppy seed pods, physalis,
peppers, roses, statice, thistle, yarrow and yucca can be dried by this method.
ii. Sun drying
Plant material is embedded in drying medium (sand) in a container and
exposed to the sun daily to facilitate rapid dehydration. In India, open sun
drying is followed for drying many flowers. Flowers like small zinnias,
marigolds, pansies, and pompon chrysanthemum embedded in sand upside
down fashion and kept in the Sun would dry in a day or two. For Gomphrena,
Zinnia and French marigold it would take 3-4 days. Open sun drying is
followed for corn flowers, custard apple (small), Casuarina pods, mini
coconut, eucalyptus, evergreen cones, gomphrena, gourds, pomegranates,
poppy pods, lotus pods, typha heads, palm leaves, grass ear heads.
iii. Oven drying
Electrically operated hot air oven at a controlled temperature of 40-50 °C is
used for drying flowers in an embedded condition. Chrysanthemum, dombeya,
gerbera, and limonium take 48 hours at 45-49 °C, French marigold takes 72
hours, African marigold takes 96 hours and Nymphaea takes 120 hours for
drying. China aster, delphinium, rose buds and small flowers, and zinnia take
48 hours at 40 - 44 °C, medium and large roses take 72 hours and very large
flowers take 96 hours in 40 - 44 °C.
iv. Embedding method
Embedding the flowers in a granular, desiccating material is probably the most
commonly used method and many consider it the best all around method.
Several materials may be used, and they vary in cost and the results that they
produce. To cover a flower, put about an inch of desiccating material at the

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

bottom of the container; cut the flower stem to about a half an inch and stick
this into the center of the material at the bottom to hold the flower. Next, pour
the desiccating material along the perimeter of the container, away from the
flower, building up a continuous mound of about an inch. Then tap lightly on
the container and the material will move to the flower, not altering the form
of the petals. Continue adding the material, tapping on the container, etc. until
the flower is completely covered. Lastly, add an inch of the material above the
top of the flower. Sand, borax, silica gel, saw dust, perlite and combination of
these materials are used in this method. Sand and Borax methods though
relatively cheap, take longer time and labour for drying. Silica gel is the ideal
drying agent for delicate flowers such as roses, carnation, dahlia etc. It takes
less time and can be reused indefinitely after removal of moisture from the
silica gel crystals by drying them in an oven at 250 °F for 1 hour. French
marigold and zinnia (half to full bloom stage) take 4 days for drying by silica
gel embedding. Wiring of flowers before drying is essential for which 20-24
gauge florist wire is used. Chrysanthemum takes 5 days for drying in silica
gel. Ageratum, anemone, amaryllis, bleeding heart, baby's breath, bachelors
button, chrysanthemum, calendula, clematis, crocus, daffodil, dahlia, daisy,
delphinium, gloriosa lily, gaillardia, geranium, gladiolus, hyacinth, hibiscus,
lily, marigold, pansy, petunia, poinsettia, poppy, rose, salvia, snap dragon,
stock, tulip, verbena and zinnia are the flowers suitable for embedding method
of drying.
v. Microwave oven drying
Electronically produced microwaves liberate moisture from organic
substances by agitating the water molecule. It is fast and the results are good.
The flowers has to be embedded in silica gel medium in a microwave safe
open container along with a small cup with water nearby. Standing time of 10
minutes to few hours is needed after the drying for best results.
vi. Glycerin drying (glycerinization)
'Glycerinizing' is the term used in the ornamental cut flowers and foliage
industry to describe the treatment of fresh plant materials with a hygroscopic
(water attracting) chemical with the objective of retaining the suppleness of
the plant materials. Foliage treated with glycerin keeps almost indefinitely and
remains pliable. Glycerin preserves foliage by replacing the natural moisture
present in the leaf with a substance that maintains the leaf form, texture and
sometimes the colour. Fresh and fairly matured foliage is ideal for glycerining.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

About 50 per cent of most plant fresh weight is water, but brittleness is usually
only a problem if the water content falls below 10 per cent.
vii. Freeze drying
Freeze dried flowers are fresh flowers that have been specially dried to
preserve their natural shape, colour and beauty. Freeze drying is accomplished
by a process called sublimation. It requires a special freeze-drying machine. It
involves first freezing the flowers at (-) 10°C for at least 12 hours. A vacuum
pump slowly pulls the water out of the flowers as a vapor in one chamber, and
then the vapor condenses as ice in another chamber. Because of this process,
the shape and natural color of the flower is maintained. For Roses it takes 15
-17 days and for other flowers normally 10 - 12 days. Major flowers dried by
this method are roses, carnation, bridal bouquets etc.
viii. Press drying
Flowers and foliage are placed in-between two folds of newspaper sheets or
blotting paper and these sheets are kept one over other and corrugated boards
of the same size are placed in between the folded sheets so as to allow the
water vapour to escape. The whole bundle is then placed in the plant press, its
screws tightened. After 24 hours the bundle is removed to an electric hot air
oven for 24 hours at 40-45 °C. The following flowers and foliage are dried by
this method. Flowers: Candytuft, Chrysanthemum, Euphorbia, Lantana,
Larkspur, Mussaenda, Pansy, Pentas, Rose and Verbena, and Foliage: Thuja,
Taxodium, Marigold, Grevillea, Rose, Ferns, Casuarina, Silver oak and
Grasses

(B) Bleaching
Bleached ornamental plant material provides a striking contrast when
arranged with dried or dyed flowers. Bleaching also allows the use of dyes for
colouring. Oxidative (Hypochlorite, Chlorite and Peroxide) and reductive
bleaching chemicals (Sulphite and Borohydride) are used for bleaching
ornamental flowers and foliage. Profitability is depended upon attainment of
high white quality and on cost efficient utilization of expensive bleaching
chemicals. Sodium Chlorite is an excellent bleaching agent because it is
relatively selective for lignin without damaging fibre. Optimum pH (4.5-3.5)
and temperature (70 °C) is to be maintained for effective chlorite action.
Hydrogen Peroxide may be more practical for some plant materials because it
is less expensive.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 Sodium Chlorite 10 % solution at 70 °C is ideal for complete colour
removal of pink Gomphrena flowers in to pure white flowers at 7 hours of
immersion. Hydrogen peroxide 30% also takes 7 hours for complete colour
removal of Gomphrena.

(3) Dyeing
Though preserving flowers with their natural colour is more appealing, some
plant parts need artificial dyeing to improve the colour. Systemic dyes are
available for use. They are acidic-anionic dyes, which are combined with
water and glycerin to form a preservation solution that is absorbed by fresh
cut flowers and foliage through the stem of the plant. As the water evaporates,
it leaves behind the dye and glycerin for our desired colour. Normally 1.5 ml
to 5 ml dye/l of solution is prepared. Colour take and preservation will take 2-
8 days.

(B) FLORAL PATTER/ FLOWER RANGOLI

Floral pattern or 'rangoli' with flowers is a common practice in India.
Generally, the petals of different flowers are taken out and are arranged in
various patterns. Intact flowers of small-flowered chrysanthemums and other
flowers can also be used for this purpose.

(C) BOUQUETS
A flower bouquet is a collection of flowers in a creative arrangement. Flower
bouquets are often given for special occasions such as birthdays or

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

anniversaries. They are also used extensively in weddings. Traditionally the
bride will hold the bouquet, and the Maid of Honor will hold it during the
ceremony. A wedding bouquet of flowers or roses is an idea that was brought
up years ago and then became a tradition.
Line flowers
Line flowers are tall, and give your bouquet height, width, and a balanced
look. Branches and tall foliage can serve as line flowers. Most line flowers
have buds growing up a center stalk. Examples of line flowers are gladiolus,
liatris, snapdragon, delphinium, tuberose, veronica, curly willow, bells-of-
Ireland and stock.
Mass flowers
Mass flowers will give the bouquet weight or mass and are generally round
and full faced. Sometimes they are referred to as face flowers. They are usually
the focal point of color and interest in a bouquet. Most mass flowers come
with only one flower on the end of the stem. Examples of mass flowers are
rose, carnation, gerbera, sunflower, lily, daffodil, tulip, iris, freesia, zinnia,
alstroemeria, protea, chrysanthemum.
Types of bouquets
Generally bouquets are a circular in shape with the flowers tied together in a
specific structure. In recent days, various styles of bouquets have become
popular. Some types are described below.
Posy: A posy is a round bouquet. The stems may be removed and wired or left
as it is. The posy is round and small and can easily be held in one hand.
Crescent bouquet: A crescent bouquet can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
Both left and right side of the bouquet is seen to be flowing down. A
symmetrical crescent bouquet has
flowers and greenery arched at same lengths on both sides, whereas the
asymmetrical, has one side longer.
Arm bouquet: The arm bouquet is also referred to as presentation bouquet or
pageant bouquet. Flowers suitable for this bridal bouquet type often have long
stems, like calla lilies, orchids and also long-stemmed roses. The flowers are
left at its natural state, with a big ribbon tied to bundle them together. Popular
floral choices for arm bouquets are calla lilies, gladiolus, orchids, long-
stemmed roses, delphiniums, and larkspur.
Freeform/Contemporary bouquet: A freeform bouquet does not have a
specific or defined shape. In fact, most freeform bouquet has foliage coming
out of the bouquet. Tropical flowers are usually used for this type of wedding

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

bouquet. Uniquely shaped flowers are often used. It is popularly used for
elegant or contemporary style weddings.
Single stem bouquet: A single stem bouquet is for someone who loves
simplicity. This bridal bouquet type often has its flower stem wrapped or a big
ribbon tied to it to add more attention.
Pomander: A pomander is a ball of flowers carried by a ribbon attach to it.
Cascade bouquet: Also called a fountain or waterfall bouquet, this has an
abundance of blossoms at the top of the bouquet then tapers downwards with
flowing foliage or ribbons at the bottom.
Fan: This is simply a bouquet of flowers attached to a plastic fan. Popular in
the late eighties, they were embellished with carnations, baby's breath and
plenty of ribbon.
Hand-tied bouquet: Hand-tied bouquets give off a casual feel. A grouping of
flowers tied together with ribbon. It looks as if they were picked fresh right
out of the garden. This is perfect for casual or garden weddings.
Oval bouquet: This bouquet is a combination of both a cascade and a round.
Generally the bottom is narrower than the top, but the overall shape resembles
an oval. This can be used in almost any style wedding.
Heart bouquet:
A romantic, shaped bouquet featuring two full arched shapes at the top while
tapering down to a point at the bottom of the bouquet. Typically the traditional
shape, often seen at Valentine's Day, symbolizing love and romance.
Mixed flower bouquets: These can be made the same way as the rose
bouquet. Substitute smaller flowers for the rosebuds, and use larger flowers
towards the center of the bouquet.
Fruit bouquet: A fruit bouquet is a fruit arrangement in the form of bouquet.
The fruit is cut in the shape of flowers and leaves and are arranged in the
container with the help of sticks. A complete arrangement looks like a bouquet
of flowers. Fruit bouquets generally have seasonal themes, such as Christmas,
graduation, birthday, anniversary, housewarming and Valentine's Day.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 FLOWER ARRANGEMENT
Fower arrangement is an art of arranging flowers in different styles.
Principles of flower arrangement
• Emphasis / Focal point Balance • Rhythm
• Scale / Proportion • Harmony and Unity
Emphasis / Focal point
• Central portion of arrangement from where flowers and foliage appear
to be emerging.
• Larger and brighter flowers or flowers with unique shape are suitable
as focal points.
• Focal point draws attention of viewer.
• One focal point is enough for a small arrangement while 3 or more focal
points are important for a large one.
Balance
• A balanced arrangement has a distinct focal point.
• Balance may be symmetrical (geometrical) or asymmetrical.
Scale / Proportion
Achieved by scaling the flowers from the focal point i.e. the smallest buds are
placed farthest from the focal point.
Rhythm
• Rhythm is achieved through colour and gradation (size) of flowers
• The colour may be darkest at focal point and gradually lighter at the
rims.
Harmony and Unity
• Blending of all the components is called harmony
• It is created when all the parts of the design blend together
to form a single idea
• It is created by repetition of the components in the arrangements.

IKEBANA
Definition / Concept: Ikebana is the Japanese art of flower arrangement. It's
also known as the 'Eastern style of flower arrangement'. Ikebana is more than
simply putting flowers in a container. It is a disciplined art form in which the
arrangement is a living thing in which nature and humanity are brought
together.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

Ikebana = Ike+bana; Ike = to live, bana = flower; it signifies life and freshness
Ikebana is believed to have been introduced/ conceived by a Buddhist Monk
'Semmu'.

Principles
1. Spiritual basis of Ikebana:
2. Ikebana involves spiritual significance
3.Closely associated to all aspects of life
4. It is associated with the philosophy of developing closeness with nature.
5. One becomes quiet when one practices Ikebana.
6. One becomes more patient and tolerant of differences, not only in nature,
but also more generally in other people.
7. It helps to "live in the moment" and to appreciate things in nature that
previously had seemed insignificant.

Rules of construction of Ikebana

Its materials are living branches, leaves, grasses, and blossoms, anything can
be used and even a small weed can be given an important place in an
arrangement. Its heart is the beauty resulting from colour combinations,
natural shapes, graceful lines, and the meaning latent in the total form of the
arrangement.
The three main components of Ikebana: Heaven, Man and Earth.
In Ikebana empty space plays an essential part of the arrangement. The
elements placed asymmetrically, are given emphasis by the spaces.
Thus, the totality of a well-done arrangement brings about a state of serenity
and peace to the viewer.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 DISTILLATION OF ESSENTIAL OIL

1. WATER DISTILLATION
This is simple method in which plant material is distilled comes in direct
contact with boiling water in a distillation unit. This method is advantageous
for certain material when they are in powered form. But this method is not
good for material containing saponifiable or high boiling point constituents.
Delicate flowers such as roses and orange blossoms would clump
together when introduced to steam in the distillation process. The water
protects the extracted oil from overheating. The condensed liquids cool down
and separate from each other. The remaining water, which can sometimes be
fragrant, is referred to by several names including hydrolate, hydrosol, herbal
water, essential water, floral water, or herbal distillate.

Water distillation for essential oil extraction

2. STEAM DISTILLATION PROCESS

A large container called a Still, which is usually made of stainless steel,
containing the plant material has steam added to it. Through an inlet, steam is
injected through the plant material containing the desired oils, releasing the
plant's aromatic molecules and turning them into vapor. In this method steam
does not penetrate the cell membranes and the essential oil i vapouried only
after diffusing out as an aqueous solution through the cell membrane. The
vaporized plant compounds travel to the condensation flask or the Condenser.
Here, two separate pipes make it possible for hot water to exit and for cold
water to enter the Condenser. This makes the vapor cool back into liquid form.
The aromatic liquid by-product drops from the Condenser and collects inside

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

a receptacle underneath it, which is called a Separator. Because water and oil
do not mix, the essential oil floats on top of the water. From here, it is siphoned
off. Quality of oil is also good in this method. (Some essential oils are heavier
than water, such as clove essential oil, so they are found at the bottom of the
Separator.)

Steam distillation for essential oil extraction

3. SOLVENT EXTRACTION
This method employs food grade solvents like hexane and ethanol to
isolate essential oils from plant material. It is best suited for plant materials
that yield low amounts of essential oil, that are largely resinous, or that are
delicate aromatics unable to withstand the pressure and distress of steam
distillation. This method also produces a finer fragrance than any type of
distillation method.
Through this process, the non-volatile plant material such as waxes and
pigments, are also extracted and sometimes removed through other processes.
Once the plant material has been treated with the solvent, it produces a waxy
aromatic compound called a "concrete." When this concrete substance is
mixed with alcohol, the oil particles are released. The aforementioned
chemicals used in the process then remain in the oil and the oil is used in
perfumes by the perfume industry or for aromatherapy purposes.

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)

 Solvent distillation for essential oil extraction

List of research institutes (related to this course) :

Sr. Name of Institute Location
No.
1. ICAR : Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi
2. DARE : Department of Agricultural Research and Education New Delhi
3. CSIR : Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi
4. NHB : National Horticulture Board Gurugaon, Haryana
5. IIHR : Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Bengaluru, Karnataka
6. NRCMAP : National Research Centre for Medicinal & Boriavi, Anand,
Aromatic Plants Gujarat
7. NRCO : National Research Centre for Orchid Pakyong, Sikkim
8. CIMAP : Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Bengaluru, Karnataka
9. DFR : Directorate of Floricultural Research Shivajainagar, Pune,
Maharashtra
10. DMAPR : Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Boriavi, Anand,
Research Gujarat
11. NABARD : National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Mumbai, Maharashtra
Development
12. APEDA : Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Kolkata, West Bengal
Development Authority
13. AICRP - : All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Shivajainagar, Pune,
Floriculture Floriculture Research Maharashtra
14. NHM : National Horticulture Mission Gurugaon, Haryana
15. IICPT : Indian Institute of Crop Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Processing Technology
16. CISH : Central Institute of Sub-Tropical Horticulture Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh
17. CIAH : Central Institute for Arid Horticulture Bikaner, Rajasthan
18. NBPGR : National Bureau of Plant New Delhi
Genetic Resources

Dadasaheb Patil College of Agriculture, Dahegaon (Aurangabad)