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Geometric Design
CTE 2311 Transportation Engineering
CHAPTER 3: GEOMETRIC DESIGN Geometric Design is concerned with relating the visible
physical elements of the road like:

alignment, gradients, sight distances, cross sectional

elements and intersection layouts

It does not include the structural design of the facility.

The design of the horizontal and vertical features is

influenced by the driver behaviour, vehicle
characteristics, and traffic speeds and volumes.

Geometric Design
1. Design Speed
Sound Geometric Design :
Highest continuous speed which can be maintained with
Reduce severe accidents safety when weather is favourable, traffic density low and
design features of the road is the governing conditions.
High traffic capacity with minimum delay Choice of Design Speed is influenced by
*Road type; Character of the terrain; Traffic characteristics
Longer use without needing to upgrade or new and Economic considerations
infrastructure.
Large traffic volume extra expenditure Design speed

The min length for design speed changes not < 8km. But
exception apply as per Mountain Passes < 3.5km and other.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

The following operating speeds are stipulated is S.A.: 2. Sight Distances

Freeways - 100-120km/h Length of carriageway visible to the driver.

2 Types of sight distances: Stopping and Passing

Rural roads - 100km/h (normal)
- 60km/h (min in difficult terrain) 2.1 Stopping sight distance:

• Distance required to stop the vehicle before striking an

unexpected object on the straight or on vertical curve
depends on when you see the obstacle.
Urban roads - 0-80km/h (Eye h=1.05 and Object h=0.15 on VC)
(depending on the type of road)
• Stopping sight distance = driver perception + break
reaction time = based on speed, area, driver reaction time
and skid resistance.

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

Basic procedure for calculating stopping sight distance:
MINIMUM VISIBILITY DISTANCE The total distance travelled has many components:
SHOULD NEVER BE LESS
THAN THE MINIMUM STOPPING DISTANCE! I. The distance covered during the driver’s perception-reaction period;
P-R time = number of seconds which elapses between the instant the
driver sees the object and the instant the brakes are applied.
Basic procedure for calculating stopping sight distance: Varies from one driver to another, but AASHTO recommends
t = 1.5 sec’s in urban areas
t = 2.5 sec’s in rural areas
I. Drivers perception and reaction period;
The distance travelled during this period is given by:
II. Distance required by vehicle
d1 = vt = 0,278 Vt
III. Decision sight distance Where v = design speed in m/sec
V = design speed in Km/h
d1 = perception-reaction distance in meters
t = perception-reaction time in seconds

Geometric Design Geometric Design

II. The distance required to decelerate to 0km/h _ STOP Deceleration rate > 4.9m/s² is when the passenger will slide from
their seat!

The braking distance (d2) depends on the initial speed, the

coefficient of Friction (skid resistance/ brake force coefficient) and Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning Design (Chapter 7 Roads – Table 7.4)
gradient. Brake force coefficients
It is given by:
Speed (km/h) Coefficients
20 0.47
where : 40 0.37
• d2 = total breaking distance (m) 60 0.32
• v = initial speed of vehicle (m/s) or V = speed (km/h) 80 0.30
• f = brake-force (coefficient of friction) 100 0.29
• G = road gradient in % (positive uphill and negative down-hill) 120 0.28
• g = acceleration due to gravity (gravitational speed) (9.81m/s²)

Then TOTAL stopping sight distance = reaction + vehicle:

Geometric Design L = d1 + d2

Stopping sight Distance measured:

where :
“seeing height” of vehicle 1.05m vs. object
height of 0.15m (15cm) L = total distance covered (m)
V = design speed (km/h)
t = time (s)
Commercial vehicles? f = brake-force coefficient
G = gradient (positive uphill and negative down-hill)

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Stopping sight distance

III DSD (Decision sight distance) Speed (km/h) SSD DSD (complex)
30 30

WHAT TO DO ? 40
50
50
65
130

60 80 190

• Complex interchanges & intersections 70 95

• Unexpected vehicle manoeuvres 80 115 240
• Change in X-section widths
90 135
• Not a 0.15m height but 0m height – from 1.05 seated
position 100 155 300
• Road elements – ie traffic signs 110 180
120 210 350

Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning Design

(Chapter 7 Roads – Table 7.6& Table 7.8)

2 Types of sight distances: Stopping and Geometric Design

Passing Passing sight distance: Basic procedure of calculation:
• There are 4 components of the minimum distance required for safe
2.2 Passing sight distance overtaking on two lane roads:

Distance required to overtake safely and

comfortably without interfering with the
speed of oncoming vehicles which travels d1 d2 d3 d4

at design speed. • Dimension d1 represents the time taken or distance travelled by a

vehicle while the driver decides whether or not it is safe to pass.
• Dimension d2 represents the distance travelled by the overtaking
vehicle in carrying out the actual passing manoeuvre.
• Dimension d3 may be referred to as the safety dimension and is the
distance between the overtaking vehicle and the on-coming vehicle
at the instant when the former has returned to its own lane.
• Dimension d4 is the distance travelled by the oncoming vehicle at
the design speed of the road while the actual overtaking occurs.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Sight Distances - Tables were produced from which the min. stopping
and passing sight distances can be obtained for various design Vertical and Horizontal alignment is mutually
speeds. interrelated and should be in balance with the
See example from the Department of National Roads: (NRA) surrounding terrain to engage in a proper sight
Design speed Minimum sight Minimum sight
km/h distance (stop) distance (overtake)
distance design.
120 210 840

110 180 770

100 155 700

90 135 630

80 115 560

70 95 490

60 80 420

Frequency of overtaking sections - topography, volumes &

speeds of highway and economic considerations

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Geometric Design Vertical Alignment for visibility on crests/hogs:

Geometric Design
Vertical and Horizontal alignment is mutually
interrelated and should be in balance with the
surrounding terrain to engage in a proper sight
distance design.

• Vertical alignment for sags;

1. Headlights (visibility)
2. Driving comfort
3. Drainage control
4. Underpasses (safety)

• Horizontal alignment – visibility around bends

Vertical curve where sight distance is indeterminable

Geometric Design: Horizontal Curves Horizontal Curves

Horizontal Curves are influenced by:

• Radius
• Design speed
• Super elevation
TRH 17
Sight lines on • Side friction factor
Horizontal Curves:

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Superelevation Horizontal Curves

Is the most important feature which influences the

efficiency and safety of a road/highway

Design Factors to improve Horizontal Curves:

Increasing the curve radii
Add extra carriage way width
Add super elevation
Insertion of transition curves between straights
(tangents)

TYPES OF CURVES: Horizontal &Transition Curves

Definition:
1. Simple Transition curves are curves of constantly changing radius
2. Compound Curve that provide a smooth movement from the straight to the
circular curve.
3. Reverse Curve
4. Spiral (Transition)

Figure 1 Sequence of horizontal alignment components (PIARC 2003)

Transition Curves

High standard horizontal alignment

(horizontal curves)

Sharp horizontal curve unsuited to high speed

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Horizontal curve where sight distance is indeterminable Geometric Design: Horizontal

Alignment
• Combination of transitions and curved components,
where curves are commonly circular, but spiral
transitions are sometimes used depending on the
topography of the area
• The main considerations - continuity of the
alignment.

Continuity of Alignment
(Form and Scale)

1. Visually a continuous alignment should

Appear smooth, free flowing with no kinks or
breaks obvious to the eye.
Have elements that appear to be part of a whole
not individual pieces.

Geometric Design: Horizontal Alignment

• Combination of transitions and curved components,
where curves are commonly circular, but spiral
transitions are sometimes used depending on the
topography of the area
• The main considerations - continuity of the
alignment.
• 2. Continuity is desirable because it:
– Matches the path of the vehicle (to promote safety)
– Matches the natural landscape (sometime it
promotes economy and aesthetics)
Thus a road is governed by design standards and letting
the driver feel comfortably, safe and at ease. Geometric Design
Horizontal Alignment

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Geometric Design
Horizontal Curves & Lane Widening – Rural + highways
On horizontal curves of a relatively short radius, a carriageway is
usually widened to provide:

• Additional width is required due to the rear wheels of the vehicle

which follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels,
especially in the case of commercial vehicles.

• There is a psychological demand for more clearance to direct a fast

moving vehicle safely around a bend.

The amount of widening will depend on the lane width and the
radius of the curve. - Speed can also become a factor

Geometric Design
Run-off Length Horizontal Curve Widening
Information regarding the widening procedure:
• Start of transition is 2/3 run-off length before
BCC and full elevation is reach 1/3 run-off length • On a simple circular curves the total widening is applied to the inside
edge.
after BCC
• Calculated in the same manner as the Run-off • Where transition curves are provided, widening may be placed on the
length for super elevation inside or divided equally between the inside and outside edges. In
either case the centre line marking should be placed in the middle of
the original lane.

• The extra width should be attained gradually over the whole length of
the transition;

• The edges of the road must form smooth and graceful curves.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Setting out of Horizontal Curves
Horizontal Curves
Summary of Transition Curve Purpose:
HIGHWAY/FREEWAY DESIGN
Widening with transition curves
1. Minimises encroachment on adjoining traffic lanes, • Dept of National Roads specify that transition curves should
2. Uniformity of speed changing from straight to curve be used on all horizontal curves where the
3. Increase in safety and comfort. • R< 250m and the curves have a super-elevation e=6%
• The essential requirement of any transition curve is that it’s
radius of curvature should decrease gradually from infinity at • Minimum transition length of 30m (100m is desirable)
the tangent to the radius of the circular curve
• On modern highways high standards of design the need
• Most commonly used curves: for widening has lessened if width of lane >7.4m
• The spiral – range of bearing
• The cubic parabola – range of gradient • 0.6m widening is specified for carriageway width of 6.8m
Results between them being insignificant in practice. and R<150m

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

Horizontal Curves Setting out of Simple Horizontal Curves

RESIDENTIAL / URBAN ROADWAYS:

R (m) = 1746.34
D (degrees)
- Lane width the same
- X-fall the same either side of Centre Line

Additional width only allowed at intersections, turning

circles and access points.

Horizontal design in residential streets must be done to

discourage operating speeds higher than 40-50km/h

See Guideline for Human settlement (red book) volume 2

Horizontal Curves
Geometric Design
Setting out of Horizontal Curves Calculation of Horizontal Curve
T.L. =

L =
Rc tan ∆/2
Alignment components
L.C. = 2R Sin ∆/2

Ec = R X [ 1/(cos ∆/2) -1]

1. Simple circular Curve:
M = R x (1-cos ∆/2) Answer:
R = 1746.34xa / D (D in degrees)

∞1 = (l/ 100) x (D/2) • T = 234.034m

Exercise 1:
∞1 = l/ 2Rc
• L = 399.245m
Given Δ=75⁰, R=305m, PI
T.L. = Tangent length of circular arc / curve chainage=873.28m • Stake value
Lc = Length of circular arc / curve
Determine tangent length T, BC=639.246
L.C. = Long chord subtending the circular arc
Ec = External distance the curve length L, stake • Stake value
M = Middle ordinate value of tangent point BC EC=1038.492
R = Radius of circular arc / curve and EC.
∞1 = Deflection angle from tangent to chord
D = Degree of curvature - central angle which subtends a 100m arc of the curve

Geometric Design
Design of Horizontal Alignment

The Minimum Radius is derived by considering the

forces acting on the occupants of a vehicle negotiating a
curve and the resulting comfort level of the occupants.

Therefore, the minimum radius is a function of the

velocity, the allowable side friction and the degree of
super elevation

Refer TRH 17 Table 3.2.1 for minimum Radii of

Horizontal curvature. TRH 17 Table 3.2.1

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Geometric Design
Superelevation
Superelevation on Rail

Super-elevation: When a carriageway is sloped in horizontal

curves to counteract the outward-acting forces (centrifugal
forces) on the vehicle moving through curves.

Geometric Design
Geometric Design
If carriage way is flat, the forces are in equilibrium, thus Lateral
Lateral Friction Force resisting Centrifugal force :
Friction Force P /(F) resisting Centrifugal force (µ(Mu)) can be
represented by, • P= Wv² where g=9.81m/s, W=weight (W=mg), v=speed (m/s) &
gR R=curve radius
P= Wv² where g=9.81m/s, W=weight (W=mg), v=speed & R=curve radii
gR A lateral coefficient of friction developed, known as the Centrifugal Ratio

P acts horizontally (counter balanced) at the centre of gravity of the vehicle • µ = v²

and its load. gR

• µ = V²
127R

Note that the threat of overturning can occur if the vehicles

centre of gravity is very high!

Superelevation Geometric Design – Super elevation

Considering the
equilibrium of a vehicle of The forces acting on the vehicle around a bend are:
mass (M), moving at a a) the centrifugal force acting radially outwards,
speed of v m/s around at
the bend of radius R. b) the weight of the vehicle acting vertically
downwards,
c) the reaction of the road on the vehicle = friction of
Why SUPER elevation? tire on road.
The entire centrifugal force would have to be counteracted by the friction
between the wheels and road surface if the road surface is flat. THUS
common practice is to incline the road.
Every combination of R of curve and highway design speed has a rate
of Superelevation (e) to counteract the centrifugal force. If not
sufficient, it is necessary for some friction to develop on the tyres and road
when travelling at design speed to keep vehicle on the road!

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Geometric Design
Superelevation
By adopting a realistic value for the friction factor, (µ). the required
superelevation rate, e, can be calculated for various speeds and curve
radii.
emax + µ max = V²
127R where V= design speed in km/h and R = radius in m
r
y
∞
x µmax = 0.19 – V where µ represents the max sideways force coefficient for design and

Where P = µMgcos∞ + µMg²sin∞ 1600 also includes a safety factor of approx. 3

R
There is a limit to the maximum rate of superelevation used in practice.
This limit is necessary to prevent slow moving (or stationary) vehicles from
sliding inwards during slippery (wet) conditions. The minimum value for e
is 0.04 (4%) and the maximum value is normally in the order of 0,12 (12%)
on highways - 10% generally used in RSA - rural roads.
For practical design purposes, curves or tables are drawn up from which
the required superelevation rate is selected for a given design speed and
curve radius (TRH 17 fig 5.3.2)

Super Elevation Rates - Radii Superelevation

R min= v²
g(emax+µmax) and
µmax = 0.19 – V
1600
Where v=m/s, R=m, e=m/m and g=m/s and µ

By using the max super elevation = emax and maximum friction

= µmax, the min Radius of curvature can be determined in order
to keep a vehicle from sliding down.

BUT its better to design a road such that the µ = 0 (free

steering condition) and e preferably less than 10%. Most
cases a combination of the worst and the best is often a
reasonable compromise.

IMPORTANT NOTES FOR Example

SUPER ELEVATION
For a small deflection angle – curve must be long • Determine the superelevation required for a left hand
enough to avoid a kink – min 300m, but if space limited horizontal curve of R=420m on a road with a design
150m, however if deflection angel < 5deg, increase min speed of 90km/h
R by 30m for every 1deg decrease in refl. Angle. • Assume µ = 0 and determine e (emax+µmax) = v²
gR
• Calculate e=15.193%
For Max length of curve should not exceed 1000m – • But emax=10%, determine µactual and µmax = 0.19 – _V
visibility for overtaking on a left hand curve is problematic 1600
• µactual = 0.052
on a long curve on a 2 lane road.
• Check with µmax
• µmax = 0.132, therefore 0.052 is OK and e=10% will work

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Transitional Curves
Components of Horizontal Curves Shift p =
• Point of Intersection (PI): the point at which the two tangents to the curve intersect T.L. = (Rc+p)tan ∆/2 +Ls/2 (same)
• Delta Angle (II): the angle between the tangents is also equal to the angle at the LT = R∆ + LS (∆ in radians)
center of the curve ( also indicated as )
• Back Tangent (T.L): for a survey progressing to the right, it is the straight line that ∂= l2/ (6Rc x Ls) (on transition)
connects the PC to the PI : T=R tan(I/2)
Lc = LT - 2Ls
• Forward Tangent (T.L.): for a survey progressing to the right, it is the straight line
Ø= 3 x ∂T
that connects the PI to the PT
Es = (Rc + p) sec ∆/2 -Rc
• Beginning of Circular Curve (BCC): the beginning point of the curve
also called Point of Curvature (PC): the beginning point of the curve Shift p = shift in centre line of arc
• End of Circular Curve (ECC): the end point of the curve T.L. = Tangent Length
also called Point of Tangency (PT): the end point of the curve LT = Total curve / arc length
• Tangent Distance (T.L.): the distance from the BCC to PI or from the PI to ECC ∂= Deflection angle of tangent chord
• External Distance (E): the distance from the PI to the middle point of the curve Lc = Length of circular arc
(crown distance CD Ø= spiral angle
• Middle Ordinate (M): the distance from the middle point of the curve to the middle Es = External distance of spiral
of the chord joining the BCC and ECC (Radius R)
• Length of Chord (L.C.): the distance along the line joining the BCC and the ECC
• Length of Curve (l): the difference in stationing along the curve between the BCC
and the ECC – in survey it is the arc length L or l or A = R.I radians

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Setting out of Horizontal Curves Setting out of Horizontal Curves

Class Exercise 1: - Two straights, having an intersection angle of

38⁰6’00’’ are joined by a circular curve of 230m radius. This curve is to Class Exercise 3:
be shifted away from the tangents to admit transition spirals 60m long Calculate the full setting out data for the following curve:
at each end. If the stake value of the intersection point along the first i) Curve to the left
tangent is 524,112 and the curve deflects to the right, find the stake ii) Radius = 450m
values of points BTC, BCC, ECC and ETC. Find also the deflation angle to iii) Deflection angle 25°10’20’’
be set from BTC for the setting out point at SV460 and from BCC for the iv) Transition length = 80m
setting out point at SV560. v) P.I. chainage = 5,194.000m

Class Exercise 2: - Calculate the setting out data for a transition

curve of length 80m. The radius of the circular curve is 500m and
the deviation angle is 27°. P.I. stake value is 1,500m. Use 10m
intervals on the transitions and 25m intervals on the curve.

2 Geometric Design
Setting out of Horizontal Curves

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Crossfall L-R with right turn Super Elevation Run-off Length

Runoff length is • Start of transition is

defined as the point 2/3 run-off length
from where a before BCC and full
transition in cross-fall elevation is reach 1/3
begins, up to the point run-off length after
where full super BCC
elevation is reached.
RL

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Super Elevation TRH 17

Normal X-Fall – Change in direction

Super Elevation TRH 17

Normal X-Fall – Turning in same in direction

Camber – Super Elevation Camber – Super Elevation

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Super Elevation TRH 17 Super Elevation Rates - Radii

Camber– Turning in same in direction

Source: TRH 17 April 88

Run-off Length for Super Elevation

• 2 Methods: Calculate and/or Use Table

1. See printed notes Figure 3.3:
Determine Run-off Factor D, and apply to
super elevation e:
Run-off Length = D x e and apply rules

Rules for Run-off Length

1. Must be whole number
2. Length must be divisible by 3
3. Should be a multiple of the chainage
value interval

Source: TRH 17 April 88

Run-off Calculation
Run- off Lane Factors

Source: TRH 17 April 88

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TUTORIAL 1 – SUPERELEVATION

From the given data, calculate the levels of the centre line, left and
right hand sides of the road at 20m intervals. (Include all other
points of importance). Use run-off calculations to determine RL.

Given:
Curve radius = 460m (Curve to the left )
Design speed = 110 km/h
Important Notes: Run-off Length Road width = 7,4m
Use e = 8.3%
1. Must be whole number Reduced level of BCC = 50,35m on Centre line
Longitudinal gradient = -4,2%
2. Length must be divisible by 3 Chainage of BCC = 1250m
Initial road X-fall = 2% L – R
3. Should be a multiple of the chainage
Take lane factor = 1.0 from table 3.5.3c and S = 245 from table 3.5.3b
value interval
Source: TRH 17 April 88

TUTORIAL 1 – ANSWER 2

And super elevation e is reached: 1250+40= 1290m

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9
TUTORIAL 2 – SUPERELEVATION

A right handed circular curve of radius 600m is introduced on a class I road

of width 7m and a design speed of 100 km/h. Super elevation is 8.3% and
hence determine the levels of the center line, left and right hand sides of the
road if the road is initially cambered at 2,5%. The BCC chainage is at 400m
and the reduced centre line level there is 156.45m. The road has a
longitudinal grade of +1,9%. Produce levels at 20m intervals up to the
chainage where full superelevation is developed, including all other points of
importance.

Take lane factor = 1.0 from table 3.5.3c and S = 230 from table 3.5.3b

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TUTORIAL 2 – ANSWER

Geometric Design :Vertical Alignment

TUTORIAL 3 – SUPERELEVATION
• The vertical alignment of a road is a combination
Use a superelevation of 8,65% and a runoff = 90m to provide levels of parabolic vertical curves and tangents of a
to the Right , Centre and Left of a 7,4m wide road with the following specific grade.
data:
- curve to the left • It can place limitations on site distance,
- initial x-fall R to L = 3% especially in combination with a horizontal
- road width = 7,4m
- BVC chainage = 510m, BVC level = 86,130m alignment.
- EVC chainage = 570m, EVC level = 87,759m • It must be aesthetically pleasing to the
- PIVC chainage = 540, PIVC level = 89,340m
-BCC chainage = 555m level 88.1m MSL environment – try to follow topography.
Tabulate your results and produce levels at 15m intervals up to the
• A number of short curves and especially dips
point where full superelevation is developed. Longitudinal slope should be avoided.
+2%
• However, the cost aspects take priority over
Take lane factor = 1.0 from table 3.5.3c and S = 215 from table 3.5.3b aesthetics, but not over road safety.

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Setting out of Vertical Curves

The curve used in vertical alignment is the parabola and not a circle.
As we are using a line, not 3 dimensional, we don’t add height
Thus the curve length L is measured horizontally i.e. as it would be
viewed in plan. The general form of the parabolic equation, as applied to vertical curves, is
Formula for parabola: y = ax2 + bx + c
Where,
L
y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of
the vertical curve in m
y x = distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in
y = Ax2 stations or m
200L c = elevation of the point of vertical curvature (PVC) in m,
x
= initial roadway grade in percent, it is as referred as
the initial tangent grade
G2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent.
(x;y)
y = Ax2
200L

UNSYMMETRICAL CURVE Setting out of Vertical Curves

Sagging curve

Hogging curve

signage only indicates convention

A= l g1 - g2 l

Low Point of Vertical Curve

A = algebraic difference in percentages of the grades (g1-g2) on either side
if the curve, expressed as a percentage (%). Grade follows contours as
closely as possible
The PIVC always falls on a chainage interval or half a chainage interval.
The PIVC is placed symmetrically in the curve – for this course.

PIVC

Always calculate from BVC as this gives you a built in check on your
answer

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EXERCISE 1: Design the following vertical curve by calculating the setting out
data if the following information is supplied. Also provide the lowest point and Class Exercise 1:
chainage of such, if the intervals of the chainages are 15m. L= 180 G1= -5.80%
Class Exercise 1: PI ch 480 G2= 4.50%
L= 180 G1= -5.80% BVC level 199.792 BVC ch 390
PI ch 480 G2= 4.50% EVClevel 198.622 EVC ch 570
BVC level 199.792 BVC ch 390
EVClevel 198.622 EVC ch 570
CH H y1 Rd level
CH H y1 Rd level 390 199.792 0.000 199.792
390 199.792 0.000 199.792 405 198.922 0.064 198.986
405 198.922 0.064 198.986
420 198.052 0.258 198.310
420 198.052 0.258 198.310
435 197.182 0.579 197.761
435 197.182 0.579 197.761
450 196.312 1.030 197.342 450 196.312 1.030 197.342
465 195.442 1.609 197.051 465 195.442 1.609 197.051
480 194.572 2.318 196.890 480 194.572 2.318 196.890
495 193.702 3.154 196.856
495 193.702 3.154 196.856
510 192.832 4.120 196.952
525 191.962 5.214 197.176 510 192.832 4.120 196.952
540 191.092 6.438 197.530 525 191.962 5.214 197.176
555 190.222 7.789 198.011 540 191.092 6.438 197.530
570 189.352 9.270 198.622 555 190.222 7.789 198.011
570 189.352 9.270 198.622
Lowest point is 196.856 at ch 495

Exercise 2: – Vertical curve alignment

A downgrade of 5.15% meets an upgrade of 2.24% at

chainage 615m, with the PIVC level = 934.254m.

Calculate the setting out data at 15m intervals, for a

curve length of 90m using the following formula:
y = Ax2
200L

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

When a vehicle travels around a curve of constant radius at constant speed, it exerts a
Superelevation radial outward force known as “Centrifugal force”.

This Centrifugal force (Ƿ(row) or F) can be represented by, Ƿ = Wv² where g=9.81m/s,
W=weight, v=speed and R=curve radius (W=mg) gR

Ƿ acts horizontally (counter balanced) at the centre of gravity of the vehicle and its load.

The forces acting on the vehicle are

a) the centrifugal force acting radialy outwards,
b) the weight of the vehicle acting vertically downwards,
c) the upward reaction of the road on the vehicle.

Super-elevation: When a carriageway is

sloped in horizontal curves to counteract
the outward-acting forces (centrifugal
forces) on the vehicle moving through
curves.

Superelevation Geometric Design

Superelevation
Considering the equilibrium of a
vehicle of mass (M), moving at a By adopting a realistic value for the friction factor, (f). the required superelevation rate, e, can
speed of v m/s around at the bend
of radius R. be calculated for various speeds and curve radii.
e+f= V²
Why SUPERelevation? 127R where V= design speed in km/h and R = radius in m
The entire centrifugal force would have to be counteracted by the friction between the
wheels and road surface if the road surface is flat. THUS common practice is to incline the fmax = 0.19 –V where f represents the max sideways force coefficient for design and
road. 1600 also includes a safety factor of approx. 3
Superelevation (e) should not be too great to counteract the entire centrifugal force, there
must still be some friction on the tyres when travelling at design speed – There is a limit to the maximum rate of superelevation used in practice. This limit is
By using emax and fmax, the min Radius of curvature can be determined. Rmin= V² necessary to prevent slow moving (or stationary) vehicles from sliding inwards during
g(e+f)
slippery (wet) conditions. The minimum value for e is 0.04 (4%) and the maximum value is
Where V=m/s,R=m, e=m/m and g=m/s
normally in the order of 0,12 (12%) on highways - 10% generally used in RSA - rural roads.
BUT its better to design a road such that the f = 0 (free steering condition) and e preferably
For practical design purposes, curves or tables are drawn up from which the required
less than 10%. Most cases a combination of the worst and the best is often a reasonable
compromise. superelevation rate is selected for a given design speed and curve radius (TRH 17 fig 5.3.2)

Geometric Design
Example Cross Sectional Elements

Introduction
• Determine the superelevation required for a left hand The cross-section of a road reserve provides:
horizontal curve of R=420m on a road with a design • the space for moving and stationary vehicles,
speed of 90km/hr • maintenance of the road, drainage,
• Assume f= 0 and determine e • services and
• Calculate e=15.193% • in certain instances also separate space for pedestrians or
• But emax=10%, determine factual cyclists.
• factual = 0.052
For the sake of safety and comfort of the road user, wide lanes
• Check with fmax and shoulders with consistent slopes up to the edge of the
• Fmax = 0.132, therefore 0.052 is OK and e=10% will work road are required. This reduces the effect of minor driver
errors and promotes the free flow of traffic.

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Terminology & Road design control TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION

Crest / summit curve: Controlled by sight distance

Sag / valley curves: Governed by headlight illumination

Median: Area between two carriageways of a dual carriageway road

Road reserve: Area of land designed for road construction and

maintenance of such, including the area required for interchanges.

Freeway/Highway: Expressway with full control of access, divided by

an unbroken median.

Roadbed: Area extending from kerbline to kerbline or shoulder

breakpoint to shoulder breakpoint.

Geometric Design
Cross Sectional Elements

Geometric Design
Cross Sectional Elements

Lanes

The carriageway of a road is divided into a number of lanes.

One may have a single carriageway road or a dual carriageway road i.e.
a road with two carriageways adjacent to each other or one or two lanes
in each direction that is separated by a median.

Dual carriageway roads can have two or more lanes per direction and
are identified in terms of the number of lanes i.e. a four-lane dual
carriageway road or a six-lane dual carriageway road – Then preferable
to call Freeway/Highway

Safer and higher speed can be maintained.

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

Cross Sectional Elements Cross Sectional Elements
Lanes Lanes
The number of traffic lanes to be used depends on the volume and type of traffic
Undivided or single carriageway roads can have a single lane in one direction expected.
(two lane, two-way roads) or more than one lane per direction (multiple lane
roads). C.P.A. for example states that: "A dual carriageway is warranted for average
present day counts in excess of 2000 e.v.u's per day."
The following widths are specified by C.P.A.
The A511 in
Leicestershire, England:
a typical single-
carriageway arterial road Useable
with one traffic lane for Road Carriageway Shoulder
each direction (and, in Class evu's per day width width
this case, a two-way
I 500 - 2000 7,4m 2,4m
pedestrian and cycle
way alongside) II 150 - 500 6,8m 1,8m
Also refer table 3.5.3 (c) of TRH 17 for lanes and median widths

Geometric Design
Cross Sectional Elements
Median (central reservation)

The median is the area between the inner edges of the inner lanes (white
painted lines) on a divided road and thus includes the inner shoulders.

The 4 functions / purposes of a median:

1. Safety → to separate the two opposing traffic streams, reducing the
possibility of head-on collisions. (Wider = better)
2. Reduce head light glare
Shrubs can also be planted on the median to serve the same
purpose, providing they do not become too large, thereby creating
a hazard.
Tree-like shrubs with thick trunks should be avoided.
The width of shrubs, when fully grown, shall never grow closer than
5m from the edge of the travelled way.
At intersections a 300 m line of sight (1,05 m to 1,30 m) on the
inside of any curve shall always be maintained past the shrubs as
shrubs obstructs the view at intersections.
Where possible the median should be free of obstructions.

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Cross Sectional Elements Cross Sectional Elements
Median (central reservation) continued
Shoulders
3. To provide space for safe turning operations at intersections.
The shoulder is defined as that useable portion of the roadway
4. To provide shelter in case of emergencies. directly adjacent to the travelled way and is intended exclusively for
stopping during emergencies and does not make provision for
Median Widths – can vary to obtain safe, pleasing and economical design guardrails, edge drains and shoulder rounding.
Research has shown that a median width of 9,2m is accepted as the
minimum width to reduce head-on collisions by up to 85%. When shoulders are surfaced as per the roadway – clearly marked
as a shoulder!
• This width is sufficient to allow out of control vehicles leaving the carriageway
and ending up on the median to recover without encroaching on the lanes of
Purpose of shoulders
the opposing carriageway.

• The width provides for heavy vehicles wanting to cross to seek refuge within Accommodation of stopped vehicles
the median before crossing the second carriageway. (Algoa park to Uitenhage) Emergency use
For lateral support of the pavement layers and surface area
• A depressed median is safer and facilitates drainage.
For increasing effective width of the road
• Reduces headlight glare For providing improved sight distance.

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Geometric Design Geometric Design

Cross Sectional Elements Cross Sectional Elements
Camber and Cross-fall

The term camber is used in road engineering to describe the convexity of the
carriageway's cross-section.

The object is to drain water and to avoid ponding on the road surface.
Average cross slopes vary between 2% and 2,5%.

Normal cross fall on dual carriageway roads is away from the median .

The cross fall of the shoulders is the same as that of the travelled way, i.e. 2%
for surfaced roads.

In the case of superelevation it is also the same as that of the travelled way.

The superelevation of the outside shoulder, i.e. the upper shoulder, should not
be flatter than the travelled way in case a vehicle should leave the travelled
way.

Design Side Slopes have been flattened in recent years:

Cross Sectional Elements
To provide for safer operation
Side Slopes
Step slopes create overturning hazards
The side slope of a road shall be designed in such a manner so as not to slopes of 4:1 can direct vehicles back onto the
create a danger for an out-of-control vehicle leaving the road. (overturn) roads
However, it should also allow for the minimum earthworks.
Facilitate plant growth and reduce erosion.
Side slopes are influenced by: Assist to avoid erosion and assisting natural
1. Type of material involved
growth
2. Efficiency of drainage control
3. Type of surface treatment to be applied. Decrease maintenance costs
Fill slopes vary from 1:2 for sand to 1:1½ for other
Original cut and fill cost may be offset by increase
in maintenance over design life of road.
Cut slopes vary from 1:2 for sand, 1:1½ for other and 1:¼ for rock.

Geometric Design
TUTORIAL 1 – SUPERELEVATION
Cross Sectional Elements
From the given data, calculate the levels of the centre line, left and right hand sides of the road at
20m intervals. (Include all other points of importance).
Sidewalks Given:
Curve radius = 460m (Curve to the left )
The foundation soil under a concrete sidewalk must be properly specified and Design speed = 110 km/h
prepared. Road width = 7,4m
Road class = II
Reduced level of BCC = 50,35m on Centre line
The following is a typical specification (used by NMBM) Longitudinal gradient = -4,2%
Chainage of BCC = 1250m
Initial road X-fall = 2% L – R
Minimum thickness : 50mm concrete/ 25mm pre-mix on 100mm
base course
Width : 2.0m-2.5m
Method : construct alternative panels 2m long
Foundation : 93% mod AASHO
Expansion joints : every 8m, 12mm thick, bitumen impregnated
“Flexcell”

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TUTORIAL 2 – SUPERELEVATION TUTORIAL 3 – SUPERELEVATION

A right handed circular curve of radius 600m is introduced on a class I road of width 7m and a Use a superelevation of 8,65% and a runoff = 90m to provide levels to the Right , Centre and Left of
a 7,4m wide road with the following data:
design speed of 100 km/h. Provide the necessary superelevation and hence determine the levels of
- curve to the left
the center line, left and right hand sides of the road if the road is initially cambered at 2,5%. The - initial x-fall R>L = 3%
- road width = 7,4m
BCC chainage is at 400m and the reduced centre line level there is 156.45m. The road has a
- BVC chainage = 510m, BVC level = 86,130m
longitudinal grade of +1,9%. Produce levels at 20m intervals up to the chainage where full - EVC chainage = 570m, EVC level = 87,759m
- PIVC chainage = 540, PIVC level = 89,340m
superelevation is developed, including all other points of importance.
-BCC chainage = 555m

Tabulate your results and produce levels at 15m intervals up to the point where full superelevation
is developed.

Geometric Design
EXAM QUESTION – SUPERELEVATION [27]
Junctions
A vertical curve is superimposed on a horizontal curve, for which superelevation must be
provided. Use the information given below to prove that G2 = 2,23% and hence determine the full
superelevation setting out data for the road.
Given:
curve to the right
runoff length = 225m
e = 7,65%
initial cross fall = 2,3% L > R
road width = 7,3m
PIVC is at chainage 200m with G1 = -3,38%
PIVC level = 66,39m
Vertical curve length = 200m
BCC chainage = 240m
BCC level = 65,602
interval = 25m
Definitions

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Junctions Junction Layout
There are two different types of junction between roads.
•Interchanges are junctions where roads pass
The design of junctions are integral for efficiency and
above or below one another, preventing a single safety of vehicular traffic and pedestrian traffic - thus
point of conflict by utilising grade separation and a road network capacity is limited by the capacity of
slip roads or ramps
its junctions which can cause delay.

Aspects of design that have to be considered are:

1. the location of intersections;

2. the type of junction layout;
3. the type of junction control; and
•Intersections do not use grade separation (they are at-grade) and roads join or
cross directly. Forms of these junction types include traffic circles, priority 4. the detailed design of individual junction
junctions, and junctions controlled by traffic signals or signs,chanalisation, ramps components.
and speed change lanes

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Geometric Design MAJOR ROAD JUNCTIONS

Junctions http://360.here.com/2015/04/03/crazy-junctions-around-world/

1. Location of junctions SPAGHETTI JUNCTION IN BIRMINGHAM UK

Minimum distances between intersections are primarily concerned with the

interaction between these intersections.

E.g. One criterion for the spacing of intersections

should be that they are not so close that waiting
traffic at one intersection could generate a queue
extending beyond the next upstream intersection.

Very closely spaced intersections would also

result in a large percentage of space being
Dedicated to the road network

Else LAND SPACE ISSUES and CONFUSION

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Junctions for Other Modes of Transport : Rail Junctions

2. Alternative layouts and choices.

Nature and volume of traffic

Availability of land
Relative importance of traffic volumes form
different directions
Effect of pedestrians
Safety of traffic
Overall cost
Possible need of future extensions

INTERSECTIONS VS. INTERCHANGES

The form/ shape of At-grade intersections

Simple Intersections

UNCHANELIZED T FLARED T T WITH TURNING ROADWAYS

UNCHANELIZED Y Y WITH TURNING ROADWAYS

3 -LEG INTERSECTIONS

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The form of
intersections cont.
Multi-leg intersection
Rotary intersections (traffic circles)
This is a special form of channelization.
In this case vehicles are all forced in one
direction and the efficiency and capacity
of the circle is a function of the individual
weaving lengths. Rotary intersection

They offer distinct advantages like:

• Little delay to traffic because there is no stopping,
FLARED CHANNELIZED • Fewer serious accidents because vehicles are forced to move in
the same direction, and
4-LEG INTERSECTIONS • They are specially suitable where 5 or more roads merge.

However, there is disadvantages like:

• Require big land area
Rotary intersections • There is an upper limit to the volume of traffic a given circle
can handle

As soon as circle capacity is exceeded, circle tends to create

chaos.

Before deciding on the particular type of intersection, the

following needs to be done/available:
1. Current traffic count and
2. Estim. of the future traffic flow
3. Data regarding turning
movement of vehicles
4. Characteristics of vehicle
5. Possibilities of accidents
6. Sufficient visibility in both
directions during decision time.

Geometric Design
Intersections
3. The intersection control

• Traffic signals
• Traffic light

4. Design and components

• Sufficient visibility in both directions

• Turning space
• Stopping distance
• Need for channelized designs to direct approaching
traffic into correct lanes
• Characteristics of Driver and vehicle
Located in Halifax this intersection sees approximately 55,000 vehicles a day from • Possibility of accidents
five different directions

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Channelization Channelization
Why intersections are channelized? a. angle between traffic streams more favourable (Reduction in accidents)
b. Drivers forced to merge at flat angles (Less disruption/capacity on main road)
Large paved/surfaced intersection areas that confuse the driver as to c. Bending traffic stream (Speed Control)
where and how he should drive to move safely through the intersection.

Such intersections cause difficulty for pedestrians to cross and

frequently suitable space for erecting traffic lights is not available.

Channelized designs are intended to direct approaching drivers to the

correct lanes.

It is the separation of traffic streams into definite travel paths to control

vehicle movements at intersections.

How to channelize?

We can then channelize - This can be achieved by either painted islands

and lanes or by constructing kerbed islands.
d. Funneling vehicles into narrow opening (Speed Control)
This results in increased capacity, improved traffic-flow conditions and e. Restrict turning movements (Less undesired movements)
decreased vehicular accidents. b. Refuge for turning or crossing vehicles (Separate points of conflict)

Geometric Design Geometric Design

Intersections Interchanges
An intersection is an important element of the road network. The effectiveness of
the intersection has a direct bearing on the safety, speed and operating
cost of the vehicles within the network.

The main objective with the design of intersections is to ensure the effective
operation of the road network, and to reduce the potential for
conflict between vehicles, or between vehicles and pedestrians. At
the same time the various vehicle movements in the intersections must be
accommodated effectively.

The number of conflict points increases exponentially with the

number of legs added to the intersection. Example A three-legged intersection
generates six vehicle-vehicle conflict points, whereas a four- legged intersection
has 24 and a five-legged intersection 60.

Accident history shows that this increased potential for collision at intersections is,
in fact, realised. In addition to the decrease in safety with an increasing number
of approaches to an intersection, there is also a decline in operational
efficiency, i.e. an increase in delay.

Geometric Design
Interchanges

•Interchanges - system of interconnecting roadways

where roads which pass above or below one another
by utilising grade separation and slip roads or ramps
with interchange of traffic.

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Interchanges Interchanges
Classes of interchanges
Interchange Layouts
Two functional classes of interchanges: access interchanges
Geometric design must be suited to particular situation.
and system interchanges. The latter are interchanges
between two freeways.
The following factors should be considered:
The functions of interchanges are:

1. To enable the easy transfer of vehicles from one artery to 1. Topography

the other, or between local streets and the freeway. 2. Nature and intensity of the traffic
2. To provide grade separation between two or more traffic 3. Land area available
arteries (Freeways) 4. Economic viability
5. Design speeds to be maintained on ramps
6. Impact on environment.

Typical Types of Interchanges Interchanges

Compared with at-grade intersections, they usually require large
initial capital layouts.

The following are however examples of situations where this extra

expenditure is normally justified.

1. On freeways - where undisturbed flow of traffic at high speed

is required.
2. To eliminate existing bottlenecks - where an at-grade
intersection is no longer capable of carrying the increased
traffic volume.
3. Safety considerations - some at-grade intersections are
accident prone due to, for example, it’s location regardless of
the traffic volume.
4. Railway/Service crossings.
5. Economic considerations - overcrowded at-grade
intersections may incur considerable economic losses in the
form of fuel costs, tyres, accident repairs, as well as road
user costs.

DIAMOND INTERCHANGES
Interchanges
SHAPES OF INTERCHANGES

The simplest, and generally least costly form of interchange is the

diamond. It is particularly useful to situations where a freeway
crosses a non-freeway.

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THREE–LEGGED INTERCHANGES
Interchanges

SHAPES OF INTERCHANGES:

Probably the most common interchange where freeways intersect

arterials or other free-ways is the cloverleaf.

CLOVERLEAF
Interchanges
• There are, however, several serious objections to
the cloverleaf interchange, among them the
following:
– They require large areas of land where high
design speeds are used.
– Vehicles deserving to make a right turn must
execute a 270 left turn, thus travelling a
substantially greater distance.
– A weaving-merging maneuvre is required
between vehicles leaving one off-ramp and
others approaching the next on-ramp.
– Where traffic volumes are large, the weaving
sections must be long.

PARTIAL CLOVERLEAF
Geometric Design
Interchanges
Collector/distributor roads
Collector/distributor roads are used in interchanges to facilitate
weaving and diverting movements.

Weaving movements by traffic using the interchange to move from

one freeway to the other takes place on the collector/distributor
roads.

The on- and off-ramp loops merge with the collector-distributor roads.

The necessary speed reduction and acceleration before entering or

after exiting from the loop, also take place on the collector/distributor
road.

In a system interchange it preferable to use collector/distributor roads

for both freeways.

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Diverging Diamond Chapter 4

Interchange Location of roads
A.The road should be as direct as possible along a route
https://www.youtube.com/wat Elements that will influence this principle:
ch?v=24jMVZszPTY

favourable sites for river crossings – stability of the

course of rivers
possibility of landslides in hilly area – Kei cuttings
avoid deep cuttings and extensive tunnel construction;
locate along the edges of properties as far as
possible;
avoid unnecessary destruction of forests and culture –
environmental consideration;

Location of roads Location of roads

A. The road should be as direct as possible along a route B. Safety
Elements that will influence this principle (continued): (i.t.o. geometric design)
avoid sudden changes in sight distance – it is a major
avoid graveyards, churches, hospitals, schools and control for safe operation on crests and horizontal
playgrounds in cases of highways; high speed traffic curves;
interfering with low speed traffic creating a safety risk; keep gradients and curvature to a minimum on vertical
curves – avoiding roller coaster designs;
best position for interchanges;
do not have two roads intersecting near a bend or on
availability of in-situ pavement materials; top of a hill;
avoid marshes and other low-lying areas subject to avoid at grade intersections with railways – construct
flooding; tunnels or bridges;
the best location is the one which results in min amount adhere to geometric standards laid down governing
the width of lanes, super elevations, sight distances
of earthworks -$
and shoulder widths.

Location of roads Location of roads

C. Economy D. Planning
The design should allow traffic to move at maximum Planning should be co-ordinated between
speed (design speed) and minimum cost e.g. long authorities (local), provincial and national -
steep gradients having no additional climbing lanes for
slow moving heavy vehicles reduce capacity of the strategic requirements.
road and although initial capital lay-out is lower it will
lead to high traffic costs making it uneconomic
compared to road having higher capital layout.
No of intersections

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Location surveys in rural areas Location surveys in rural areas

1) fix end-terminals;
2) define region A (width 40–60% length of road) – the
• Location surveys in rural areas terminals and all intermediate points through which it
In general, the approach to selecting the route for a long must pass form the control points;
road in a rural area may follow the following procedure: 3) this region is searched and a number of broad bands
(B & C) are selected within which further search will be
REGION A
concentrated leading to…
4) selection of corridors D, E and F; (direct as possible
and considering the economic feasibility of
B

D construction and operation of the road)

END
END 5) comparison of corridors shows that E is best so route
TERMINAL G TERMINAL
G is generated (1 – 1,5km wide)
E 6) search this area and locate within it one or more
C

F different alignments containing minor geometric

differences;
7) these alignments are compared and a final selection
suitable for design purposes is made.

Location surveys in rural areas Location surveys in rural areas

To aid in the decision making process, the Reconnaissance survey – begins with a "paper study" of an
area.
following typical procedure is used to It’s purpose is to evaluate the feasibility of one or more
gather information about the area being possible routes.
evaluated. Good reconnaissance can be the greatest single money
saving phase of a construction of a new road.
a) Reconnaissance survey;
b) Preliminary survey; Existing maps and aerial photos were the primary tools.
c) Final location survey. Good progress has been made and techniques have been
developed whereby earthworks quantities can be
calculated from
photos with the aid of computers. (Google earth)

It is usually necessary to go on a field trip to gain information regarding

unusual topographic features and sub-surface conditions.

Location surveys in rural areas Location surveys in rural areas

Preliminary survey Final location survey
Collecting all physical information which may affect The selection of the final horizontal and vertical
the alignment. alignment depends mainly upon the geometric
It can also be either an aerial or ground survey. design standards adopted and earthwork
quantities.
A base line traverse is carried out by simply connecting a
series of straight lines and carefully referencing intersection
points. This survey serves the dual purpose of definitely
fixing the centre-line, while at the same time
From this information the preliminary map (strip map) is outstanding physical data necessary for the
prepared showing the base line and all horiz positions of preparation of working drawings are collected.
ground features (planimetric details).

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Location surveys in urban areas Uses of Aerial Surveys

Controlling factors which influence the final location of an Advantages
urban • On a large scheme the time required to locate the facility
roadway: and prepare plans is reduced.
• Town planning considerations: • Skilled technical personnel are released from routine
- present and future needs of the business, industrial, survey work and can be used more profitably.
residential and recreational elements • Topographic maps prepared from air-photos can be
• Parking - parking problems and traffic congestion may more reliable than those produced from ground surveys.
be alleviated • The ability to see a complete picture of the whole area
• Existing transportation systems - new facilities must be ensures that the most suitable location is not accidentally
integrated with the existing road system to obtain overlooked.
optimum usage. • Preliminary surveys and measurements can be
• Existing public utilities - sufficient information regarding performed without physically entering private property.
existing stormwater pipes, sewer pipes, water, gas and • A most complete inventory of all surface features is
electricity utilities are required. obtained.

Uses of Aerial Surveys

Disadvantages
• Good photography requires clear atmospheric
conditions and thus cannot be guaranteed to be
ready at any particular time.
• A topographic map cannot be accurately
obtained of areas covered by forests, snow etc.
• For small projects the costs may be relatively
high if photos are not already available.

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