Industrial Hygiene

Emergency Response Training

Course Pre-read
An Introduction to Industrial Hygiene

Industrial Hygiene (IH) is concerned with the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, prevention and
control of environmental factors arising in or from the workplace. The objective of IH is protecting
worker health and well-being and safeguarding the community at large. The Industrial Hygiene
function systematically identifies hazards in the work environment that could harm health. These
include chemical, physical, biological, ergonomic hazards and psychosocial factors. Risks and levels
of exposure are assessed, and the appropriate risk reduction measures are implemented in order to
eliminate or manage exposure to the identified health hazards

Anticipation involves identifying potential hazards in the workplace before they are introduced.

Recognition involves identifying the potential hazard that a chemical, physical, biological agent or an
adverse ergonomic situation poses to health.

A chemical hazard may be defined as a gas, vapour, mist, aerosol, fume, liquid, solid or dust
that is toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, sensitising or carcinogenic to humans through its
physio-chemical makeup. Chemical substances may be hazardous to humans through
exposure via inhalation, skin contact or ingestion, and dependant on how much and how often
we are exposed. Examples of chemical hazards include; benzene, asbestos, hydrogen
sulphide.

A physical hazard is a something that can cause harm to humans through the physical
energy associated with it. Physical energy can present a health hazard depending on the
nature of the energy and how often and how much we are exposed to. Examples of physical
hazards include; noise, vibration, temperature, and radiation ionising radiation or non-ionising
radiation noise, electromagnetic fields, lighting.

A biological hazard may be defined as something arising from living organisms that is
hazardous to human health. Examples of biological hazards include bacteria, legionella in
water systems, viruses, fungi, mould, insects and animals.

An ergonomic hazard factors body positioning and force needed to carry out tasks such as
lifting, stretching, and repetitive motion.

A Psychosocial hazard may be any situation or series of circumstances that impact on an

employee’s capacity to respond to work demand(s), relationships or challenges within the
workplace. Psychosocial hazards can impact on how people think, feel, behave and cause
physical or mental ill health. Examples of psychological hazards are; fatigue, poor task
design, work load, role ambiguity.
 Chemical Hazard Information – Safety Data Sheets

Safety Data Sheets (SDS)

Safety Data Sheets (SDS) are a standard way of communicating toxicology and other relevant
information about substances. They are a useful source of information in assessing the hazard of a
chemical substance. They typically provide data on the physical and chemical properties of the
material concerned as well as relevant toxicological information.

The content of the SDS may vary depending upon local legislative requirements but the majority of
SDS now follow the Globally Harmonised System (GHS).

Evaluation involves looking at the extent of exposure to chemical, physical or biological agents or
adverse ergonomic situations in the workplace. This often includes monitoring or measurement of
the personal exposure of a worker to the hazard/agent in the workplace, particularly at the relevant
interface between the environment and the body, e.g. breathing zone, hearing zone, and assessment
of the data in terms of occupational exposure limits (OELs) where these criteria exist.

The risk that somebody could be harmed may be high or low and the process of risk assessment
should provide an indication of how serious the harm could be. In general, all reasonably practicable
efforts should be made to minimise the risk and should cover all reasonably foreseeable situations of
normal and abnormal and emergency scenarios.

Monitoring Techniques (Chemicals)

Any monitoring technique used should be appropriate for the purpose of the measurement. This
means it should provide information necessary for the decisions which will be made on the basis of
that information.

Monitoring means the use of valid and suitable industrial hygiene techniques to derive a quantitative
estimate of the exposure of employees to substances hazardous to health. Only validated monitoring
methods should be used, these are published by organisations such as the UK Health & Safety
Executive (HSE) and National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH) in the US. In the
case of airborne contaminants monitoring involves the periodic or continuous sampling of the
atmosphere at the workplace and will usually require sampling in the breathing zone of the operative
by means of personal sampling equipment.

In addition to personal monitoring, fixed position/static monitoring can also offer limited information as
to an individual’s exposure. However, it can provide a guide to the sources of contaminants,
effectiveness of control measures and the general workroom atmospheric concentrations.
Types of Monitoring (Chemicals)

Grab or snap sampling can be used as a screening technique; it will give the concentration of a
contaminant at a specific time and location and will help to confirm the presence of and/or identify a
suspected contaminant. Grab samples are made with direct-reading instruments or by taking a
sample of air that can be analysed by a laboratory.

Short term monitoring will determine concentrations over a short time period, normally up to 15
minutes. Results are normally calculated as a time- weighted average (TWA) and can be compared
with any relevant recommended short term exposure limits (STEL) and to quantify exposures to
chemical hazards with short-term (acute) health effects e.g. Hydrogen Sulphide. Short term
monitoring may be undertaken by active (pumped) personal sampling or direct-reading instruments
that log data over time.
Long term monitoring is similarly determined on a time-weighted average (TWA) basis and related to
long term (8 hour) occupational exposure limits. Half shift, or the time to complete a specific operation
or full shift (8 - 12 hours) are normally the time periods monitored. Long term monitoring is carried out
by active (pumped) or passive (diffusive) personal sampling which can be compared with long term
exposure limits (LTEL).

Continuous Monitoring will indicate the variations in concentrations and is similar to grab sampling
in that peak levels can be identified as well as the average concentrations/exposures being
determined. Continuous monitoring is carried out using direct-reading instrumentation (personal, fixed
or portable).

In some circumstances, bulk samples of the substances being handled may also be taken and
analysed for identification purposes, but it is not possible to relate the results from bulk samples to the
airborne samples collected. However, with some contaminants, such as asbestos, bulk sampling is an
essential part of the identification process.

The sampling types described above are based on the assumption that inhalation is the main route of
entry of a chemical substance into the body. However, exposure via skin absorption and ingestion can
also occur and should be considered in assessing the risk to health in activities involving chemical
substances.
Measurements for particular substances at a particular time tell only part of the story, and it should be
remembered that concentration can vary as the situation or task changes. Good sampling strategies
must be adopted to decide which groups of workers, which locations, tasks and shifts should be
monitored.

One of the first questions you should ask about of any sampling technique is what the results will tell
me.

Monitoring Equipment

The choice of monitoring equipment/devices depends on several factors including portability, ease of
use, efficiency of the device, reliability, type of analysis or information required, suitability for specific
purpose, and where personal monitoring is involved, user acceptability. The sampling equipment must
not affect the workers performance in any way; it must be comfortable to wear and not inhibit dexterity
or change his/her mode of operation. It also must not be a hazard to the worker or area, e.g. some
equipment will need to be intrinsically safe.

No single piece of equipment is available which is suitable for all types of monitoring of chemical
contaminants. The tendency is to produce special purposes monitors for specific contaminants or
groups of contaminants.

The main types of equipment which can be utilised for the four main sampling techniques are
summarised in the tables below and include their main advantages and disadvantages.

Personal Monitoring for gases and vapours

Personal monitoring is used to give us information about the amount or concentration of a substance
in air that a person is breathing. Personal samples are taken where a substance might be present in
the air a person breaths because of the type of work they are doing. The results help us understand if
there is any risk of the person suffering health effects. They also help us confirm that the protective
measures that have been provided to the person who is doing the job have been good enough to stop
them breathing in any harmful levels of substances. Personal samples are the best way to assess the
risks to a persons health because they only give information about the concentration of a substance in
the air which that person breathed

Personal monitoring for chemical gases and vapours is carried out using active (pumped) or passive
(diffusive) monitoring equipment. During active sampling, the atmosphere to be monitored is drawn
by a pump through a filtration/adsorbent material over a fixed period of time at a known flow rate. The
tube with the adsorbent material is attached to a person somewhere in their ‘breathing zone’ - this is
an area approximately 30cm around the nose and mouth of the person. The monitoring equipment is
left attached to the person for the length of time it takes them to do a job where the substance that is
being sampled may be present in the air they are breathing. The badge is then removed, sealed, and
sent to a laboratory to analyse how much of the substance has been collected on the badge.
 Personal Monitoring using active (pumped) sample

Passive samplers work by diffusion of air across a permeable membrane on to a solid adsorbent for
subsequent analysis.

As with the active (pumped) sample, the diffusive sample badge is left attached to the person for the
length of time it takes them to do a job where the substance that is being sampled may be present in
the air they are breathing. The badge is then removed, sealed, and sent to a laboratory to analyse
how much of the substance has been collected on the badge. The laboratory reports the amount of
the substance in air that the person who wore the sampling badge was breathing. The amount of the
substance in air is known as the concentration.

Personal monitoring using diffusive (passive) sample

When sampling for a vapour, we must remember that the quantity of vapour given off from a liquid is
essentially a function of the liquids boiling point. If a substance evaporates readily, it is usually termed
‘volatile’.
The lower the boiling point of a substance, the more vapour is produced. However, the molecular
weight and structure of the substance are also involved. Other factors can also affect the
production/quantity of vapour, namely:

1. Surface area

2. Air movement agitation and splashing

3. Temperature.
 Equipment used for taking grab Samples

Equipment Type Example Mode of Operation Advantages Disadvantages

Detector Tubes e.g Draeger Chemical reaction produces colour Instant result, easy to Not very accurate, readings can
Tubes, Gastec Tubes change in the tube to indicate use, tubes for specific be affected by interferences and
concentration of chemical. chemicals and ranges cross sensitivities.
available, cheap
Tubes available for specific chemicals e.g.
benzene, toluene, hydrogen sulphide,
mercury

Limit of Detection – Tube specific

Gas sampling bags, syringes Pumps used to fill a bag or container with Simple, light, cheap No concentration effect, losses
and containers e.g. Summa a sample of air to be sent for laboratory can occur. Not instant –
canisters, mini cans analysis to determine chemical laboratory analysis needed.
components present

Electrochemical Detectors e.g. Substance interacts with electrochemical Direct reading, simple, Expensive, calibration required.
multigas detector detector cell. Typically measures 4 lightweight.
different gases simultaneously e.g
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), Carbon
Monoxide (CO), Lower Explosive Limit
(LEL), Oxygen (O2)
Photoionization Detectors Ultraviolet lamp breaks down gases and Very sensitive, but not High oxygen and Methane levels
vapours for measurement. specific for all VOC can create significant changes in
E.g MultiRae and UltraRae 3000 compounds. Can be the PID response. Damp /
Measures Volatile Organic Compounds selective for benzene humidity can effect the reading.
(VOCs) and Benzene using a benzene
separation tube.
Limit of Detection: VOCs 0.1ppm

Benzene 0.05ppm

Gold Film Mercury Vapour Mercury vapour increases resistance of Simple, lightweight, Expensive, requires regular
Analyser (for mercury vapour) gold film sensor specific cleaning and calibration

Limit of Detection: 0.5µg/m3

 Equipment used for taking short and long term Samples

Equipment Type Example Mode of Operation Advantages Disadvantages

Active (pumped) samplers with Air is drawn through a tube on which the Accurate, reliable, used Needs complex laboratory,
solid sorbent traps e.g. charcoal substances of interest are collected in many official result not instant.
or tenax methods
Used to measure Total Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) and compounds of
interest to health e.g. benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, xylene, n-hexane

Limit of Detection: Variable

Diffusive Samplers e.g. 3M Contaminant diffuses through a membrane Small, robust, cheap, May require validation in field
badges onto a sorbent bed of filter material. acceptable to operators conditions. Needs complex
laboratory analysis. Result
Used to measure Total Volatile Organic not instant.
Compounds (VOCs) and compounds of
interest to health e.g. benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, xylene, n-hexane
 Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs)

An Occupational Exposure Limit is an upper limit of the concentration of a chemical substance in the
air someone breaths whilst at work. The limits help assess the risk when working with a particular
substance. Such a limit can also be used as a tool in risk assessment and in the management of
activities involving handling substances. In many places national authorities set and enforce legal
occupational exposure limits to protect the health of the workforce. There are a few key points to
remember about OELs;

• They are not an index of toxicity.

• They are based on the current best available information and are liable to change.
• If there is not a hygiene standard set for a chemical substance, it does not mean that
substance is safe.
• Good IH practice is to keep airborne contaminants to as low a level as possible, not to just
below the relevant hygiene standard(s).
• They apply to occupational exposure of adults. They are not applicable to environmental
exposure where more susceptible groups exist e.g. pregnant women, children, infirm.
• For chemicals they generally relate to airborne concentrations i.e. they only take into account
the inhalation route of entry.
• They generally refer to single substances, although some guidance may be given on mixed
exposures.

Categories of Exposure Limits

Long Term Exposure Limits (LTEL) are expressed as a Time Weighted Average normally over an
eight hour period (8 hr TWA). This allows for exposures to vary through the working day so long as
the average exposure does not exceed the limit.

Short Term Exposure Limits (STEL) are normally over a 15 minute period and used when exposure
for short periods of time occurs.

Ceiling Limits are sometimes used and are concentrations that should not be exceeded during any
part of the working exposure.

Risk reduction measures (controls)

The hierarchy of control applies to mitigating industrial hygiene exposures in the workplace. The
following risk reduction measures should be applied, in the order they are listed to manage risk
reliably and effectively:

• Elimination - where reasonably practicable, consider options for carrying out work without
using the hazardous material or process.
• Substitution - where reasonably practicable, consider using another material or process that is
less hazardous.
• Engineering controls (e.g., enclosing hazard source, using local exhaust ventilation, and lifting
devices).
• Administrative controls (e.g., safe work procedures, instruction and trainings, and limiting the
time of exposure and using warning signs).
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (e.g., Respiratory Protective Equipment [RPE]), hearing
protection, protective gloves, impermeable clothing, safety glasses, face shield).
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

PPE should only be used as a control measure when:

• Engineering and/or administrative controls are not enough to manage the identified health risk
(as a short to medium term measure).
• Other controls are being put into practice or are degraded for any reason (e.g., during
maintenance activities).
• Worn for protection in certain circumstances, in the event of other control failures, that could
cause immediate or longer term harm.

PPE is the last line of defence as a protective measure.

In many cases, PPE can be used in addition to other controls.
Processes and procedures should be in place to verify:

• PPE protects the wearer against the identified workplace health hazard.
• PPE is used according to defined instructions.
• Manufacturers’ information about using, fitting, testing, cleaning, storing, maintaining and
disposing of PPE is followed.
• PPE does not interfere with other measures, including other PPE designed to protect against
health and safety hazards.

Industrial Hygiene Emergency Response

In any emergency situation involving our products, by-products, raw materials, wastes or damage to
facilities, there is a potential to cause ‘harm to people’ through harmful exposures. Protecting our
people is the first priority in any incident. Industrial hygiene emergency response preparedness is
essential to ensure timely mobilisation of resources to identify health hazards, assess exposure and
implement control measures to mitigate or minimize risk to health.

In preparing and responding to an incident where there is potential for harm to people, the following
framework can help with this;

1. What are the hazards to health associated with the incident e.g.

• Release of product and process chemicals

• Products of chemical reaction – combustion, hydrolysis
• Release of materials used in the fabric of construction e.g. insulation, vessel linings
• Volatility of materials; impact of water/foam/air on materials
• Odour problems (including nuisance odours that may have a perceived risk)
• Physical agents e.g. thermal, noise, damage to any radioactive devices
• Human Factors which may be applicable to how people will act and react
• Biological agents e.g. legionella; mould (due to post-flood issues)
• Climatic conditions e.g. heat / cold

What are the hazards introduced in the course of the response e.g. dispersants, manual handling of
sand bags, hoses.
What are the hazards during stabilisation and recovery phase, e.g. restoration of the facility
 2. Assess the potential health exposure risks of the identified health hazards in the crisis and
emergency scenarios. A good health risk exposure assessment takes into account both skin
exposure and inhalation risks. Whilst less likely, ingestion could be a risk to consider e.g.
during decontamination

Consider if health exposure risks may affect;

• Employees
• Contractors
• Response Teams
• Customers
• Neighbours
• General Public

3. Implement risk reduction measures (controls) for the identified health risks.

Chemical Hazards common in Oil & Gas Hydrocarbons

Flammable/explosive gases

Many components of hydrocarbons are flammable. A flammable or explosive gas is a substance

which can ignite readily and burn rapidly or explosively with (usually) air. For a gas to burn in air its
concentration in air must fall within certain well-defined limits. If the concentration is too small then it
cannot sustain a flame and will not ignite. This low limit for combustion is termed the Lower
Explosive Limit. Similarly, if the concentration is too high then there will be insufficient oxygen for the
gas to combine with for combustion. This upper limit is termed the Upper Explosive Limit.

Flammable gas is typically measured as a % of the explosive limits i.e.

• LEL (Lower explosive limit)

• UEL (Upper explosive limit)

Examples of flammable gases include Methane, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, Ethylene Oxide. For
measurement of flammable gases with e.g. a direct-reading portable multi-gas detector the following
must be taken into account;

• Detection of the flammable gases relies on oxidation so oxygen needs to be present - At least
a concentration of 10% oxygen in needed to detect flammables
• This type of monitor cannot measure flammables in inert gases
• The gas detector needs to be calibrated against a known concentration gas standard that is
representative of the flammable gas being measured – The meter should read 20.9% O2 and
<1% LEL in clean air.
• There is sufficient battery life left to take samples needed and the tubing for the instrument is
in tact.
• The sensor response time in gas detectors with electrochemical sensors can take 30 seconds
to be 90% responsive. It is therefore recommended that samples taken with this type of
monitor are taken over a 2 minute period. Similarly, sensors take time to clear after taking a
measurement, particularly if the sensor has been exposed to a high concentration of gas.
• Electro-chemical sensors are easily damaged by water contact
Methane is used as a calibration standard as representative component of hydrocarbons. The LEL for
Methane is 5% as volume of gas in air and the UEL is 15% as volume of the gas in air. The LEL and
UEL is different for different explosive and flammable gases.

LEL gas test pass criteria is usually less than or equal to 1% LEL (methane) with gas detector alarm
levels set at 10% LEL (with methane calibration).

Note the LEL for methane is 5% which is equal to 50,000ppm (parts per million). 1% of the LEL is
equal to 500ppm. Therefore, an LEL measurement with a multi-gas detector may determine that the
atmosphere is safe from an explosive / flammability perspective, but it may not be safe from a toxic
hazard perspective. Measurement of toxic substances to assess risk to health is generally in the units
of ppm for gases and vapours.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

A VOC is any compound of carbon, excluding carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonic acid,
metallic carbides or carbonates, and ammonium carbonate, which participates in atmospheric
photochemical reactions. VOCs are components of hydrocarbon liquids such as crude oil.

VOCs evaporate or change from a liquid to a vapour easily. The VOC vapours can then mix with air.
The concentration of VOCs that could be present in the air from a hydrocarbon release depends on a
number of factors including the amount of oil that comes into contact with the air, if the hydrocarbon
has been washed by water, the temperature and pressure of the air the hydrocarbon comes into
contact with.

The total amount of organic vapour compounds that are collected in the personal monitoring (total
VOCs) can be estimated by using one compound as a reference standard. Results indicate a "worst
case" scenario because they include every detected VOC in the sample, with the assumption that the
response for all of the detected VOCs is similar to that of reference compound; N-Hexane.

VOCs are also emitted by many other sources, such as motor vehicles, industries, and paints or
solvents. Personal monitoring techniques cannot determine where the VOCs originate. Therefore
VOC levels in the air around the monitoring equipment could be coming from a hydrocarbon release
or from other sources.
Specific VOCs of interest due to their toxic properties include Benzene; Toluene; Xylene and
Ethylbenzene. When personal monitoring is undertaken to assess personal exposure to VOCs –
Total VOCs, Benzene; Toluene; Xylene and Ethylbenzene are often requested to be reported by
the analytical laboratory.

The ability of VOCs to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are highly toxic, to those
with no known health effects. As with other contaminants, the extent and nature of the health effect
will depend on many factors including the concentration someone is exposed to and length of time
exposed. Eye, respiratory tract and skin irritation, headaches, dizziness and memory impairment are
common acute symptoms. Some VOCs are suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in
humans e.g. benzene.

Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

H2S can be present in crude oil in varying amounts. It is an irritant and an extremely toxic gas, six
times as toxic as carbon monoxide. Personnel working in areas where H2S is present may face the
added danger of becoming accustomed to the smell. H 2S at very low concentrations causes irritation
of eyes, nose and throat. It is easily identified initially by its characteristic obnoxious smell of rotten
eggs. At slightly higher doses, the sense of smell is completely deadened (i.e. not being able to smell
it, may mean that concentration of H2S has increased, not decreased). At moderate concentrations it
causes headaches, dizziness, loss of balance, nausea and vomiting within 15 minutes and at high
concentrations can cause rapid loss of consciousness. Death may result within minutes unless the
casualty is moved to fresh air and resuscitated.

Mercury

Many crude oils and condensates are known to contain elevated levels of mercury - concentrations
can vary considerably depending on the reservoir the oil has come from. Elemental mercury appears
as a liquid metal at ambient temperature. It has a significant partial vapour pressure so readily
releases vapours. Elemental mercury may be present in suspension in oil cargoes and may be found
in the vapour space of cargo tanks. Mercury may settle to the bottom of a cargo tank as an inorganic
compound of mercury (such as mercuric sulphide). Inorganic and elemental mercury are not soluble
in water but can be present in suspension. Once suspended in water, bacterial organisms can convert
the mercury to more hazardous organic state, methyl mercury, through a metabolic process.

Organic mercury compounds such as methyl mercury are generally more toxic than inorganic forms
such as mercuric sulphide. However, chronic exposure to all forms of mercury can cause damage to
brain, disruption of the central nervous system, and neuro-psychiatric disorders.