PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER:

Matter
- occupies space and has mass
- made of tiny particles

- particles of matter DO NOT attract each other

Three States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas

SOLID
- definite shape and volume
movement: vibrating (fixed position)
- particles are CLOSELY PACKED

LIQUID
- definite volume and takes the shape of a container
movement: flowing
- particles are FREE TO MOVE easily/slowly

GAS
- takes the volume and shape of the container
movement: moving from one place to another in any direction
- weakest force of attraction
- particles are NOT ATTACHED

attractive forces of liquid START TO STRENGTHEN when they are cooled

ATTRACTIVE FORCES:
solid – strong
liquid – less
gas – weak

property – refers to the characteristics that describe a sample of matter

PHASE CHANGE:
- when matter changes its state

Solid to Liquid – MELTING

Gas to Solid – DEPOSITION
Liquid to Solid – FREEZING
Liquid to Gas – EVAPORATION
Solid to Gas – SUBLIMATION
Gas to Liquid – CONDENSATION
Increasing temperature = Increasing Kinetic Energy
Decreasing temperature = Decreasing Kinetic Energy

INCREASING TEMPERATURE & FAST MOTION (KINETIC ENERGY):

- Melting
- Evaporation
- Sublimation

DECREASING TEMPERATURE & SLOW MOTION (KINETIC ENERGY)

- Deposition
- Condensation
- Freezing

Arrangement of particles:
Melting & Condensation – close
Evaporation & Sublimation – far
Deposition & Freezing – very close

Condensation – clouds precipitate in the form of rain

temperature of particles decreases = particles become closer together

temperature of particle increases = particles move farther apart from each other

ATOMS:

atom
- from the Greek word “atomos” or indivisible
- smallest unit of matter
- 3 types of particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons (subatomic particles)

Subatomic Particles

Charge:
Electrons (e-) : -1
Proton (p+) : +1
Neutrons (n0) : 0

Mass in grams:
Electrons: 9.109 x 10-28
Proton: 1.672 x 10-24
Neutron: 1.678 x 10-24

Location in the atom:

Outside the nucleus – Electron | Inside the nucleus – Proton & Neutron
Nucleons (tightly packed)
- protons and electrons found in the nucleus

Protons
- positively charged
- determines the identity of an atom

Electrons
- negatively charged

Neutrons
- neutral charge

Electric Charge – fundamental electrical property that is either positive or negative type

Conductors – materials that allow electrons to flow freely from atom to atom

Insulators – materials that prevent the free flow of electrons from atom to atom

Electrical Cords – usually made with both conductors and insulators

Joseph John Thomson

- discovered that atoms have negatively-charged particles (electron)
- created the plum pudding model

Ernest Rutherford, Johannes “Hans” Wilhelm Geiger, Ernest Marsden

- tested Thomson’s model by bombarding a very thin sheet of gold foil with positively-charged
alpha particles

• Alpha particle scattering experiment (their experiment)

They observed the following:

• Most alpha particles were undeflected.
• Some are deflected at smaller angles.
• Few alpha particles deflected almost back towards the source

• The nuclear atom

- proposed model of Rutherford's team
- the electrons are outside the nucleus
- atoms contain a positively charged nucleus
- most alpha particles passed through the gold foil undeflected

• Nucleus (a very tiny region)

- where all the positive charge atom were concentrated in
- found at the center of the atom

A single atom
- is electrically neutral if its number of electrons is equal to the number of protons

Formulas:
Mass number (A) = number of protons (p+) + number of neutrons (n0)

Atomic Number (Z) = number of protons (p+) = number of electrons (e-)

Number of neutron (n0) = mass number (A) – number of protons (p+)

Atoms gain charges when electrons are lost or gained by

the atom. When this happens, the atom becomes an ION.

anion - negative charge ion

cation - positive charge ion

charge of ion = number of protons (p+) - number of electrons (e-)

Isotopes
- atoms having the same atomic number but with different mass number

Different isotopes
- can be identified by its respective mass number

Mass number
- sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom

Periodic Table of Elements

• Periods
- horizontal rows of the periodic table

• Groups or Families
- vertical columns of the periodic table

• Valence Electrons
- group number corresponds to the number of electrons in their outermost shell
- outermost electrons are called valence electrons.

The elements in group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties.
FEATURES OF GROUPS or FAMILIES OF ELEMENTS

• Groups 1, 2, and 13 through 18

-representative elements or main groups

• Group 1
- the Alkali Metals

• Alkali Metals
- very reactive, soft, malleable, and ductile
- good conductorsof heat and electricity
- only one valence electron

Elements:
• Hydrogen (H)
• Lithium (Li)
• Sodium (Na)
• Potassium (K)
• Rubidium (Rb)
• Cesium (Cs)
• Francium (Fr)

• Group 2
- the Alkaline Earth Metals

• Alkaline Earth Metals

- second most reactive elements
- malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity
- two valence electrons

Elements:
• Beryllium (Be)
• Magnesium (Mg)
• Calcium (Ca)
• Strontium (Sr)
• Barium (Ba)
• Radium (Ra)

• Group 13
- the Boron Group

• Boron Group
- are post-transition metals, except for Boron (a metalloid) Nihonium (a synthetic chemical)
- three valence electrons
Elements:
• Boron (B)
• Aluminum (Al)
• Gallium (Ga)
• Indium (In)
• Thallium (Tl)
• Nihonium (Nh)

• Group 14
- the Carbon Group

• Carbon Group
- also known as the Carbon family, or the tetrels
- elements in this family are the key importance for semiconductor technology
- four valence electrons

Elements:
• Carbon (C)
• Silicon (Si)
• Germanium (Ge)
• Tin (Sn)
• Lead (Pb)
• Flerovium (Fi)

• Group 15
- the Nitrogen Group

• Nitrogen Group
- known as Pnictogen group
- five valence electrons

Elements:
• Nitrogen (N)
• Phosphorus (P)
• Arsenic (As)
• Antimony (Sb)
• Bismuth (Bi)
• Moscovium (Mc)

• Group 16
- the Chalcogens

• Chalcogen (generally nonmetals)

- the new trivial name recognized by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
- widely known as Oxygen group
- six valence electrons

Elements:
• Oxygen (O)
• Sulfur (S)
• Selenium (Se)
• Tellurium (Te)
• Polonium (Po)
• Livermorium (Lv)

• Group 17
- the Halogens

• Halogens
- salt former
- exist in all three states of matter
- seven valence electrons

Elements:
• Fluorine (F)
• Chlorine (Cl)
• Bromine (Br)
• Uodine (I)
• Astatine (At)
• Tennessine (Ts)

• Group 18
- the Noble Gases

• Noble Gases
- stable gases
- non-reactive or inert elements
- eight valence electrons EXCEPT Helium

Elements:
• Helium (He)
• Neon (Ne)
• Argon (Ar)
• Krypton (Kr)
• Xenon (Xe)
• Radon (Rn)
• Oganesson (Og)

Groups 3-12
• the Transition Metals

• Transition Metals
- hard (with Mercury as an exception)
- malleable, ductile, and good conductors of electricity
- one and/or two valence electrons

Elements:
• Copper (Cu)
• Iron (Fe)
• Manganese (Mn)
• Cobalt (Co)
• Nickel (Ni)
• Vanadium (V)
• Chromium (Cr)
• Titanium (Ti)
• Rhodium (Rh)
• Molybdenum (Mo)
• Niobium (Nb)
• Palladium (Pd)
• Ruthenium (Ru)
• Silver (Ag)
• Technetium (Tc)
• Zirconium (Zr)
• Scandium (Sc)
• Rhenium (Re)
• Gold (Au)
• Hafnium (Hf)
• Iridium (Ir)
• Osmium (Os)
• Platinum (Pt)
• Tungsten (W)
• Tantalum (Ta)
• Cadmium (Cd)
• Yttrium (Y)
• Hassium (Hs)
• Bohrium (Bh)
• Mercury (Hg)
• Darmstadtium (Ds)
• Copernicium (Cn)
• Meitnerium (Mt)
• Rutherfordium (Rf)
• Seaborgium (Sg)
• Roentgenium (Rg)
• Dubnium (Db)

• Lanthanides and actinides series

- special series of elements
- part of the transition block
- also called the inner transition elements

Lanthanide series Elements:

• Lanthanum (La)
• Cerium (Ce)
• Praseodymium (Pr)
• Neodymium (Nd)
• Promethium (Pm)
• Samarium (Sm)
• Europium (Eu)
• Gadolinium (Gd)
• Terbium (Tb)
• Dysprosium (Dy)
• Holmium (Ho)
• Erbium (Er)
• Thulium (Tm)
• Ytterbium (Yb)
• Lutetium (Lu)

Actinide series Elements:

• Actinium (Ac)
• Thorium (Th)
• Protactinium (Pa)
• Uranium (U)
• Neptunium (Np)
• Plutonium (Pu)
• Americium (Am)
• Curium (Cm)
• Berkelium (Bk)
• Californium (Cf)
• Einsteinium (Es)
• Fermium (Fm)
• Mendelevium (Md)
• Nobelium (No)
• Lawrencium (Lr)
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

• Metals
- located on the left side of the Periodic Table of Elements
- are solids at room temperature EXCEPT Mercury

• Nonmetals
- found far right of the periodic table
- may be solids, liquids or gases

• Metalloids
- a stair-step line on the table
- separates the metals from nonmetals
- exhibit the properties of metals and nonmetals

7 Metalloids Elements:
• Boron (B)
• Silicon (Si)
• Germanium (Ge)
• Arsenic (As)
• Antimony (Sb)
• Tellurium (Te)
• Polonium (Po)

Classification of Elements and their Properties

• Metals
- lustrous (shiny), malleable, hard, ductile
- good conductors of heat and electricity

• Nonmetals
- dull in appearance, brittle
- poor conductors of heat and electricity

• Metalloids
- have some properties of metal
- behave chemically like a nonmetal in certain instances
- some are semiconductors (will insulate and conduct electricity)

REACTIVE AND NONREACTIVE METALS

- a less reactive metal CANNOT replace a more reactive metal (no reaction will occur)
- a more reactive metal CAN replace a less reactive metal (will produce a reaction)

ACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

• Potassium (K)
• Sodium (Na)
• Lithium (Li)
• Calcium (Ca)
• Magnesium (Mg)
• Aluminum (Al)
• Zinc (Zn)
• Iron (Fe)
• Tin (Sn)
• Lead (Pb)
• Hydrogen (H)
• Copper (Cu)
• Silver (Ag)
• Gold (Au)
• Platinum (Pt)

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

• Electrons exist in different energy levels (previously described as "shells")

• Each orbital can hold two electrons (Pauli Exclusion Principle)

• Orbitals
- areas within shells where the electrons are located

• Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

- we know the electron is somewhere in the orbital, but we CAN’T know exactly where it is or
how fast it is moving

Types of Orbitals (subshells)

• S orbitals - 1 orbital per shell
• P orbitals - 3 orbitals per shell
• D orbitals - 5 orbitals per shell
• F orbitals - 7 orbitals per shell

Actual Electron Configurations

• Total electrons = atomic number

• Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy levels first (Aufbau principle)

• Fill energy levels with electrons until you run out

• Superscript
- states how many electrons are in each level

Electron Configuration
- describes the electron of an element through their distribution in the main energy levels and
sublevels

nle
• n = energy level
• l = orbital or subshell
• e = the number of electrons occupying the orbital or
subshell found at the energy level

Diagonal Rule

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6

• ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
- uses boxes with arrows to represent the electrons in an atom

• Each box in an orbital diagram represents an orbital.

• Orbital have a capacity of two electrons.
• Arrows are drawn inside the boxes to represent electrons.

NOTE: Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spin, so the arrows are drawn
pointing in opposite directions

• Rules in drawing the orbital diagram:

1. Determine the number of electrons. (number of protons or atomic number)

2. The boxes are drawn for the orbitals.

• Aufbau Principle
- arrows are drawn in the boxes starting from the lowest energy sublevel and working up
• Pauli exclusion principle
- requires that electrons in the same orbital have opposite spin

• Hund's Rule
- orbitals in a given sublevel are half-filled before they are completely filled
HUND’S RULE
- electrons fill a subshell singly before forming any pairs
- each electron in a single occupied orbital has the same spin