1.

Dimensional Analysis and Buckingham Pi (  ) Theorem

Fluid characteristics can be described quantitatively in terms of certain basic quantities such as
length, time, and mass.
The dimensions of the physical quantities most commonly used in hydraulic engineering are
listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Dimensions of Physical Quantities Commonly Used in Hydraulic Engineering
Quantity Dimension Quantity Dimension
Length L Specific weight ML2T-2
2
Area L Surface tension MT-2
Volume L3 Modulus of elasticity ML-1T-2
Time T Force MLT-2
Velocity LT-1 Pressure ML-1T-2
-2
Acceleration LT Shear stress ML-1T-2
Discharge L3T-1 Momentum MLT-1
-3
Density ML Torque ML2T-2
2 -1
Kinematic viscosity LT Energy ML2T-2
Dynamic viscosity ML-1T-1 Power ML2T-3

Table 1.2 A Partial List of Derived Quantities Encountered in Fluid Mechanics

Quantity Commonly used SI Unit
Dimensions
Density (ρ) M L-3 kg/m3
Specific Weight (γ) F L-3 N/m3
Kinematic Viscosity (  ) L2 T-1 m2/s

Dynamic Viscosity (µ) F T L-2 N s/m2

Velocity (V) L T-1 m/s

Area (A) L2 m2
Frequency (f) T-1 Hz
Acceleration (a) L T-2 m/s2
Pressure (p) F L-2 N/m2=Pa
Energy (E) FL Joule
-1
Power (P) FLT W
Discharge (Q) L3 T-1 m3/s
Dimensionally Homogeneous (consistent) Equations: That is the dimensions of the left side of
the equation must be the same as those on the right side, and all additive separate terms must
have the same dimensions. Also, if the coefficient has a dimension, the equation is not
dimensionally homogeneous. General homogeneous equations are valid in any system of units.
Some empirical formulas are useful but not dimensionally consistent, and only apply to some
particular units.
Optimal diameter of oil pipelines: A pipeline is designed to carry a specified fluid flow rate
between two points. If the pipeline is small, there will be large pressure drop between one end
and the other, a large amount of power will be consumed in pumping, and the pumps will be
expensive. If the pipeline diameter is large, the pressure drop is smaller, the pumps can be smaller
and will need less power, but the pipeline itself will be more expensive to construct. Somewhere
in between there is an optimal diameter that minimizes total costs. A useful rule of thumb for oil
pipelines says that the optimal diameter:

q
Dopt 
500
where D is the diameter in inches and q is the flow rate in barrels/day.

Example: The empirical formulas given below are used to compute the average velocity for
uniform flows. Find which of the given equations are dimensionally homogenous.

8g
V Rh S o (Darcy-Weisbach Formula)
f

V  C Rh S o (Chezy Formula)

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V Rh S o (Manning Formula)
n
Where f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, C (L1/2T-1) is the Chezy coefficient, and n(L-1/3T)
is the Manning coefficient. Only, Darcy-Weisbach formula is dimensionally homogenous.
Dimensional Analysis:
Complex hydraulic engineering problems often involve many variables. Each variable usually
contains one or more dimensions. The Phi theorem relies on dimensional analysis to group
several independent variables into dimensionless combinations.
Dimensional analysis is a technique that can be used to clarify and explain relationships between
physical quantities (variables). Units like miles, kilometers, and kilograms tell us what kind of
quantity we are dealing with. The units are themselves a human construct, but the fundamental
relationships in the physical world can have nothing whatsoever to do with human beings. They
have existed from the beginning of time.
For example, if we measure the time it takes for a pendulum to swing back and forth, and find it
to be 3.7 seconds, the second is a unit constructed by people. The pendulum itself has nothing to
do with time. The time it takes to swing is determined by the fundamental mechanics, and
depends on quantities like the length, the acceleration due to gravity, the mass, and how far it
swings. Chiristiaan Huygens found the formula for the time taken for one oscillation of the
pendulum, T:
2
T
l/g

where l is the length of the pendulum, and g is the acceleration of gravity.

Engineering and science attempt to construct useful relationships between different kinds of
quantities. For example, the force needed to propel a ship through a smooth sea depends on the
dimensions of the ship, the density of water (and the air), and the viscosity of the water (a
measure of how easily it deforms under shear stress: honey has higher viscosity than water). If
the sea becomes rough, the height, length, and periods of the waves become important.
Some of those relationships apply only to specific of units, but some are dimensionally
homogenous (unit-free) and apply in any units. Dimensional analysis is principally concerned
with the last class of relationships and they turn out to be the most powerful.
Dimensional analysis usually takes the fundamental (basic) dimensions to be:
Mass: M
Length: L
Time: T
Derived dimensions:
Velocity: [LT-1]
Acceleration: [LT-2]
Force:[MLT-2]
Energy: [ML2T-2]
Power: [ML2T-3]
Dimensionless Groups (Numbers): Dimensionless numbers are independent of the units of
measurements used. Quantities with different dimensions can sometimes be combined to make
dimensionless groups. For example:
Velocity V [LT-1]
Gravitational acceleration g [LT-2]
Length L [L]

Combine to form a group V 2 / gL , which is dimensionless because

LT   L T    (A quantity in square brackets means the “dimension” of that quantity.)
1 2 2 2

LT L L T 
2 2 2

Engineers and scientists have found many dimensionless groups useful, and have often named
them after people.
Reynolds Number (Re): It is the law of similarity under the action of Inertia and Viscosity

u V2
u 
Re 
inertia force
 x  L   VL  V  L
viscous ( frictional ) force  u
2
V  
 2  2
y L

This law of similarity was first found by Obsorne Reynolds during his investigations of fluid
motions through tubes. Therefore the quantity has been called the Reynolds number, usually
denoted by Re. For a great number of flow phenomena, the Reynolds number was the key to
finding unknown relations between the experimental results obtained in hydrodynamics.

Froude Number (Fr): It is the law of similarity under the action of Inertia and Gravity
Now a corresponding law of similarity will be derived considering only inertia and gravity forces.
The gravity force per unit volume is equal to the weight per unit volume. Therefore the necessary
condition for the mechanical similarity:

u V2
u  2
inertia force x  L V  V
Fr  
gravity force g g Lg Lg
This law of similarity was first found by William Froude (principally in investigations with ship
models: Froude, Trans. Inst. Naval Arc., vol.11, p. 80, 1870) and it is known as Froude number.
The ratio again is a dimensionless number and usually denoted by Fr. This law is extensively
used where free surface occur, thus calling the influence of gravity.

Table 1.3. Some Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

Dimensionless Groups Name Index of Force Ratio Types of Applications
Indicated
V  V L Reynolds Number, Re inertia force Generally of importance
Re  
/L  viscous ( frictional ) force in all types of fluid
dynamics problems.

V  V Froude Number, Fr inertia force Flow with a free-surface.

Fr  
 L gL gravitatio nal force

 V 2 Weber Number, We inertia force Problems in which

We 
 /L surface tension force surface tension is
important.
f L Strouhal Number, St inertia (local ) force Unsteady flow with a
St 
V inertia (convective) force characteristic frequency
of oscillation.

p Euler Number, Eu pressure force Problems in which

Eu 
 V 2 inertia force pressure difference is of
interest.

V Mach Number, Ma inertia force Problems in which the

Ma 
c compressibility force compressibility of the
fluid is important

V 2 Cauchy Number, Ca inertia force Problems in which the

Ca 
Ev compressibility force compressibility of the
fluid is important

Variables: g: acceleration of gravity, Ev: Bulk modulus, L: Characteristic length, ρ: Density, f:

frequency of oscillating flow, Δp: pressure difference, c: speed of sound, σ: surface tension, µ:
dynamic viscosity,: kinematic viscosity, V: Velocity
Obsorne Reynolds (1842-1912): Described original experiments in many fields- cavitation, river
model similarity, pipe resistance- and devised two parameters for viscous flow; adapted
equations of motion of a viscous fluid to mean conditions of turbulent flow.
William Froude (1810-1879): A naval architect who carried out fundamental work on ships ( and
built the first model test tank). It appears in many contexts of free surface flows of liquid, among
them surface waves (such as waves on sea), flow in open channels.
Moritz Weber (1871-1951): Emphasized the use of the principles of similitude in fluid flow
studies and formulated a capillarity similarity principle.
Vincenz Strouhal (1850-1922): Investigated the phenomenon of “singing wires”.
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783): Fist explained role of pressure in fluid flow; introduced concept of
cavitation and principle of centrifugal machinery.

Vaschy- Buckingham Pi (  ) Theorem

Aime Vaschy (1857-1899) and much later Buckingham (1867-1940) showed that fundamental
relationships can always be expressed as relationships between dimensionless groups. Vaschy
proofed that the relevant variables are allowed us to choose them in special way that reduced a
relationship between five variables to a relationship between two dimensionless groups.
Buckingham clarified the question of the number of dimensionless groups. Dimensional analysis
is applicable when we know which physical quantities are of importance for the phenomenon.
The Buckingham Pi theorem establishes the framework for reducing a given problem described
in terms of a set of variables to a new set of fewer dimensionless variables. A simple method,
called the repeating variable method, is described for actually forming the dimensionless
variables (often called pi terms).
If we have n variables and m fundamental dimensions (M,L, and T) the Buckingham π Theorem
implies that the number of independent dimensionless groups is n-m.
The next step is to arrange the n dimensional parameters into (n-m) dimensionless π groups.
This is accomplished by selecting m-repeating variables that must contain all m dimensions. At
this point, the repeating variables are combined with the two nonrepeating variables to form
the dimensionless π groups.
Dimensional analysis can be used to assemble the results of experiments in a concise and
accessible form, so that we can arrive at broadly applicable general results from a small number
of tests, often at a model scale.
 Flow Past an Ellipse:

Figure. Plot of the experimental data in a dimensional format.

Figure. Dimensionless Correlation of Experimental Data: Variation of drag coefficient with the
function of Reynolds number. The data are based on experimental measurements and plot is on
a dimensionless plane.
Figure. The effect of Reynolds number on the drag coefficient, CD, for a smooth sphere.

Figure. Strouhal number versus Reynolds number for flow past a cylinder.
Example
1.1) The experimental test results confirm that the hydrodynamics characteristics at the
downstream of a cylinder placed in a flow field is depended upon the: V (flow
velocity), D (cylinder diameter), µ (dynamic viscosity of the fluid), ρ (density of the
fluid), and f (frequency of the vortex shedding [1/T]). By taking V, µ, and D as
repeating variables in Buckingham-  theorem, obtain the dimensionless groups.

For a4 = f ;

M 0L0T 0  ( LT 1) x ( ML 1T 1) y ( L) z (T 1)

M 0 0  y1
T 0 0   x1  y1  1
x1  1
L 0  0  x1  y1  z
z1  1

Df
Then;  1 
V

a5 = 

M 0L0T 0  ( LT 1) x (ML 1T 1) y ( L) z (ML 3 )

M 0 0  y  1
y  1
T 0 0   x  y
x 1
L0  0  x  y  z  3
z 1

DV
Then;  2   Re


f ( St; Re)  0
1.2) Assume that the discharge (Q) over a V-notch is a function of a liquid density ( ρ), dynamic
viscosity (µ), surface tension (σ), head (H), and acceleration of gravity (g). Using H, g, and ρ as
repeating variables, derive the dimensionless groups. (20 p)

Flow properties: Q [LT-3], H [L], g [LT-2]

Fluid properties: ρ [ML-3], µ [ML-1T-1], σ [MT-2]

m-n=6-3=3 (number of dimensionless group)

Repeating variables: a1 = H, a2 = g, a3 = ρ

For a4 = Q, finding the  1 dimensionless group:

M 0L0T 0 L LT 2
x1
  ML  L T 
y1 3 z1 3 1

M 0 0  z1
T 0 0  2 y1  1
y1  1 / 2
L 0  0  x1  y1  3 z1  3
x1  5 / 2

Thus we obtain the first dimensionless group as

Q
1 
H g1 / 2
5/ 2

For a5 = µ, finding the π2 dimensionless group:


M 0L0T 0 L  LT 2
x2
 ML  ML T 
y2 3 z 2 1 1

M 0 0  z2  1
z2  1
T 0 0  2 y2
y2  1 / 2
L0  0  x2  y2  3z2  1
x2  3 / 2

Thus we obtain the second dimensionless group as

 
2 
H g 
3 / 2 1/ 2

For a6 = σ, finding the π3 dimensionless group:

x3

M 0L0T 0 L  LT 2  ML  MT 
y3 3 z 3 2

M 0 0  z3  1
z3  1
T 0 0  2 y3  2
y3  1
L 0  0  x3  y3  3 z3
x1  2

Thus we obtain the third dimensionless group as:


3 
H 2 g

Q  
f( ; ; 2 )0
H g5 / 2 1/ 2
H g  H g
3 / 2 1/ 2