ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Week 12

Mengqi Zhang

[email protected]

EA-07-21

2019.09.30 & 10.01

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Outline

L1 Week 7 (Mar. 5th, 8th) Viscous ows: introduction

L2 Week 8 (Mar. 12th, 15th) Viscous ows: derivation of the equations

L3 Week 9 (Mar. 19th, 22nd) Viscous ows: applications

Week 10 (Mar. 26th) No lecture on

L4 Boundary layer ows: concepts Quiz* Mar. 29th (PH)
Week 11 (Apr. 2nd) (Tentative) No lecture on
Apr. 19th
Week 11 (Apr. 5th)
L5 Boundary layer ows: Blasius solution and control of boundary layer
Week 12 (Apr. 9th)

Week 12 (Apr. 12th)

L6 Boundary layer ows: transition and turbulence
Week 13 (Apr. 16th)

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Last week

Drag on the at plate

(another derivation of von Karman’s integral equation)

Blasius solution (for laminar boundary-layer ows)

Boundary Layer Separation and Control

• Control of Separation
• Tripping Boundary Layer and Golf Balls
• Vortex generators

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Recap

2 dθ
Examining the drag on the plate leading to τw = ρUe
dx
von Karman integral equation

Blasius Equation: 2f′′′ + ′′ = 0 with the boundary conditions:

y
η= 1) at η = 0 : f = 0 and f′ = 0 (at the wall)
νx
U∞ 2) at η = ∞ : f′ = 1 (at the boundary layer edge)

The three boundary layer thicknesses for the Blasius equation are
νx νx νx
δ=5 δ* = 1.72 θ = 0.664
U∞ U∞ U∞

Getting thinner

D/w 1.328
The drag coe cient for the Blasius solution is CD = 1
=
ρU∞
2x Rex
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Recap
Flow separation because of pressure gradient

1. CD of TBL > CD of LBL

2. LBL is more prone to ow separation.
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Recap

Total drag = Pressure drag + Skin friction drag Vortex generators to delay ow separation

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This week

Turbulent Flow and Time Averaging

Turbulent boundary layer ows and the governing equations

Boundary Layer with Transition

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Turbulent Flow and Time Averaging

Study of turbulent ow is important because most of the ows encountered in practice, are turbulent,
or more speci cally, most of the boundary layers encountered in practice are turbulent for most of the
surface length.

Turbulent boundary layers are usually thicker than laminar ones, as a result of more rigorous mixing of
uid particles in turbulent ow. Hence, the velocity pro le (averaged over a period of time ) is more
uniform throughout most of the layer, than the laminar ones. The velocity gradient at the boundary
itself, is usually steeper. The analysis of ow in a turbulent boundary layer depends more heavily on
experimental data than does that for laminar layer.

In a turbulent ow, the velocity at any point uctuates with time about an average value, as shown
below for steady and unsteady turbulent ow. (This is also true for temperature and pressure).

Statistically steady ow

Statistically unsteady ow

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Time Averaging for Steady Turbulent Flow (Reynolds’ Averaging)

We restrict to uctuating quantities that are statistically steady, so that their mean values are not
functions of time. (Only under this condition does the idea of a time average make sense). A
statistically steady function is called stationary.
Time averaging is necessary in order to analyze turbulent ows.

Hence, for a stationary turbulent ow: u = ū + u′ where: u = u(t) = total instantaneous value.
This is called Reynolds decomposition of the ow variables.

Time Averaging for a steady turbulent ow

1 t0+T ū is NOT a
T ∫t0
ū = time-average value = u dt , where T is large. function of
time.
u′ = uctuating value around the time averaged value

Also v = v̄ + v′ w = w̄ + w′ P = P̄ + P′

1 t0+T
T ∫t0
Time Averaging of the uctuating data is zero ū′ = u′ dt = 0

Similarly, we have v′ = 0 w′ = 0 P′ = 0


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Time Averaging for Steady Turbulent Flow (Reynolds’ Averaging)

1 t0+T
∫
ū′ = u′ dt = 0
The time-averaging process can also be applied to nonlinear terms. T t0

We have ūv̄ = ū¯ v̄¯ = ūv̄ where u and v are independent to each other
1 t0+T 1 t0+T T
T ∫t0 T ∫t0
because ūv̄ = ūv̄ dt = ūv̄ dt = ūv̄ = ūv̄
T

But ūv′ = ūv̄′ = 0

Especially u′v′ ≠ 0
uv = (ū + u′)(v̄ + v′) = ūv̄ + u′v′

∂u ∂ū
The time-averaging operation can be commutative with the derivative operator (i.e., = ),
∂s ∂s
as shown below

∂u 1 t0+T ∂u ∂ 1 t0+T
∂s [ T ∫t0 ] ∂s
∂ū ∂u ∂ū
∂s T ∫t0 ∂s
= dt = u dt = Hence =
∂s ∂s








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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Equations of Motion for Turbulent Flows

Consider a 3-D Steady Flow (of constant ρ and μ):

Neglecting the body force, the x-component of the N-S eqns. is:

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u

+u +v +w =− + ν( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (1)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂u ∂v ∂w
and the continuity eqn.: + + =0 (2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Multiply Eq. (2) by u, and add to (1):

∂u 2 ∂(uv) ∂(uw) 1 ∂p ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u

Conservative form + + =− + ν( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

Introduce u = ū + u′, v = v̄ + v′, w = w̄ + w′, and P = P̄ + P′ into Eqns. (3) and (2):
2 2 u 2 = (ū + u′)2
∂u ∂(uu′) ∂u′ ∂(u v) ∂(uv′) ∂(u′v) ∂(u′v′)
+2 + + + + + = ū2 + 2ūu′ + u ′2
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂(u w) ∂(uw′) ∂(u′w) ∂(u′w′) 1 ∂p 1 ∂p′
+ + + + =− − + ν( ∇2 u + ∇2 u′)
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ρ ∂x ρ ∂x
2∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Equations of Motion for Turbulent Flows ūv′ = 0

∂u2 ∂(uu′) ∂u′2 ∂(u v) ∂(u v′) ∂(u′v) ∂(u′v′)
The equation on +2 + + + + +
the last slide is ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
copied here ∂(u w) ∂(u w′) ∂(u′w) ∂(u′w′) 1 ∂p 1 ∂p′
+ + + + =− − + ν( ∇2 u + ∇2 u′)
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ρ ∂x ρ ∂x
By time-averaging each term, we obtain:
∂u2 ∂u′2 ∂(u v) ∂(u′v′) ∂(u w) ∂(u′w′) 1 ∂p
+ + + + + =− + ν ∇2 u (4)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ρ ∂x

∂u ∂v ∂w
Similarly, for the continuity equation: + + =0 (5)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
Multiplying Eqn. (5) by ū and subtracting it from Eqn. (4) gives: u +v +w =− + ν ∇2 u
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂u
or u +v +w =− + (μ − ρu′2)
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ρ ∂x ∂x Comparing Eqn. (6) with Eqn. (1), except for the
1 ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u (6) additional terms, the average values of the velocity
(μ − ρu′v′) + (μ − ρu′w′)
+ components and pressure satisfy the form of Eqn.
ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z (1). These additional terms can be identi ed as
stresses, and known as turbulent or Reynolds or
eddy stresses, which are due to momentum
exchange between “eddies” or “parcels” of uid
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
u +v +w =− + ν( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (1) owing to turbulent mixing.
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z







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Equations of Motion for Turbulent Flows

∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u
(μ − ρu′ ) + (μ − ρu′v′) + (μ − ρu′w′)
2
u +v +w =− +
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ρ ∂x ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z
The same procedure is used to obtain the y- and z- components.
For the y-component of the N-S eqns., in this case, the continuity eqn. is multiplied by v
∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂v 1 ∂ ∂v 1 ∂ ∂v
(μ − ρv′u′) + (μ − ρv′ ) + (μ − ρv′w′)
2
u +v +w =− +
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z
For the z-component of the N-S eqns., in this case, the continuity eqn. is multiplied by w

∂w ∂w ∂w 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂w 1 ∂ ∂w 1 ∂ ∂w
( ) ( ) ( )
2
u +v +w =− + μ − ρw′u′ + μ − ρw′v′ + μ − ρw′
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z ρ ∂x ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z

The terms ρu′u′, ρu′v′, ρu′w′ etc. are called the Reynolds stress. Symmetric. Reason: nonlinearity!

ρu′u′ ρu′v′ ρu′w′

A big topic in the
ρv′u′ ρv′v′ ρv′w′ = ρu′i u′j turbulence theory.
ρw′u′ ρw′v′ ρw′w′ They are unknown…

You know the uctuation, but you don’t Recent development:

know how the uctuation quantities are application of machine
correlated to each other.. learning for turbulence






⟶ Turbulence closure problem and modelling. ⟶








turbulence modelling!















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The NS equations for turbulent ows: Summary

The NS equations for turbulent ows on the last slides are summarised below:

∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u
(μ − ρu′ ) + (μ − ρu′v′) + (μ − ρu′w′)
2
u +v +w =− +
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x ρ ∂x ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂v 1 ∂ ∂v 1 ∂ ∂v
(μ − ρv′u′) + (μ − ρv′ ) + (μ − ρv′w′)
2
u +v +w =− +
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w 1 ∂p 1 ∂ ∂w 1 ∂ ∂w 1 ∂ ∂w
u +v +w =− + (μ − ρw′u′) + (μ − ρw′v′) + (μ − ρw′2)
∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z ρ ∂x ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y ρ ∂z ∂z

The index form of the above equations is

∂ūi 1 ∂p̄ 1 ∂ ∂ūi

ūj =− + (μ − ρu′i u′j) (7)
∂x̄j ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xj ∂xj

The last term ρu′i u′j is the Reynolds stress and unknown.

After nondimensionalisation with the scalings U, L , we have

¯i
∂u* ∂ ¯
p* 1 ∂u′i*u′j*
¯
u* = − + ∇ 2 ¯ −
u*
j ∂x* ∂x* Re i ∂x*
j i j
ULρ
with Re = and μ is constant.
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Exercise 1: equations for the uctuation variables

On the previous slides, we have derived equations for the time-averaged variables (e.g. ūi). In
this exercise, we want to derive equations for the uctuating variables u′i , p′.

Step 1: write down the Navier-Stokes equation for ui . Evoke Reynolds decomposition of the
ow variables (e.g., u = ū + u′). Expand all the terms.

Step 2: Assume that the time-averaged ow satis es the time-averaged Navier-Stokes

∂ūi ∂p̄ 1 2 ∂u′i u′j
equations, that is, ūj =− + ∇ ūi − .
∂xj ∂xi Re ∂xj

Step 3: subtract the equation at step 2 from the equation at step 1

If the nonlinear terms are neglected in these equations, the equations are called the
linearised NS equations. They are the equations to be solved in the linear stability analysis.

Review: Reynolds decomposition and NS equations 15






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Exercise 2 (you don’t have to do this exercise. Have a look at the answer
after the class.)

Derive the turbulence kinetic energy equation for K (the K-equation)

1 1
• The de nition of turbulent kinetic energy reads K = 2 (u′u′ + v′v′ + w′w′) = 2 u′i u′i (note
that it’s the uctuating part of the velocity in this de nition.)
• The procedure is
1. Write down the original Navier-Stokes equations,
2. Insert the (Reynolds) decomposition of the velocity ui = ui + u′i and expand,
3. Multiply the resultant u′i equation with u′i,
4. Time averaging the resultant equation and simplify it to get the K-equation.

∂K ∂K ∂p′u′i ∂ui 1 ∂u′i u′i u′j 1 2 1 ∂u′i ∂u′i

+ uj =− − u′i u′j − + ∇ K−
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj 2 ∂xj Re Re ∂xj ∂xj


Review: NS equations (see the answer for the physical meaning of each term)












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Structure of Turbulent Boundary Layer

The structure of a turbulent boundary layer is very complex, random and irregular, as shown below.

(Recall the boundary

layer experiment in
week 10. The graph is
ipped upside down
and left to right.)

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Structure of Turbulent Boundary Layer

Distribution of turbulent intermittency factor γ across
a turbulent boundary layer (see the gure). See the
slide in week 10 for the de nition of γ.

We can clearly see three layers.

In outer region (y > 0.4 δ):

• i) Turbulence is intermittent and dominated by large eddies of the size in the order of δ.
• ii) Entrainment of free-stream uid by these large eddies is responsible for the boundary
layer growth and the extraction of free-stream Kinetic Energy into the boundary layer. (In
laminar boundary layer, boundary layer growth and extraction/dissipation of Kinetic
Energy is purely due to viscous stresses).
• iii) Relatively low Reynolds stresses.

In inner region (y < 0.4 δ):

• i) Turbulence is continuous ( ow is fully turbulent) that is, γ ≈1.

• ii) Wide spectrum of turbulence frequencies is found, with eddies becoming smaller
and of higher frequencies as the wall is approached.
• iii) Large eddies supply Kinetic Energy extracted from free-stream and pass it
down to smaller and smaller eddies near the wall, which then dissipate the Kinetic Energy.
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Structure of Turbulent Boundary Layer

Distribution of turbulent intermittency factor γ across
a turbulent boundary layer (see the gure). See the
slide in week 10 for the de nition of γ.

In viscous (laminar) sub-layer which is very near the wall (also called “wall layer”):

• i) No room for turbulence to form.

• ii) Flow behaves like laminar layer (slight velocity uctuation).
• iii) Viscous stress dominates and is approximately constant near the wall.
• iv) Velocity pro le is linear and governed by viscous stress, that is:
u ∝ y linearly

See also slide 24, where we will de ne the structure of TBL in terms of velocity as a function of y.

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Turbulent Boundary Layer Equations

Consider a 2-D, steady, incompressible, turbulent ow. The time-averaged x- and y-components of the
N-S eqns. are: 2 2 2
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂u ∂u ∂u′ ∂u′v′
u +v =− + ν( 2 + 2 ) − −
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v 1 ∂p ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂u′v′ ∂v ′2
u +v =− + ν( 2 + 2 ) − −
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Making the usual boundary layer approximations (as in the case for the laminar We don’t know the order
boundary layer) with respect to the mean ow gives: of the Reynolds stress
compared to other
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂2u ∂u′2 ∂u′v′ terms, so we keep them.
x = (1) u +v =− +ν 2 − − (1)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y And (u′) = (v′).
y = (δ)
1 ∂p ∂u′v′ ∂v ′2
u = (1) 0=− − − (2)
v = (δ) ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂ ∂ ∂v ′2 ∂u′v′ 1 ∂p ∂v ′2
We can do some simpli cation for the y− equation: Since ≫ , then ≫ , so =−
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y
p Boundary condition at the wall is p P∞(x)
Hence = − v ′2 + C = − v ′2 (3)
ρ ′2
v = 0 and p = P0(x) = P∞(x) ρ ρ
Thus, unlike the laminar boundary layer, there is a slight variation of pressure across turbulent boundary layer ow, due to
velocity uctuations normal to the wall.
∂u ′2 ∂u′v′
Likewise, in the equation (1), you can also neglect the term , compared to .
∂x ∂y 20














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∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ 2u ∂u′v′
Turbulent Boundary Layer Equations u
∂x
+v
∂y
=−
ρ ∂x
+ν 2 −
∂y ∂y

p P∞(x)
Using = − v ′2 in the x equation, we have
ρ ρ
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P∞(x) ∂v ′2 ∂2u ∂u′v′
u +v =− − +ν 2 − According to the same
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y reasoning on the last slide

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P∞(x) ∂ ∂u
u +v =− + (ν − u′v′)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y ∂y 2-D
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P∞(x) 1 ∂τ ∂u
Therefore u +v =− + where τ=μ − ρu′v′
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ρ ∂y ∂y

∂u ∂v τl τt
and + =0
∂x ∂y

These are the 2-D turbulent boundary layer equations.

Note: Either τl or τt may be dominant. For example, in the boundary layer away from the wall, we may
have τt ≫ τl.
On the other hand, at the wall, we have the turbulent shear stress τt as zero at the wall (since no
∂ū
uctuation at y = 0) and the laminar shear stress τ0 = τl |y=0 = μ .
∂y y=0




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Exercise 3
τw
Demonstrate that the Cf value (Cf = ) for the following velocity pro le is
1
2
ρU 2
0.6479
Cf = . At the leading edge, the boundary layer thickness is zero.
Rex
y

1
Hint: you need to use von Karman momentum integral δ
dθ τw 2
equation = .
dx ρU 2

2U U
u
3

Review: calculation of drag coef cient 22

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Velocity Pro les in Turbulent Boundary Layer

The study of turbulent boundary layer ows depends mainly on experimental results, especially for the
regions outside the viscous sub-layer. The results were obtained from measurements in pipe ows and ows
over at plates, since in both cases, the velocity pro les were found to be very similar → “Universal”
velocity pro le (distribution).
Turbulent boundary layer velocity pro les:
on at plate (smooth plate) in pipe ow (smooth pipe)

If plotted in dimensionless graph, the above velocity

pro les are very similar → “Universal” Velocity
Distribution (Pro le)

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Velocity Pro les in Turbulent Boundary Layer

Excluding the viscous sub-layer, velocity pro les in turbulent boundary layer can be represented either
by “Logarithmic law” representations (tedious but more accurate) or “Power law” representation
(simple but not as accurate).

+ U
U =
uτ

τw
uτ =
ρ
ν
lν =
uτ + y
y =
lν
The application of Power law velocity pro le will be demonstrated in the following slides.
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Velocity Pro les in Turbulent Boundary Layer

Collapse of numerical and experimental

data.

Viscous sublayer: U + = y+

Log layer (law of the wall):

1
U = ln y + + C +
+
κ
κ ≈ 0.41: the Von Karman constant
(front of research). κ ∈ [0.35,0.42] .

C + ≈ 5.0: a constant.

τw U
uτ = +
U =
ρ uτ
ν y
lν = +
y =
uτ lν 25
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Velocity Pro les in Turbulent Boundary Layer

Power Law (less relevant in research, but easier for calculation):
It is more convenient for calculations (even though not as accurate) to represent the velocity pro le
in turbulent boundary layer by a simpler power law (as suggested by Prandtl) as:

Power law relation

where C and n are constants depending on the ow Reynolds number and geometry.

In addition, it is usually assumed that the velocity pro le through the viscous sub-layer is linear and
tangential to this power law.
For a turbulent boundary layer ow on a at plate (at zero angle of incidence):

At y = δ, ū = U, the power law will give:

Similarly, for a turbulent boundary layer in a pipe ow

at y = d /2, ū = Umax, the power law will give: d
where y = − r and r =
2
distance from the pipe axis.
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Turbulent Boundary Layer Parameters

There is no exact theory for the turbulent boundary layer ow over a at plate, although there are some
computational solutions of the boundary layer equations using various empirical models.

Much experimental information is available about turbulent ow in circular pipes, Prandtl suggested that
this could be used in the study of turbulent boundary layers on at plates, on the ground that the boundary
layers in the two cases were not essentially di erent.

According to Prandtl, the turbulent pro le can be approximated by a one-seventh power law (that is, n
= 7) for Reynolds number Re between 5x105 and 107:
x

u y 1
(U ) ≈ ( ) 7
turb
∞ δ
However, this pro le does not hold in the immediate vicinity of the wall, since at the wall it predicts du/dy =
∞. Hence, we cannot use this pro le in the de nition of shear stress at the wall τo (or τw) to obtain an
expression for τ0 in terms of δ for a laminar boundary layer ow.

ν 1
( U∞δ )
2
Blasius has found that for smooth surfaces, the empirical result τw = 0.0225ρU∞ 4

can be used for turbulent ow consideration. This was determined by Blasius for pipe ow, and was later
con rmed for at plate for Re between 5x105 and 107.
x
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Turbulent Boundary Layer Parameters

We are now in a position to apply the von Karman momentum integral equation which we have derived
earlier (in week 11):
δ
dθ d u u
= ρU∞ ( ) dy)
∫
2 2
τw = ρU∞ (1 −
dx dx 0 U∞ U∞

δ
τw d u u 2
= U∞ ( ) dy)
dx ∫0 U∞
2
−( u y 1
( U )turb ≈ ( δ )
or
ρ U∞ 7

∞
ν 1
( )
Inserting the two equations on the last slide into the above equation, we then have: τw = 2
0.0225ρU∞ 4
U∞δ
δ
ν d y 1 y 2
0.0225U∞( ) = U∞ ( ( ) − ( ) 7 dy)
dx ∫0 δ
1
2 4 2 7
U∞δ δ

2
Canceling U∞ and integrating, we obtain:
ν 1 d 7 7 7 dδ
0.0225( )
4 = ( δ − δ) =
U∞δ dx 8 9 72 dx

ν 1
(U )
1
After separating the variables, it becomes: 4 dx = 4.32 δ 4 dδ

∞
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics
ν 1
(U )
1
4 dx = 4.32 δ 4 dδ
Turbulent Boundary Layer Parameters ∞

ν 1 4 5
Integrating the last equation on the last slide gives (
U∞ )
4 x = 4.32 δ 4 + C
5
Assuming that δ = 0 at x = 0 (that is, the turbulent boundary layer is assumed to start from the leading
edge), then C = 0, and hence:
ν 1
δ = 0.37x (
U∞ )
4
5 5

δ ν 1 ν 1
= 0.37x ( ) ( )
− 15 − 15
Rearranging, we obtain: 5 = 0.37 5 = 0.37 Re
x
x U∞ U∞x
ν 1
( U∞δ )
2
Using τw = 0.0225ρU∞ 4 , we obtain the skin friction coe cient in terms of δ:

τw ν 1
Cf = 1 = 0.0450( )
4

ρU 2
∞
U∞δ
2
Replacing δ using x, we obtain:

τw ν 1 ν 1
= 0.0450( ) ( 1 ) ( 1 )
1 1 − 15
Cf = 4 = 0.0450 4 = 0.0450 4 = 0.0576 Re
x
1
ρU∞
2 U∞δ −5
U∞x0.37 Rex
−5
Re0.37 Rex
2

which is the local skin friction coe cient in terms of Rex.

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Turbulent Boundary Layer Parameters

δ − 15
From the last slide, we have = 0.37Rex
x
Displacement thickness δ*
δ
u y 1 u δ δ*
∫0
− 15
For ( )turb ≈ ( ) 7 , it can be shown that δ* = (1 − ) dy = or = 0.0463Rex .
U∞ δ U∞ 8 x
Momentum thickness δ
δ
u u 7 θ
∫0 U∞
− 15
Similarly, it can be shown that θ = (1 − ) dy ≈ δ or = 0.036Rex .
U∞ 72 x

Blasius pro le (laminar) 1/7 power law (turbulent)

δ − 12 δ − 15
= 5Rex = 0.37Rex
x x
δ* − 12 δ* − 15
= 1.72Rex = 0.0463Rex
x x
θ − 12 θ − 15
= 0.664Rex = 0.036Rex
x x
ν 1
τw = 0.0225ρU∞( )
∂u 2
τw = μ 4
∂y y=0 U∞δ

When you have questions in the quiz on the turbulent boundary layer, we implicitly assume the 1/7
power law, if not otherwise stated. 30
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Exercise 4
Show that the mean velocity in a pipe with fully developed turbulent ow is 49/60 of the maximum
R−r 1
velocity. Assume that the velocity in the pipe has a 1/7-law pro le u = U( ) 7 , where U is the
R
maximum velocity in the middle (it is a constant) and R is the radius of the pipe. This is essentially the
velocity pro le on slide 25. The mean ow means the area average of the ow over the circular area.

Hint: you can rst calculate the volume ow rate through

the control volume using the velocity pro le provided.
Then you do the integration to get the total volume ow
rate. Divide it by the area in the end.

Control area (the ring)

Review: velocity pro le and calculus in cylindrical coordinate 31

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Exercise 5

Hint: you don’t know the ow is laminar or turbulent, so you have to assume the ow to be one
of them and then verify. If the ow is turbulent, we assume that the boundary layer pro le
follows that of Prandtl’s one-seventh power law. If the ow is laminar, you have Blasius
solutions.

Review: boundary layer thickness 32

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer with Transition

In reality, however, transition from laminar to turbulent state may occur in a boundary layer ow on a solid
body (as shown below), depending on the Reynolds number Rex.

Uxtr 5
Transition in the boundary layer on a at plate occurs at xtr when Rex = = 3 × 10 to 5 × 105.
tr ν

Note that it is possible to have a much higher value of Rex (for example, 3 × 106 as has been reported in
tr
the literature) if the ow is carefully controlled to minimize disturbances.

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Exercise 6

0.5 m

A boundary layer is shown as in the gure. At the streamwise station 0.5 m, the 99%
boundary layer thickness is 18mm. Determine the ow is laminar or turbulent at 0.5 m.
The kinematic viscosity is 1.12 × 10−6 m 2 /s.

Transition in the boundary layer on a at plate occurs at xtr when

Uxtr
Rextr = = 3 × 105 to 5 × 105.
ν

Review: boundary layer thickness and ow transition 34

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

In the reading week

Quiz:

Apr. 23rd (Tuesday), 10:00-11:30am

20 MCQs + 1 structured question
Venue: EA-06-02 and EA-06-03

For the MCQs: (1) sample questions; (2) CA.

For the structured question: exercises in classes.

CLOSED BOOK ASSESSMENT with authorized materials. Students are allowed

to bring two (2) sheets of A4 paper or help sheet with formulae written and/or
typed on both sides.

Programmable calculators are NOT allowed for this assessment.

35