Sociology

Revision
Booklet
Eduqas GCSE Sociology
Paper 1: Understanding social
processes
Unit 3 - Education

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 Education Topics
Topic RAG
The History of Education
• Forster Act
• Butler Act
• Comprehensive schools
The Role of Education: Functionalism
• Parsons: Meritocracy
• Durkheim: Functions
• Davis and Moore: Role Allocation
The Role of Education: Marxism
• Louis Althusser
• Hidden curriculum
• Correspondence principal
The Role of Education: Feminism
• Patriarchy
• Hidden curriculum
• Radical and Liberal views
New Right perspectives
• 1988 Education Reform Act
• Marketisation and parental choice
Differences in attainment: Social class
• Material deprivation
• Cultural deprivation
• Cultural capital
• Internal factors
Differences in attainment: Gender
• Reasons for the gender gap
• External factors
• Internal factors
Differences in attainment: Ethnicity
• Reasons for the ethnicity gap
• External factors
• Internal factors
School subcultures
• Anti-school
• Pro school
• Formation of subcultures
• Labelling theory
Different types of schools
• Independent vs State
• Home schooling
• Vocational education
Social Policies
• EAZ
• EMA
• Sure Start

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Component 1: Understanding Social Processes

✓ Written examination: 1 hour 45 minutes

✓ 50% of the qualification

This component covers the following topic areas:

• Key Concepts in Sociology

• Families and Households
• Education
• Research Methods

There will be a written assessment with a mix of compulsory short answer, structured questions and
extended response questions. The extended response questions will require candidates to draw
together different areas of knowledge, skills and/or understanding from across the relevant
specification content.

Below are the assessment objectives for this specification. Learners must:

AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, concepts, evidence and
methods.

AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, concepts, evidence and methods.

AO3: Analyse and evaluate sociological theories, concepts, evidence and methods to construct
arguments, make judgements and draw conclusions.

The table below shows the weighting of each assessment objective for each component and for the
qualification.

AO1 AO2 AO3 Total

Component 1 20% 20% 10% 50%
Component 2 20% 20% 10% 50%
Total 40% 40% 20% 100%

In each examination series, a minimum of 15% of the available marks will be awarded for learners'
knowledge and understanding in relation to Research Methods.

Component 1 Grade Boundaries

GRADE 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
RAW 87 81 75 67 59 51 38 25 13
Component 2 Grade Boundaries
GRADE 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
RAW 83 77 71 63 55 48 36 25 13
Combined Grades (C1+C2)
GRADE 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
RAW 170 158 146 130 114 99 74 50 26

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Introducing the Sociology of Education
Task
List your GCSE subjects in the table below. What skills do you learn in each subject? How do these
subjects prepare you for the wider world of work?

GCSE Subjects Skills learned Application to work

Maths

English

Science

Sociology

PSHE

Read your answers in the table above. Do you think the education system teaches the skills and
knowledge necessary for work in a modern industrial society? Explain your answer with reference to
your own examples in the table above.

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Task
Look at the jobs listed below. What is the annual salary for each job? Match each salary to the
correct occupation.

Occupation Pay Salaries

1. Air Traffic control £75,416 £26,029
2. Train and Tram drivers
3. Police Community support officer £11,724 £7,554
4. Librarian
5. Large Goods vehicle drivers £47,101 £26,012
6. Nursery Nurses and assistants
7. Bar staff £24,927 £21,245
8. Retail and check out operators
9. Fork lift truck driver £7,404

Task
Watch the episode ‘A very British school’ and complete your Venn diagram. Think about how Harrow
school is both similar and different to our school. Think about traditions, language, uniform, costs,
opportunities, environment etc. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ic8bBeem5o

With reference to ‘A very British school’, do all children receive equal opportunities in education?

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Task: Application
Consider your social theories (Marxism, Feminism, Functionalism and the New Right). How would
each theory respond to private schooling? Answer the question in the space provided. Refer to key
theoretical terms such as ‘capitalism, patriarchy, social control, and socialisation’ etc…

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The History of Education

Compulsory education came about with industrialisation.

The Forster Act 1870

An Act introduced by William Forster. This made Education compulsory from the ages
of 5 – 11 years-old (raised to 13 in 1880) in an attempt to educate the masses &
eliminate the social class divide. Parents now had a choice of 3 types of school to send
their children…
A. Elementary (Free)
B. Grammar (Fee) - Paying
C. Public (Fee) - Paying

The Butler Act 1944

An Act introduced by R.A Butler.

World War II was reaching an end and the emphasis in the UK was to create ‘A land
fit for heroes’. The Conservative Government thus ‘opened up’ secondary
education to the masses i.e. reduced social class inequalities within education. To
achieve this, the Tri-Partite System emerged. The idea here was to produce ‘Parity
of Esteem’ (Equality of Opportunity) between the social classes.

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 ‘Primary
Schooling’

Question

Did the Butler Act break the class divide? Why?

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The Comprehensive System
Due to the problems that the Tri-Partite caused for the working class, it was replaced in the 1960s by
the newly installed Labour Government, which aimed to create equality once again amongst the social
classes.

Comprehensivisation (1965)

This created the Comprehensive schools that are so popular nowadays. The biggest clue as to what
‘Comprehensive’ Schooling is all about can be seen in the following definition:

‘Comprehensive’: meaning Covering or Involving Much; Inclusive – (Dictionary.com)

Comprehensive Schools are schools that everyone attends regardless of ability or social class. The
11+ was abolished and a child’s schooling depended upon their ‘catchment area’. This aimed to
ensure that all pupils would get ‘parity of esteem’ and ‘equality’ within education as they would
have the same teachers, same resources, same facilities, same funding etc …

Reasons behind the Comprehensive system include:

Social Economic
✓ Social barriers are broken down. ✓ Cheaper to fund and run.
✓ Working and middle class groups
mix.
Geographical Educational
✓ Everyone living in the area ✓ No entry requirements. No
served by a school (it’s student was labelled a failure.
Catchment area) will go to the ✓ Comprehensive provide students
school, whatever the ability of with more opportunity to
background. achieve.

With all pupils in one school, it was important to make sure all abilities were catered for and as
such setting and streaming were introduced.

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 Questions
1. What are some of the problems associated with setting and streaming?
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2. Some Sociologists argue setting and streaming is like a miniature triparte system. What do they
mean by this?
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3. What are some of the main problems associated with comprehensivisation?
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4. Do comprehensive schools break down social class barriers?

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Functionalism and the Role of Education

When studying education, Sociologists are interested in four main questions:

1. How far does education provide all individuals with equal opportunities for achievement?

2. How far does education recreate existing social inequalities?

3. In what ways does education serve the needs of the economy?

4. What kind of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values does education transmit?

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Emile Durkheim on Education
The Education system provides two main functions:
1. Social Solidarity
2. Teaching specialist skills.

Social Solidarity
This is a sense of belonging. The curriculum helps build social solidarity by
transmitting British culture. For example, history teaches children about ancestry and culture. This
gives students a sense of common identity.

2. Teaching specialist skills

Education teaches individuals specialist knowledge and skills that need to play their part in the
social division of labour. Schools prepare students for wider society and their roles they will play,
as they get older.

Talcott Parsons (1951) and Meritocracy

Parsons uses the analogy of a bridge. In the space below, explain what the bridge
represents.

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Parsons sees school as preparing us for society as they are both based on meritocratic principles.
Meritocracy refers to the idea that everyone is born equal and given an equal opportunity, and
individuals achieve rewards through their own effort and ability.

Meritocracy in school and at work

Schools teach children that everyone is equal and all students have a fair chance to achieve top
grades. Wider society tells us that everyone is equal and all have a fair chance to achieve top jobs.

Task
In the table below list evidence to support the view that schools offer equal opportunities, and
evidence to argue that equal opportunities at school do not exist.

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 Evidence that equal opportunities do exist Evidence that equal opportunities do not
in school and wider society exist in school and wider society

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What would a Marxist or Feminist argue regarding meritocracy?

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Davis and Moore: Role Allocation

Davis and Moore (1945) agree with Parsons, but also see education as
a device for role allocation. Role allocation refers to the way in which
jobs are given to people in our society. In the UK many jobs are filled
based on educational qualifications. Inequality is necessary to ensure that the most important roles
in society are filled by the most talented people. E.g., you do not just want anyone as a surgeon.
Not everyone is equally talented so society has to offer higher rewards for these jobs. This will
encourage everyone to compete for them- and society will select the most talented.

Education plays a key part in this process as it acts as a proving ground for ability. It ‘sifts and sorts’
us according to our ability. The most able gain the best grades which in turn allows them to attend
the best higher education institutions and therefore fill the important positions in society.

Task
Referring to your own experiences at school, how does school ‘sift and sort’ pupils to help find their
role in society, suited to their talents?
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 Is the sifting and sorting process fair? Explain.
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Do the important jobs always get the highest rewards? Explain with examples.
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Task
The main functions associated with education are listed below in the left column. The right column
shows definitions. Unfortunately, they are muddled up. Sift and sort the definitions to match the
correct function.

The Functions of the Education system

The education system is expected to enable individuals to move up

Serving the (or down) the social ladder. Able students from disadvantaged
needs of the backgrounds have opportunities to achieve qualifications that allow
economy them to move up the layers of the social class system.
While at school, pupils learn the culture (way of life), norms and
Selection values of their society.
Through their formal education (e.g. citizenship classes) pupils
Facilitating identify with British culture and see themselves as British citizens.
social mobility Schools help to reinforce the ‘glue’ or the social bonds that unite
different people in society.
Encouraging Education has an economic role in teaching the knowledge and
‘Britishness’ and skills that future workers will need in a competitive global economy.
social cohesion
Secondary Schools teach pupils to conform and to accept rules (e.g.
socialisation punctuality) and adult authority.
The education system works like a sieve, grading people and
Social control allocating them to jobs based on their individual merit, abilities and
exam results.

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 Exam Practice
Outline how schools prepare students for wider society. (5 marks)
You should explore at least two ways in your response.

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO1= 5 marks • One way could be…
• A coherent answer demonstrating detailed, • This means….
relevant knowledge and understanding of • Another way could be..
how schools prepare students for wider • This prepares students because…
society. • This helps students because…
• There will be evidence of appropriate and • According to Davis and Moore…
sustained sociological language, and • Parsons suggests…
concepts are described in detail.
• If you do not explore two ideas, the
highest mark you can achieve is a 3.

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Marxism and the Role of Education
Marxists tend to have a negative view on the education system. Schools teach children to accept
inequality and capitalism. Schools help stop the proletariat from rebelling against capitalism. Marxist
disagree with Functionalists, and argue MERITOCRACY IS A MYTH. It is not real!

Louis Althusser and the Ideological State

Apparatus (ISA)

The ISA justifies class inequalities. For

example if you fail and you underperform in
your exams, you are led to believe that you
deserve a low position in society. If we
accept inequality, we will not challenge
capitalism.

Bowles & Gintis and the Correspondence Principle

The Correspondence Principle or the Correspondence Theory is the idea that the norms and
values pupils learn in school correspond to the norms and values which will make it easy for future
capitalist employers to exploit them at work.

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 The hidden curriculum refers to things students learn at school but they are not always aware of this
learning. The hidden curriculum prepares students for capitalism and the wider world of work. For
example;

• Capitalism requires a workforce with the kinds of behaviour, attitudes and personality suited to
being exploited to work hard and for low pay.

• The role of education is to prepare individuals for this. This is achieved through the hidden
curriculum.

• Hierarchy: Students learn that different people are on different levels at school and at work. They
accept inequality as a normal part of life.

Task: Hidden Curriculum in everyday life

Below is a table detailing aspects of the hidden curriculum and correspondence principle.
Read through and fill in the blanks.

The Hidden Curriculum features What do individuals learn from this?

School Prefects R........................ for elders and responsibility

School rules, detentions and merits Conformity to r................. whether you agree
with them or not.

Assemblies Respect for r................ beliefs and key

Males and females being taught different subjects, To conform to s..............................

e.g., sport or being expected to have different career
patters.

Competitive sports and competitions Teaches that workers have to

c........................... with each other for jobs and
w...................

Respecting teachers, pupils doing as they are told Respect for those in a..........................
and having to justify behaviour.

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 Punctuality Good t...........-keeping at w...................

Concentrating on school work Workers having to accept b................. menial

and r....................... jobs.

Hard work being valued Everyone can do w............... if they t.........

hard enough.

Grading by ability and exams The people who do b.................. will get
b................ jobs and b.................. pay.

Different sets and bands for subjects This enables pupils to get used to different
l............. j............

Pupil’s lack of power and control over the subjects Worker’s l............ of power and control at
they are taught and the organisation of the school work.

The authority hierarchy of the school. Learning their p........... in society and about
who has the p............ and c............... in the
workplace.

Task
The main Marxist functions associated with education are listed below in the left column. The right
column shows definitions. Unfortunately, they are muddled up. Sift and sort the definitions to match
the correct function.

The functions of the education system according to Marxists

Match the function to the correct definition
Through sports and exams at school, students
Serving the interests of are encouraged to accept values such as
the ruling class competition. If most people value competition,
this helps to maintain the capitalist system
because it is based on competition.
By passing on ideas and beliefs that benefit the
Reproducing the class ruling class (for example, that capitalist society
system is fair and meritocratic), the educations system
serves ruling class interests.
The education system socialises working-class
Breeding competition children to accept their lower position in
capitalist society. For example, they learn to
accept hierarchy at school and obey rules.
Education appears to reward pupils fairly based
Secondary socialisation on their abilities. However, it actually favours
pupils from more advantaged backgrounds.
Over time, education recreates (or reproduces)
the advantages that some social class groups
have over others.

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 Exam Practice
Outline how the hidden curriculum contribute towards capitalism. (5 marks)
You should explore at least two ways in your response.

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO1= 5 marks • One way could be…
• A coherent answer demonstrating detailed, • This means….
relevant knowledge and understanding of • Another way could be..
how the hidden curriculum contributes • This contributes towards capitalism
towards capitalism. because…
• There will be evidence of appropriate and • This helps capitalism because…
sustained sociological language, and • According to Althusser …
concepts are described in detail. • Bowles and Gintin suggests…
• If you do not explore two ideas, the
highest mark you can achieve is a 3.

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Task
In the Venn diagram below, consider the similarities and differences between Marxists and
Functionalists and the role of education.

New Right Principle; Parental Choice and Competition between schools

1988 Education Reform Act

The New Right are associated with the Conservative political party. In 1988 Margaret Thatcher
introduced the Education Reform Act, which has a big impact on the Education system. This brought
with it marketisation. Marketisation refers to the way schools behave like businesses, and compete
with others to attract customers (parents).
The aim is to
make schools
The aim is to
more
raise
accountable!
standards!

The aim is to
run schools
based on
‘market
principles’.

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The Conservative Government moved away from ‘equality of opportunity’ and they introduced more
competition. The Conservatives introduced ‘market principles’. This included the following:

➢ The National Curriculum ➢ Prospectus

➢ National testing (Key Stages/SATs) ➢ Open enrolment

➢ League Tables ➢ Increased OFSTED inspections

NATIONAL CURRICULUM
• A standard curriculum in all state schools (Maths, English and Science for students aged 5-16
became core).
• Subjects (History and geography) must be studied to KS3 level.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ All students in the country do the same (or  Not suitable for all students i.e. the NC suits
similar courses). the academic student.
✓ Continuity when a pupil moved school.  Private schools do not have to teach the
✓ Government has control over curriculum (in NC.
the past teachers had more control).  Less choice. Some subjects were scrapped.
 Political interference in school ‘learning’.

NATIONAL TESTING
• Formal assessments at the end of each key stage in core subjects.
• Ages 7, 11, 14 and 16. (Government axed testing at age 14 in 2005).
• Students pushed to hit target grades.
• Performance is measured against national targets. Intervention can be made with students
working under the national level.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ Teachers encouraged to get high grades.  Pressure on pupils.
✓ Performance could be compared to other  Many students fail and feel worthless.
schools in the area and across the country.  Schools become exam factories
 Do not analyse ‘value added’
 Students may be more talented in subjects
not tested.

Task: Assessing students’ progress

Read the extract and answer the questions that follow:

I think we’re now trapped in an education system driven by testing… we have too much testing now.
Assessments actually goes on all the time in school. Teachers will say: “Well done’, ‘That’s right’,
every day to their pupils- buy 99% of this school assessment is low stakes and informal. Only 1% of
assessment is high stakes and formal, and it is this 1% - SATs, GCSEs, A Levels, AS Levels, on which
everything rests.

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Questions

1. Make a list of the possible benefits and problems of testing 7 year olds and using the results
as a measure of their ability.
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2. What might be better ways of assessing students progress?

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LEAGUE TABLES
Annually published results of school examination performances at GCSE and A LEVEL.
Note: This website https://www.compare-school-performance.service.gov.uk/ will take you to the
most recent league tables.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ Parents can compare schools.  Creates ‘sink schools’.
✓ Schools motivated to improve.  Doesn’t measure Value Added.
✓ Make teachers accountable for results.  Doesn’t take into account the socio-
. economic make up of schools .
 Schools manipulate figures.

OPEN ENROLLMENT
• Schools take students from any anywhere (does not depend on catchment area).
• Parents can send children to which ever school they desire (admissions apply).
• Competition between schools is increased.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ Specialist schools had more choice  Least popular schools received less funding.
✓ Schools compete with each other and this  Broke up communities
can raise standards.  Minority subjects abandoned.
✓ Schools that are more popular received  Schools too focused on ‘marketing’.
funding.

Task
Parental choice?

The aim of introducing market forces into education was justified in two ways: as an extension of
personal freedom and also to improve schools as they compete to attract parents- who are
effectively ‘customers’ for education.

The researchers have identified parents as belonging to broad categories of choice-making:

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Privileged/skilled choosers were generally middle class…. These parents arrange for their children
to attend the correct primaries and then use negotiating skills and training of their children to
ensure that they are accepted by the selected schools.

Semi-skilled choosers were a mixed class group of aspirant working- class parents. They were highly
motivated for their children, but were less aware of some of the… insider knowledge of the system
necessary in order to privilege their children. They were more open to media reports of the schools
and they relied on the judgements of others. Many did not fully understand the significance of the
open evenings and brochures and so they relied on reputation and rumour in their selection
processes.

Disconnected choosers who were less able to make choices often viewed parental choice as being
of little significance and viewed all schools as being ;much the same’. They usually made their
selections on geography or on the current ‘happiness’ of the child rather than in terms of job
prospects.

Questions
1. Explain why the idea of schools competing for parents would lead to them improving their
standards.
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2. According to the research, what factors may affect parents’ ability to make choices about
which school to send their children to?
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3. How might some parents be more able to get their children into the ‘correct’ primary schools
for the secondary school of their choice?
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 Dark side of marektisation

The pressure of marketisation has led to cream-skimming – where some students

take the top cream, that is selecting higher ability students who gain the best results
and cost less to teach. It has also led to silt-shifting – offloading students with learning
difficulties who are expensive and get poor results.

Ball (1994) found that schools have had to spend more on marketing themselves to
parents, often at the expense of spending in other areas such as SEN.

Task: Marketisation in Education

Read the extract and answer the following questions:

Schools need to create an ‘image’ that is attractive to parents and students. They do this through
school policy, documentation, the building, name and their students. Newly developed schools
need to create instant ‘traditions’ through logos and uniforms. School documentation had to fit
with ‘school style’. School prospectuses were better produced and glossy.

The concern was to give schools more middle class flavour in order to attract the high-achieving
child of ambitious parents. The term ‘able’ has become code for students who were ‘middle class’,
female, white or Indian. Unattractive intakes consisted of less able, emotionally damaged children
with learning disabilities. Integration was resisted for children with special educational needs in
some schools because of the possible perceptions of parents. Image making is turning schools into
organisations that value certain children above others. The market does not ensure equality of
access for all if schools only desire the custom of certain groups at the expense of others.

Questions
1. Identify two effects of marketisation in schools.
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2. Which social groups may face social inequality as a result of marketisation in schools?
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22
 Exam Practice
Describe one advantage to league tables. (2 marks)

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO1 marks =2 The examiner is testing your • One advantages could be…..
knowledge and understanding of league • This means….
tables. • This involves…
• To achieve AO1 you must demonstrate • An advantage to league tables is…
relevant knowledge and understanding of
one factor relating to one strength of
league tables.

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The Feminist view of Education

Task
Read the extract from the GCSE Eduqas Sociology textbook below and complete the knowledge
mat.

Schools and patriarchy

Feminists drew particular attention to the contribution of schools to the underachievement of
girls in education in the 1960s. They argued that schools were patriarchal; run in favour of makes
and dominated by males. Feminists saw patriarchy in society and in schools as the main reason for
the lower achievements of girls and they therefore tried to raise awareness of it with a view to
changing the system.

Feminists drew attention to many issues that they felt caused inequality in schools. These
included boys and girls following a different curriculum and being encouraged to choose different
subjects.
Reasons for girls low attainment in the 60s
Before the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1988, boys would normally take traditional
masculine craft subjects such as woodwork and metal work while girls would normally do cookery
and needlework. Feminists saw this as reinforcing ideas that men and women did different jobs,
with women more suited to housework tasks.

Another issue was the ways males and females were portrayed in different, stereotypical roles in
reading schemes and texts books. Ladybird reading schemes, very popular in the 50s and 60s, came
under criticism because their female characters were mainly shown in domestic roles and girls were
always helping mother with the housework.

23
Much of this has now changed. With the National Curriculum, pupils in publicly funded schools
follow the same courses. Feminists have raised awareness of issues, and this helped towards girls
having the same education and the same opportunities in schools as boys.

Patriarchy and the Hidden Curriculum

Although they agree there have been improvements, feminists argue that schools are still
patriarchal and that girls have improved their results in spite of this. Some feminists say the hidden
curriculum passes on gender messages to girls and boys about their place and role in society and
about appropriate gender behaviour. This might be through books, what teachers say, how subjects
are presented and how girls and boys are treated. They argue that the hidden curriculum is
patriarchal and based around men and their achievements.

Feminists point out the study of history is mostly about men and the achievements of men. Women
are marginalised in history.

Men in top positions

Men are proportionately more likely to get to top positions in teaching. Although more female head
teachers have been appointed, men still dominate this position at secondary level. According to
government figures for 2015, 62% of secondary school teachers were female, but only 36% of head
teachers are female.

Gendering of subjects
Another area feminists draw attention to is gendering of subjects. This means that certain subjects
are thought of or presented as more suitable for one gender. The curriculum now allows for girls
and boys to study the same subjects but, Feminists argue, schools still tend to suggest, albeit
indirectly, that physics, engineering and resistant materials might be more suitable for boys, and
languages, food technology and childcare for girls.

Boys domination of space

From her research, Becky Francis argues that boys dominate the classroom and generally attract
more attention, positive and negative from teachers. They tend to be noisier than girls, which leads
to more pupil-teacher interaction for them and less for girls. She found that boys also dominate the
playing areas, occupying most of the space with football, other ball games and fast-paced physical
play.

Social control
Schools might also be patriarchal in the way that, at school, boys might exercise social control over
girls and try to police their behaviour. Su e Lees found that a double standard of morality existed
whereby boys demean girls who are sexually promiscuous or overtly flirty while this behaviour is
considered acceptable, even praiseworthy, by boys themselves.

24
 Feminism and Education Knowledge Mat

Why did girls underachieve in the 1960s? Who is more likely to achieve a top position in education? Key Word Bank
Explain with examples.

To what extent are subjects ‘gendered’? Give examples.

How does the hidden curriculum pass on
messages about patriarchy?

What did Sue Lees find?

What did Becky Francis find?

25
Differences in attainment between Social Class groups
Quick Recap!

Social class is one way of describing a person’s position in society. An individual’s social class is usually
determined by looking at their occupation or at their parent’s occupations.

Below is a copy of the National Statistics, Socio Economic, Class scale. This is how social class is
measured in UK society today.

Social class group Examples

1 Higher managerial and professional occupations.

1.1 Large employers and higher Company directors, senior managers,

managerial occupational. senior civil servants, senior officers in
police and armed forces.

1.2 Higher professional occupations. Doctors, lawyers, clergy, teachers and

social workers.

2 Lower managerial and professional Nurses, midwives, journalists, actors,

occupation. musicians, prison officers, lower ranks of
police and armed forces.

3 Intermediate occupations Clerks, secretaries, driving instructors,

computer operators.

4 Small employers and own account Farmers, taxi drivers, window cleaners,
workers painters and decorators.

5 Lower supervisory, craft and related Printers, plumbers, television engineers,

occupations. train drivers, butchers

6 Semi-routine occupation Shop assistants, hairdressers, bus drivers,

cooks.

7 Routine occupations. Cleaners, labourers, waiters and refuse

collectors.

8 Never had a paid work and the long

term unemployed.

Task: Social class statistics and achievement

Examine the statistics on the following page and identify patterns and trends. You should label the
tables where appropriate, and refer to sociological language. Explain your understanding of the
tables in the space provided.

26
 Attainment of 5 or more GCSE grades A*-C in year 11 (2003-2006) percentage

Parental occupation 2003 2006

Higher professional 76 81

Lower professional 65 73

Intermediate 53 59

Lower supervisory 41 46

Routine 33 42

Other/ not classified (e.g. No 34 34

occupation)

Academic achievement in year 11 GCSE (2006) percentages

Free 5+ 8+ 5-7 1-4 5+ 1-4 none

school
meals

A*-C A*-C A*-C A*-C D-G D-G

No 61 45 15 22 11 14 3

Yes 31 18 13 27 20 14 8

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The social class issue;

• Free school meals is linked to lower income and lower social class backgrounds.

• The higher the social class background the greater chance of achievement.

• PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) has found social class on educational
attainment is significantly higher in Britain than the average for other countries.

Material deprivation
This term refers to a lack of resources needed to succeed in education. Those who are materially
deprived often lack a sufficient amount of money needed to buy educational told and resources.

Task: Material deprivation

List the items a child needs to be successful in education in the space below;

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Highlight the needs in your list that a lower class child may not have. In the space below, explain why
this can affect working class achievement.

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Task: Evaluation
Read the following points listed in the boxes below. Answer the evaluation questions in the space
provided.

Douglas 1967- Overcrowded housing and lack of Inner cities lack pre-school facilities.
privacy can affect performance at school. ➢ Which social class is likely to live in an inner city?
➢ Suggest how an overcrowded home can be ➢ Why is lack of pre school facilities bad for a child's
good for a child's education. development?
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Halsey, Heath and Ridge (1980) showed that a Working class parents are less likely to attend
higher rate of working class children left school parents evening.
at the first possible opportunity. ➢ Why is this a bad thing?
➢ Why do you think a working class student is ➢ Why are WC parents less likely to attend?
likely to leave school earlier than a middle
class student?
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Task: Are state schools free?

1. According to Aviva, how much money do families spend on average on their child’s education?

2. True or false. The Children’s Commission on poverty found that children from low-income
families are more likely to face social isolation and bullying at school.

3. Why are non-uniform days a problem for students from low-income families?

29
Social Class exam question

Exam Practice - Thinking about 15 mark exam questions

‘Working class pupils tend to underachieve in education mainly because of material factors.’
Do you agree with this view?
(In your answer you are advised to refer to theory and any other relevant factors to support your
judgement)
What is this exam question asking you to do?
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What is the examiner looking for?

AO1 marks = 4 marks
The examiner is testing your knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, terms, names,
concepts, evidence and methods

AO2 marks = 3 marks

The examiner is interested in your ability to apply theories and ideas to this question. And your
ability to apply examples.

AO3 marks = 8 marks

The examiner wants you to analyse (look for similarities and differences), evaluate ( look for
strengths and weaknesses to ideas discussed) make an argument and an overall conclusion.

30
 Task
Read the band descriptors provided by the Eduqas exam board.

AO1 - 4 marks AO2 - 3 marks AO3 - 8 marks

A coherent answer There are no Band 4 A developed analysis and
demonstrating detailed, marks for this assessment evaluation of the relative
relevant knowledge and objective importance of a range of
understanding. There arguments linked to
should be a range of 3 marks are awarded as discuss reasons relating
reasons for working class for Band 3 to working class
failure discussed. underachievement at
BAND Reasons should be school. There is a
4 7-8
4 described in detail, with sustained line of
examples to support. reasoning which is
There will be evidence of coherent, relevant,
appropriate and substantiated and
sustained sociological logically structured to
language, and concepts support judgements and
are described in detail. a conclusion linked to the
specifics of the question.
A coherent answer Knowledge and Good analysis and
demonstrating mostly understanding of evaluation of the relative
detailed, relevant relevant importance of factors
knowledge and theories/concepts/ linked to discuss reasons
understanding of reasons evidence is applied relating to working class
relating to working class and used to discuss underachievement at
underachievement at reasons relating to school, Lines of reasoning
BAND school, though some working class may not be sustained
3 3 5-6
3 arguments will be underachievement. throughout but are
described in less detail The explanation will coherent and relevant to
than others. There will be well developed. support judgements and
be evidence of mostly a conclusion linked to the
appropriate sociological specifics of the question.
language and concepts,
but these are not
sustained throughout.
AO1 - 4 marks AO2 - 3 marks AO3 - 8 marks
Answer has some Knowledge and A partial analysis and
coherence, understanding of evaluation of the
demonstrating partial relevant importance of factor(s)
knowledge and theories/concepts/ linked to discuss reasons
understanding of evidence is applied relating to working class
BAND argument(s) relating to and used to discuss underachievement at
2 working class 2 reasons relating to 2 school, Any judgement or 3-4
underachievement in working class conclusion will be
schools, though lacking underachievement superficial.
in detail and with at school. The
inaccuracies/ explanation will be
irrelevancies. There will partially developed
be limited evidence of as some of these

31
 appropriate sociological reasons will be
language and concepts. explained in less
detail than the
others and with
inaccuracies.
Answer demonstrates Application of Limited analysis or
only basic knowledge knowledge and evaluation only, with no
and understanding of understanding to judgement or conclusion
reasons relating to discuss reasons in relation to the specifics
working class relating to working of the question.
BAND underachievement in class
1 1 1-2
1 schools. There will be underachievement
little, if any, evidence of at school will be
sociological language and limited. Any
concepts. explanation will be
undeveloped and
contain inaccuracies.
Award 0 marks for incorrect or irrelevant answers

After reading the band descriptors answer the following question:

What must you do to achieve a mark in band 4?

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The next few pages will be used for planning and answer to the essay question.

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 In the space below, list 5 points relating to material factors and social class underachievement at
school. Consider key terminology and names were relevant, Points should be short sentences.
Following this, write a brief evaluation point to either support or disprove your point. Think about key
AO3 buzz terms as sentence starters; however/ On the other hand/ in comparison/ in a similar way/
to critique/ a weakness could be/ a strength is etc…

Point Evaluation
To be written in one clear sentence Use an AO3 Buzz word. Aim for at least one
sentence.
Material Factors

Point Evaluation
To be written in one clear sentence Use an AO3 Buzz word. Aim for at least one
sentence.
Cultural Factors

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 Point Evaluation
To be written in one clear sentence Use an AO3 Buzz word. Aim for at least one
sentence.
Internal Factors

Task: Timed exam question

Give yourself 15 minutes to complete the exam question in the space below.

‘Working class pupils tend to underachieve in education mainly because of material factors.’ Do you
agree with this view?
(In your answer you are advised to refer to theory and any other relevant factors to support your
judgement)

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Social Class and Cultural Factors

Cultural Deprivation is a term used to describe the situation where certain individuals lack the
‘correct’ values and attitudes from socialisation to succeed in education.

Different classes socialise their children differently and this may affect their achievement at school.
Some working class parents fail to transmit the appropriate norms, values, attitudes, knowledge,
skills etc- the right culture- needed for educational success.

There are three cultural factors responsible for working class underachievement….

1. A lack of intellectual stimulation

2. The Restricted Speech Code

3. The Working Class Subculture

36
A lack of intellectual stimulation.

Working class children are disadvantaged when they start school. Working class parents are less likely
to give their children educational toys and activities.

Task
Look at the toys below. What kind of physical, intellectual, emotional and social skills might a child
learn from each toy? Annotate the images.

Why are middle class parents more likely to give these toys to their children?
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Working class parents are less likely to give their children educational toys. Evaluate this
perspective.
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37
Speech codes

The Social Linguist Basil Bernstein claims the working and middle classes have distinct speech codes.

Restricted Code Elaborated Code

• Typically used by the • Typically used by the
working class. middle class.
• Limited vocabulary, • Wider vocabulary and
short, unfinished and longer sentences.
grammatically simple • Varied language and
sentences. communicates abstract
• Single words or idea.
gestures i.e. ‘yes’, nod. • Context free
• Context bound

Task: Read the extract and answer the questions.

One of Bernstein’s research studies involved showing a group of children a strip cartoon and
recording their account of what it depicted. Some said things like:

“They’re playing football, and he kicks it and it goes through there. It breaks the window and
they’re looking at it and he comes out and shouts at them because they’ve broken it so they run
away and then she looks out and she tells them off”

While others said:

“Three boys are playing football and one boy kicks the ball, and it goes through the window
the ball breaks the window and the boys are looking at it, and a man comes out and shouts at
them because they’ve broken the window so they run away and then that lady looks out of her
window and she tells the boys off.”

1. Which recording represents the restricted code? How do you know this?

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2. Which recording represents the elaborated code? How do you know this?

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 3. Identify which code is best suited at school. Explain why.

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4. Why does the elaborated code benefit schoolchildren?
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Working class subculture

A subculture refers to a group within a wider culture, which has significantly different norms, attitudes,
values and lifestyle to other groups in society while sharing some aspects of wider culture.

Three features of the working class subculture are:

• Immediate gratification

• Fatalism

• Collectivism

Immediate gratification

This refers to wanting rewards NOW, rather than being willing to make sacrifices and working hard
towards future rewards.

Fatalism

Working class children usually do not believe that they can improve their position through their own
individual efforts. They tend to believe, what will be, will be.

Collectivism

Collectivism refers to valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual. Middle
classes tend to believe that an individual should not be held back by group loyalties

Low value on education

In general, the working classes place low value on education

• Hyman (1967) argues that the working class do not value education (and don't believe they will
benefit from it’.
• Douglas argues the working class parents show less interest in their children’s education and give
them less support.

39
• Feinstein (1998) found that working class parents’ lack of interest was the main reason for their
children's under achievement.

Task
Produce an argument to suggest Hyman, Douglas and Feinstein are incorrect.
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Differences in attainment: Social Class and Cultural Capital

Pierre Bourdieu and Cultural Capital

Bourdieu coined the term cultural capital, which refers to the advantages that parents can pass on to
their children in the form of knowledge, resources and lifestyle choices, which help their children to
be successful. Middle class families are more likely to have cultural capital due to the following
reasons:
Computer
access

Higher
Access to
educcation
books
(Degree)

Cultural
capital
Access to Holidays to
educational cultural
toys places

Visit
Museums

40
According to Bourdieu….

Bourdieu believes that the upper classes control education. They make sure
that their culture is seen to be superior and is the one that is established in
schools. Upper and middle class children therefore fit in at school more easily
and succeed because they have the same culture. The working class children
leave school early or fail.

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

IS RIGGED, SO THE
MIDDLE AND UPPER
CLASSES STAY ON TOP!

Task

In the space below, list how middle class children have more of a cultural advantage in comparison
to working class children at school. Think about your own experiences at school, and the content
explored in lesson.

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How can this cultural advantage help middle class children get the best jobs in society?

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Exam Practice
Describe one way in which cultural capital can affect attainment at school. (2 marks)

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO2 marks =2 • Cultural capital can lead to…
• The examiner is testing your ability to • According to Bourdieu…
apply your knowledge of independent • Cultural capital can affect children by…
schools and the Education module. • The Neo Marxist Bourdieu….
• You will be awarded one mark for a
basic description why cultural capital
can affect children in schools. To show
this, you must use sociological language
where applicable.

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The Middle class advantage: Social Capital

Social Capital refers to the advantages that middle class parents have such as knowledge of the
school system and the ability to negotiate with teachers.

Diane Reay (1998) found that compared to working class mums, middle class mums had a better
understanding of how the school system worked and how to help their children succeed. They were
more articulate and insistent and therefore more successful at getting what they wanted.

Becky Francis has argued that many working class parents do have high aspirations for their children
but do not have the social capital to understand the ‘rules of the game’. They do not have insider
knowledge or the social skills to enable them to make sense of or work their way around the school
system.

Task
Why do you think middle class parents have better social capital?
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What are the reasons for class differences in achievement?

Social Class and Internal Factors

External factors refer to outside of school factors as the main influence of attainment i.e. home
background including material and cultural explanations.

Internal factors occur within the school and education system i.e. teacher and pupil interaction.

School factors and achievement

Most sociologists who have studied the role of school factors are interactionists who focus on small-
scale interactions between teachers and pupils.

1. Labelling 4. Education policies

2. Self-fulfilling prophecy 5. Irrelevant Curriculum

3. Pupil subcultures

42
 Task
You are a teacher. You have two new students, Claudia and Pepsi.
• What is your initial impression?
• How do you expect these students to behave?
• Would you treat these students differently? Explain.
• Annotate the images.

Labelling Theory by Howard Becker

Labels are meanings or definitions we attach to someone or something to make sense of them – e.g.
Middle-class pupils are labelled ‘bright’, ‘motivated’, ‘cooperative’ etc. Becker argues that teachers
label middle-class children as ‘ideal pupils’ and prefer to teach them rather than working class
children.

The self-fulfilling prophecy

A prophecy is a prediction made about something or someone (e.g. “he’s stupid – he’s bound to
fail”). Students begin to believe the label teachers give them and act upon it. Working class students
are more likely to receive a negative label and create a negative prophecy.

Task: Testing the Self Fulfilling prophecy

Read the following details of a study by Rosenthal and Jacobson, called Pygmalion in the Classroom
(1968). The study was designed to test the theory of the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Teachers in an elementary school in California were told by the researchers that they had identified
a number of student- the ‘spurters’- who were likely to make rapid academic progress. The teachers
were led to believe that the spurters had been identified as a result of high scores in IQ tests.

In reality, the spurters had simply been selected randomly by the researchers and did not display
any greater ability that their classmates. However, a year later it became clear that the spurters
had, indeed, made significantly greater progress than the other students.

Rosenthal and Jacobson concluded that the progress of the spurters was a result of the teachers’
expectations of them. These higher expectations had been communicated to the students and they
had become to believe in the teachers ‘prophecy’ about them.

43
 Questions

In what ways could the teachers have communicated their high expectations to the spurters?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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What do you think happened to the other students who were not labelled as spurters?
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If you were a parent of a child at that school, how would you have felt about the research?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Can you think of any factors other than teachers’ prophecy that could have influenced the spurters
‘achievements?
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Streaming and labelling

Streaming is an extreme form of labelling. It works by putting all pupils of similar ability together into
the same class or ‘stream’ for all subjects. ‘Bright’ pupils are grouped together in the top stream, ‘thick’
ones in the bottom.

Lacey (1970) describes streaming as ‘differentiation’ – a way of separating the sheep from the goats
and then educating them differently. Streaming often creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Pupil Subcultures

Pro-school subcultures are usually formed by pupils in higher streams. They accept the school’s values
and goals for hard work, regular attendance, respect for teachers etc. Typically they enjoy school,
participate enthusiastically in its activities and intend to continue in education. Pupil subcultures often
lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy: members of pro-school subcultures work hard and are successful,
while those in anti-school subcultures mess about, truant and fail.

44
A subculture is a group whose beliefs, values and attitudes differ to some extent from the culture of
wider society. Pupils may form their own subcultures in response to labelling.

Anti-school subcultures are often formed by those in lower streams. They reject the school’s values
and often invert them (turn them upside down). They dislike school, flout its rules, disrespect, and
avoiding schoolwork, play truant, sabotage their uniform etc.

Task
1. List 5 examples of positive labelling.

❑ ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
❑ ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
❑ ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
❑ ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
❑ ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Explain why some teachers would prefer to teach students from a pro school subculture.
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3. Explain why some teachers would prefer to teach students from an anti-school subculture.
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45
 Exam Practice
Describe one way in which labelling can affect children in schools. (2 marks)

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO2 marks =2 • Labelling can lead to…
• The examiner is testing your ability to apply • According to Becker…
your knowledge of independent schools • Labelling can affect children by…
and the Education module. • The Interactionist Becker
• You will be awarded one mark for a basic
description why labelling can affect
children in schools. To show this, you must
use sociological language where applicable.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Educational policies

What goes on in schools isn’t just a product of what teachers decide to do. It is also greatly influenced
by government policies, and these can have an important effect on class differences in achievement.
For example, some sociologists argue that marketisation policies have increased the amount of
streaming in schools. Likewise, policies on issue such as grants, fees, maintenance allowances, the
school leaving age, compensatory education etc. have an impact on home background factors such as
material or cultural deprivation.

Irrelevant Curriculum

In 1988, the Government introduced the National Curriculum. This is a programme of study across the
UK. Academies and Free schools do not have to follow the National Curriculum. Diane Reay argues
that much of the curriculum is not relevant to the lower-working class children and consequently they
disengage with school. This can involve students not going to school or forming anti school
subcultures.

46
Gender and Education
Since the 1980s girls have over taken
boys at all levels of education and
the gap is getting wider.

The issue

Historically boys out performed girls,

but this situation has changed. Within
three generations girls have out
performed boys at all levels. This
pattern occurs across ethnicity and is
amplified by class with working class
boys being the most likely to
underachieve. Sociologists are
interested in why girls have
improved.

The Feminist Movement

The ‘Feminist Movement’ has improved the rights of women as well as raising expectations and self-
esteem/ motivation of women. Women are no longer strictly bound to the ‘Mother/ Housewife
Role’.

Sue Sharpe: Just Like a Girl

Sharpe conducted a longitudinal study based on female priorities and attitudes. In 1976, Sharpe
found that females prioritised love, marriage, husbands, children and then a career.

She repeated the study in 1994 and found that priorities had changed to career, independence THEN
MAYBE relationships etc.

McRobbie and media analysis

McRobbie explained that magazines such as Jackie in the 1970s emphasised the
importance of getting married whereas nowadays priorities have changed and
women are faced with more positive role models within the media.

Task: Media Analysis

Read the magazine covers on the next page and consider the following
questions; to what extent are women encouraged to be independent? Have magazines changed
since ‘Jackie’ in the 70s? Are women career driven and in control?

Refer to key sociological concepts and language as you annotate.

47
48
Feminism and Social Policy

Task: Feminism has helped introduce some of the policies stated in the table below. How does each
policy link to education and an increase in academic achievement?

Policy Summary of Act Links to achievement and

education
Men and women cannot be
Sex Discrimination Act treated unfairly at work due to
1975 their sex.

Makes it illegal to pay one sex

Equal Pay Act 1970 more than another for work of
equal value.

Divorce Reform Act 1969 Couples could divorce after 3

years due to irretrievable
breakdown.

The Abortion Act 1967 A woman could legally terminate

her pregnancy with medical
assistance.

Female Socialisation

Lobban found that, in story books, females tend to be portrayed as dependant, passive, quiet &
sensible whereas boys were more adventurous, active, independent & ‘boisterous’. This is arguably
beginning to change, as girls are encouraged to be more outgoing and independent of men.

Employment Opportunities for Women:

Mitsos & Browne (1998) highlight how the growing Service Sector/ Economy has created more
‘feminised’ career opportunities for women e.g. in Health Care, Hospitality, Teaching, Clerical,
Childcare professions.

According to Webb at al (2008)

➢ The number of women in employment went up from 47% in 1959 to 70% 2007.

➢ The pay gap between men & women has fallen from 30’% to 17% since 1975.

➢ More & more women are breaking through the ‘Glass Ceiling Effect’.

49
Francis (2001) Interviewed girls about their career aspirations & concluded that, due to increased
employment opportunities, females have become extremely ambitious & aim for ‘high professions’
such as Doctors & Solicitors.

Exam Practice
Describe one reason why girls tend to out perform boys at school. (2 marks)

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO2 marks =2 • One reason could be……
• The examiner is testing your ability to apply • According to …
your knowledge of Gender and Educational • For example…
achievement. • Social policies such as..
• You will be awarded one mark for a basic
description why girls tend to out preform
boys. To show this, you must use
sociological language where applicable.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Differences in attainment: Internal Factors and Gender

Equal Opportunities Policies

Due to the Feminist movement many sociologists have argued that the Education System has become
much more ‘Gender-Aware’. Policies that are based on gender equality have become much more
‘mainstream’ & as such gender stereotyping is/ has become/ing less of a problem…

The Education Reform Act (National Curriculum) 1988:

The National Curriculum has created a situation where males & females study the same core subjects.
This has created a more meritocratic education system whereby males & females compete on equal
terms.

• WISE (Women into Science & Engineering)

• GIST (Girls into Science & Technology)

50
 Task
Watch the brief clip and answer the questions below.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWMFRi0BjWo

1. What is Anna’s job title?

………………………………………………………….……………………………………………
2. What is the EDT?
………………………………………………………….……………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. Why do you think Anna is the only female apprentice?

………………………………………………………….……………………………………………
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4. Why do you think Anna wants to work more closely with schools? Will this have a positive
impact? Explain.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Positive Role Models

Female pupils now have more positive role models WITHIN the education system (as well as externally
too) which may help explain their educational progress. More & more women are taking up positions
of high responsibility within the education system (in particularly Head teacher Roles).

Weiner (1995): Teachers are challenging gender stereotypes more than ever e.g. sexist images have
been removed from textbooks and there is more positive female imagery in resources.

GCSEs and Coursework

Gorard (2005) suggests there is a ‘Gender Gap’ in success rates and this increased dramatically in the
academic year 1988/9. This coincides with the introduction of GCSEs which brought with it more
coursework based assessments. The ‘Gender Gap’ is a product of the changed system of assessment.

Mitsos & Browne (1998) support Gorard this view by suggesting that coursework suits girls because:

✓ Girls take more care in presentation. ✓ Girls develop better speaking &
listening skills – particularly useful for
✓ Girls spend more time on their work.
oral exams.
✓ Girls are more organised than boys.

However Jannette Elwood (2005) argues that exams are more important than coursework & therefore
the argument that coursework has effected girls achievement is flawed.

51
Teacher Attention, Stereotyping & Labelling

Dale spender (1983) found that boys actually received more attention in the classroom than girls did,
however, this is not always positive:

• Swann found boys dominate discussions whereas girls are more likely to work quietly.
• Groddal found boys are more likely to attract the teacher’s attention, as they are more
boisterous and disruptive.
• Francais found that this was because boys were more likely to be disciplined than girls and
therefore the attention is not always productive.

Task
Read the extract below entitled ‘Are single sex schools and classrooms best?’

Teaching girls in single-sex schools, long an obsession of many parents worried about their
daughters being distracted by boys, makes no difference to their attainment according to a
comprehensive study by Alan Smithers, Professor of Education at Buckingham University and one of
Britain’s most respected school experts.

… “The reason people think single-sex schools are better is because they do well in league tables”,
said Smithers. “But they are generally independent, grammar or former grammar schools and they
do well because of the ability and the social background of the pupils”.

A growing movement in the US suggest that boys’ and girl’s brains develop differently, so they
benefit from separate teaching styles. In Britain, more and more mixed schools are using single-sex
classes because of concerns over boys’ results.

This study comes after research published last month in Scotland showed that even in a co-
educational school, separating pupils into single – sex classes failed to improve boys’ performance.
Rather… the move led to greater indiscipline.

Using the extract and your own ideas, discuss the possible benefits and problems of both single –
sex and same sex schools and classrooms in the following areas:
• For raising achievement levels
• For students making subject choices
• For students social development.
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52
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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AO3 Evaluation points. Think 15 mark exam questions...

Liberal Feminists see these ‘improvements’ as a positive step in breaking down gender inequality
within the education system arguing that it shows that Meritocracy is a reality (Link to Functionalism).
HOWEVER, Radical Feminists are more critical. They still see the education system as Patriarchal and
suggest the following:

• Sexual harassment of girls continues.

• Females’ subject choices are still restricted.

• Male teachers are still more likely to be heads of secondary schools.

• History subjects are ‘women free zones’ according to Weiner (1993).

• Lobban (1974) found that out of 179 stories used in primary schools, females were usually
represented in traditional domestic roles.

Exam Practice
Describe one reason why girls tend to outperform boys at school. (2 marks)

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO2 marks =2 • One reason could be……
• The examiner is testing your ability to apply • According to …
your knowledge of Gender and Educational • For example…
achievement. • Social policies such as..
• You will be awarded one mark for a basic
description why girls tend to out preform
boys. To show this, you must use
sociological language where applicable.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

53
Differences in attainment: Subject choice and Gender
Subject Choice and Identity

Regardless of the improved position of females within education, there still seems to be a traditional
‘masculine’ & feminine’ divide when it comes to subject choices. Feminists have long argued that the
education system makes sure that males and females stay unequal in British society.

Wikeley (1996): Boys & girls tend to choose different Subjects wherever possible i.e. Boys choosing
Design and Technology whilst girls choose Food Technology. These differences are also apparent in
post-compulsory education where a significant amount of males opt for Maths & Physics at A-Level
where as many girls choose English, Languages and Sociology.

In 2007, only 1/ 100 construction students were female – showing a divide in Vocational Areas also.

Why is there a gender subject divide?

Oakley and Delamont on Socialisation

Gender Socialisation is the process of learning the behaviour expected of males & females in society.
From the earliest years, girls are talked to and cuddled more, whilst boys are thrown around
vigorously. Girls are seen as fragile, boys are not. Parents have different expectations of their children,
socialised, play different games, expected to do different activities round the house. These arguments
suggest that, at a very young age, children are ‘shaped’ into ‘gender-roles. This is spurred on by the
process of ‘Canalisation’.

Patricia Murphy (1991) Case study

Murphy claims that boys and girls interpret tasks differently. Murphy set two tasks for primary and
secondary school pupils.

1) Design boats/ vehicles

2) Write an estate agent advert for a house

Murphy’s findings…

• Boys designed powerboats & battleships / Girls designed cruise ships.

• Boys designed sports cars / Girls designed family cars.

• Boys focused on garage space in their adverts/ Girls on décor & kitchen design.

Gender Identity & Image

Many sociologists who study gendered subject choice argue that the subjects themselves have male
and female images.

Colley (1998) found ICT / Computer based subjects are seen as masculine as machines are part of
the male gender domain and the methodical processes appeal to boys.

Kelly (1979) found that Science Teachers more likely to be male. She also found that textbooks and
class examples in Science usually draw on boys’ experiences and interests. Boys tend to monopolise
equipment and apparatus.

54
In 2007 the DfES found that gendered subject image was not such a problem in same-sex schools and
therefore subject choice varied greatly amongst pupils in these schools.

Peer Pressure

Paetcher (1998) found girls who choose sport are often stigmatised as it is seen to fall within the ‘male
gender domain’. Peer pressure exerts a huge influence over subject choice.

Dewar (1990): In her US study, she found that girls would be labelled as ‘Lesbian’ or ‘Butch’ if they got
involved in sports. This problem is lessened in same-sex schools where gender stereotypes are not so
rigid.

Gendered Career Opportunities

Subject choice might also be influenced by the gendered employment patterns. Females are largely
centred around four main areas (Clerical, Secretarial, Personal Services & Cleaning Work (men make
up only 1/6 of workers in these areas). This is sometimes referred to as the 5 C’s; Cashiering, Catering,
Cleaning, Clerical and Care.

Males are heavily involved in vocational courses, which lead to work that is more practical.

The Hidden Curriculum

It is also argued that the hidden curriculum has ‘Male-Overtones’ i.e. that the hidden curriculum
reinforces traditional gender identities and domains.

Examples of the Hidden Curriculum

Lobban (1976) Found in her analysis of 6 reading schemes, that out of 225
stories, only 2 showed women who were not engaged in domestic tasks.
Textbooks Males were however shown in a number of different roles – this she argued
gave the idea to the children of the different roles of males and females.
Spender (1988) Argues that there is a fundamental male bias in the English
Language language, for example; using ‘man’ and ‘he’ to stand for both sexes, using
words such as chairman.
The way that schools and colleges are organised, can again send certain
Organisation messages to males and females about their likely positions in society i.e.
Men tend to be at the top of the hierarchy and women at the bottom.

Why do boys underachieve at school?

Decline in Manufacturing Jobs

Manufacturing ‘Masculine’ jobs have moved abroad & thus male employment opportunities have
been hampered. Mitsos & Browne (1998) suggest that this has created a ‘Crisis of Masculinity’. Men
are losing their traditional roles and taken for granted authority and are left confused and unsure of
their identity.

55
Poor Male Literacy

The Department of Children, school and family (2007) argue that the ‘gender gap’ is the result of
poor literacy amongst males. This could be caused do to;

• The socialisation of boys. Boys are socialised to be active.

• Reading has become feminised. Sewell argues that education has become ‘feminised’ and do
not nurture masculine traits.
•

Shortage of male teachers

There is a lack of positive make role models in schools.

• DfES (2007): 16% of Primary School teachers are male.

• Yougov (2007) 39% 0f 8-11 year-olds have no male teachers

Task
Watch the clip concerning the lack of male Primary school teachers and answer the
questions that follow. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FE2ScyqMpaE

1. How many primary teachers (per 100) are men?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What percentage of parents said they want to see more men teaching their primary
school children?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Do the children like having a male teacher? Explain.
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4. Why do men often avoid teacher training?
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5. Who inspired Sir Patrick Stewart to become an actor? How?
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56
 ………………………………………………………….……………………………………………
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6. Why are male teachers important?
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IMPORTANT REMINDER

✓ Boys have not gone backwards- girls have moved forward

✓ NOT all boys are underachievers:

o Middle class boys tend to achieve.

o Some ethnic groups underachieve.

o Working class girls still underachieve.

o Certain regions in the UK underachieve i.e. North East England and inner cities in London.

Exam Practice
Explain the reasons why boys are more likely to underachieve at school. (8 marks)
You should explore at least two reasons in your response.

What is the examiner looking for?

• AO1 marks = 4 marks
The examiner is testing your knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, terms,
names, concepts, evidence and methods. To achieve AO1 you must demonstrate detailed,
relevant knowledge and understanding of at least 2 reasons for the underachievement of
boys.

• AO2 marks = 4 marks

The examiner is interested in your ability to apply theories and ideas to this question. And
your ability to apply examples

57
Task: Look at the mark scheme below. What do you have to do to get marks in band 4?

AO1 - 4 marks AO2 - 4 marks

A coherent answer demonstrating detailed, Knowledge and understanding of
relevant knowledge and understanding of at relevant theories/concepts/evidence for
least two reasons why some ethnic minority two reasons is applied and used to
pupils may not achieve as well as other groups explain accurately and in detail the
BAND 4 4 4
in schools. There will be evidence of reasons why some ethnic minority pupils
appropriate and sustained sociological may not achieve as well as other groups
language, and concepts are described in detail. in schools. The explanation will be fully
developed.
A coherent answer demonstrating mostly Knowledge and understanding of
detailed, relevant knowledge and relevant theories/concepts/evidence for
understanding of two reasons why some two reasons is applied and used to
ethnic minority pupils may not achieve as well explain accurately why some ethnic
BAND 3 as other groups in schools, though one reason 3 minority pupils may not achieve as well 3
will be described in less detail than the other. as other groups in schools. The
There will be evidence of mostly appropriate explanation will be partially developed as
sociological language and concepts, but these one of these reasons will be explained in
are not sustained throughout. less detail than the other.

AO1 - 4 marks AO2 - 4 marks

Answer has some coherence, demonstrating Knowledge and understanding of
partial knowledge and understanding of two relevant theories/concepts/evidence for
reasons why some ethnic minority pupils may two reasons is applied and used to
not achieve as well as other groups in schools, explain why some ethnic minority pupils
though with some inaccuracies/irrelevancies, may not achieve as well as other groups
or detailed, relevant knowledge and in schools. There will be some
BAND 2 2 2
understanding is demonstrated, but only one development in the explanation of both
reason relating to the reasons why some these reasons with limited detail and
ethnic minority pupils may not achieve as well some inaccuracies, or one reason only is
as other groups in schools. There will be applied and used to explain accurately
limited evidence of appropriate sociological and in detail the formation of anti-school
language and concepts, with little detail. sub-cultures.
Answer demonstrates only basic knowledge Application of knowledge and
and understanding of reason(s) why some understanding to explain why some
ethnic minority pupils may not achieve as well ethnic minority pupils may not achieve
BAND 1 1 1
as other groups in schools. There will be little, as well as other groups in schools will be
if any, evidence of sociological language and limited. Any explanation will be
concepts. undeveloped and contain inaccuracies.
Award 0 marks for incorrect or irrelevant answers
Task
To help you with your 8-mark essay, pick two points, and EEEL at least two paragraphs under timed
conditions. You can create your own point of you wish.

POINTS
A. Point: One reason could be due to poor literacy skills.
B. Point: Another reason could be due to the crisis of masculinity.
C. Point: Boys could underachieve due to the feminisation of education.
D. Point: Boys could underachieve due to a shortage of male primary teachers.

58
 Point

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Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Link ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Point
Explain
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Example
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Link
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59
Ethnicity and Education
Recapping key terms:

Race refers to your genetics. It refers to your skin colour, facial features and
biology whereas ethnicity refers to a shared culture, identity and history.

An ethnic group is a group of people who see themselves as a distinct group

based for example on religion, geography or language.

Miss Shanks identifies as ‘White British’. Born in the North West of England, Miss Shanks has English
and Irish ancestors.

Statistics

Attainment of 5 or more GCSEs A*- C by ethnicity and gender

(Note: Black includes people of African Caribbean and black origin. Taken from Keith Trobe pp 1130

90
80
70
60
50
40
30 MALE
20
10 FEMALE
0

The issue: Certain ethnic groups and races underachieve at school. Sociologists have studied this area
of education to understand why.

Task: Annotate the above graph. What do you learn about ethnicity and attainment?

60
Educational attainment among the ethnic groups
Achievement at GCSE 2007 5+ A*-C grades (percentages)
Task: Examine the statistics on ethnicity and achievement, and then answer the questions
on the following page. You may wish to annotate and identify patterns and trends on this Ethnicity Males Females
page. White 55 64
White British 55 64
Academic attainment in year 11,
2006 (percentages) Irish 61 66
Ethnic origin 5+ A*-C grades Gypsy/ Romany 13 15
White 58 Mixed 52 63
Mixed 55 White and black 42 55
Caribbean
Indian 72 White and black 57 58
Pakistani 52 African
Bangladeshi 57 White and Asian 66 73
Asian 57 69
Other Asian 77
Indian 70 79
Black African 55
Pakistani 47 60
Black Caribbean 44
Other 56 Bangladeshi 52 64
Other Asian 57 72
Back 46 59
Black Caribbean 41 56
Black African 50 61
Other black 43 57
background
Chinese 82 85

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Questions

1. Identify the patterns in educational attainment for different ethnic groups.

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2. Give some examples to show how gender influences the patterns of attainment for different
ethnic groups.

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3. What differences do you notice in the ways in which peoples ethnic backgrounds have been
categorised in the two tables?

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AO3 (Evaluation): Problem! How do we measure race and ethnicity?

Ethnicity is not straightforward to define and categorise. The broad category ‘Asian’ hides immense
variation performances between Indian, Sikh, East African Asian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi pupils.
Using the broad category ‘Asian’ produces data suggesting that their academic performance broadly
matches that of whites but using more appropriate categories shows that some Asian pupils (Indians,
Pakistanis etc...) outperform white pupils.

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Reasons for difference in achievement

EXTERNAL FACTORS INTERNAL FACTORS

• Family background • The ethnocentric curriculum.
• Values • Racism and teachers
• Language • Teacher attitudes and
• Material Deprivation labelling.
• Subcultures • Institutional racism.

Family background

The New Right theorist Charles Murray (1984) identifies that African Caribbean families have a higher
proportion of single parent households. Murray claims the absence of male role models creates a life
of ‘turbulence’. This seriously affects their academic attainment and work ethic.

AO3 skills: However…

Sewell (1997) points out that only a minority of ‘black’ boys respond to ‘lack of role model’ in an anti-
school way. In addition, African Caribbean children are usually most prominent in after school clubs
and weekend schooling.

#blackmenatcambridge

In 2017, 14 Black men posed outside of

Cambridge University and posted a picture
with the #blackmenatcambridge. The men
aimed to break the white, middle class
Cambridge stereotype and wanted to show
that black men do belong at Cambridge too.
They wanted to act as role models to inspire
other black children to set their academic
sights high. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-
39787690

Language Barriers

Some students may speak limited English. This can be problematic in the classroom and when sitting
exams. Pakistani and Bangladeshis may find schooling difficult due to language barriers. BUT, Modood
(1997) claims that the high performance of Indian pupils indicates that any language disadvantage is
temporary.

Task
Watch the clip entitled ‘English Language Learners: Culture, Equity and Language’. This clip is
American. Use the clip to help you answer some of the questions below.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HU80AxmP-U There is space for you to make notes first.

63
1. What are some of the problems EAL students face at school?
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2. How can lack of language skills impact attainment at schools?
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3. How can students overcome these problems? Refer to examples from the clip.
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64
Values

Connor et al (2004) found that minority ethnic parents usually place a higher value on education, give
their children greater encouragement and expect more from them than white parents. This is one of
the main reasons for high achievement amongst Chinese students. Chinese parents are sometimes
referred to as ‘Tiger parents’. This refers to a strict and demanding parents who push and pressure
their children to achieve high grades. This could be why the achievements of Chinese children eligible
for Free School Meals are consistently higher than other ethnic groups on FSM

Material Deprivation

Material deprivation refers to a lack of resources needed to succeed in education. Those who are
materially deprived often lack a sufficient amount of money needed to buy educational told and
resources. Families from ethnic groups are more likely to be unemployed or in jobs with low wages
compared to white families. Some of the differences in educational achievements of ethnic groups
might be down to poverty and their social class position, NOT their ethnicity directly.

The Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that over half of Pakistani and black African children were
growing up in poverty. BUT African Caribbean children on free school meals tend to achieve better
results than white children on free school meals. This suggests
that material factors are not the only influence on achievement.

For example, Bangladeshi pupils in the Tower Hamlets area of

London have seen a remarkable rise in their success rates. A
study in London suggests this might be due to the recruitment
of teachers from Bangladeshi backgrounds, who have a better
understanding of the children’s language, culture and other
needs. This suggests that the effects of poverty, in some
circumstances can be overcome.

Male subcultures

African Caribbean boys tend to do less well than African Caribbean girls. This could be due to male
subcultures amongst African Caribbean boys than encourage aggressive, rebellious, and physical,
‘Macho’ forms of masculinity and discourage success at school.

Case study

Tony Sewell (1997) argues that peer group pressure is very influential among young, disaffected
African Caribbean males (ACM). ACM brought up in a lone parent household lack a positive male role
model at home, and more likely to turn to culture on the street. These subcultures emphasise an
aggressive form of masculinity and rejects people from authority such as police officers and teachers.
This could lead to opposition to teachers and underachievement.

65
Differences in attainment: Ethnicity and Internal Factors
Ethnocentric Curriculum

The Ethnocentric Curriculum refers to studying or looking at another culture, from the perspective of
your own. Many Sociologists have found that the National Curriculum teaches the achievements of
white culture and ignores the achievements and cultures of other groups of people. This might
promote low self-esteem among ethnic groups in school as well as a sense of detachment and
disinterest. All publicly funded schools in the UK (not academies, free schools or technical schools)
follow the same basic curriculum that centres on the culture, history and achievements of British white
people.

Coard (2005) famously said, “Black is bad”, and argues that history only covers white history. This is
usually from a white man’s perspective. Ball (1994) suggests the national curriculum is ethnocentric
because religious studies covers mainly Christianity.

AO3 Evaluation: BUT…. Chinese and Indians are underrepresented in the curriculum but they out
perform all other ethnic groups.

Task
Think about each of the following subjects:
• History
• Geography
• English Literature
Within each subject, think about and answer the following questions;

1. How are different races represented in each subject? Explain with examples.
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2. Are these representations positive or negative? Explain with examples.

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3. What is the race and ethnicity of your teacher? Why would this matter?
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Racism, Labelling and Teacher Expectations

Some teachers have stereotyped views of students due to their ethnic origin. I.e. some teachers may
have higher expectations of Asian students, who are often considered capable and hardworking. Black
children are more likely to be put in lower sets than white students of the same measured ability are.
Children in lower sets are taught differently and likely to be entered for lower tier exams. In the UK,
Black Caribbean children are disproportionately entered for lower tier maths and science exams at
the age of 14.Children from Chinese and Indian backgrounds are more likely to be placed in higher
sets.

Research shows that some teachers believe that students from an African Caribbean background are
less academic than those from ethnic backgrounds. African Caribbean boys are viewed as disruptive.
Gilborn and Youdell (2000) claim that teachers have ‘racialised expectations’ of pupils and treat black
pupils more negatively.

Task
Read the transcript between a teacher and her class. As you read this, you should annotate key words
and sentences that you consider justified, unfair and or racist. Write a few sentences to produce an
argument to suggest the teacher has a racist attitude. Produce an alternative argument to suggest
the teacher is just in her actions and not racist.

Wright takes the following transcript from observations of a nursery class of four year olds in 1992.

Teacher: Let’s do one song before home time.

Peter: (White boy) Humpty Dumpty

Teacher: No. I’m choosing today. Let’s do something we have not done for a while. I know, the
Autumn song. What about the Autumn song we sing. Don’t shout out, put your hand up
nicely.

Mandy: (shouting out) Two little leaves on a tree.

Teacher: She’s nearly right.

Marcus: (African Caribbean boy with his hand up) I know

Teacher: (talking to the group) Is she right when she says ‘two little leaves on a tree’?

Whole group: No

Teacher: What is it Peter?

Peter: Four

Teacher: Nearly right.

Marcus: (Waving his hand for attention) Five.

Teacher: Don’t shout out Marcus, do you know Susan?

Susan: (White girl) Five

Teacher: (holding up one hand) Good because we have got how many fingers on this hand?

67
Whole group: Five.

Teacher: Ok, let’s only have one hand because we’ve only got five leaves. How many would we
have if we had too many. Don’t shout out, hands up.

Mandy: (shouting out) One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten.

Teacher: Good, OK how many fingers have we got?

Marcus: Five

Teacher: Don’t shout out Marcus, put your hand up. Deane, how many?

Deane: Five.

Teacher: That’s right, we’re going to use five today. What makes them dance about, these leaves?

Peter: (shouting out) The wind

Teacher: That’s right.

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Argument to suggest the ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
teacher is racist towards ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Marcus ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Argument to suggest the ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
teacher is not racist ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
towards Marcus ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Institutional racism

This is when an organisation’s culture and methods of operating are found to be discriminatory
towards racial groups throughout. Trayna and Williams (1986) claim that racism is built into the
structure of the school e.g. the curriculum/ language provision.

Gilborn (1997) and the marketisation of the education system. Schools are under pressure to get
high results so they choose ethnic groups that are viewed as ‘reliable’.

Exclusion rates for African Caribbean boys are 4 times higher than other groups. Children excluded
from school are more likely to end up leaving the education system early and with few qualifications.
Government reports suggest that exclusions are due to institutional racism and stereotyping within
education.

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Anti- School Subcultures
Anti-School subcultures refers to a group of students who do not conform to school rules. These
groups are usually marginalised.

Anti-school subculture are usually formed in years 9-11. They are usually formed in lower sets or
streams. These students do not follow the school goals (to work hard and do well). These students
set their own goals, which might involve messing about, causing trouble and disrupting the class.

Case Study: David Hargreaves

Hargreaves Studied a boys secondary school in the 1960s.The boys were cheeky to teachers, did not
do their homework and were continually disruptive in class. They did not worry that their delinquent
behaviour would lead to failure at school. Hargreaves used labelling theory to explain why the boys
behaved this way. Hargreaves found…

Set A (Top Set) Set C (Bottom but one)

• Academically successful • Failing academically
• Worked hard • Rejected the goals of the school.
• Conformed to school rules. • Formed anti-school subcultures.

Hargreaves argued that the boys in the top stream were labelled ‘successful’ and were rewarded by
the school. They had status and recognition by being in the top stream. Their self-image was positive
and they did not feel they had to impress anyone.

They boys in the lower stream had no status. They were labelled by the school and teachers as
‘failures’ and everyone knew they were failures by their position in the low stream. According to
Interactionists, labelling would affect the boys self-image. Hargreaves argues that they dealt with this
by rejecting the school and its goals and replacing them with goal of their own, which they could reach
and which could give them status amongst their friends. They joined with others in a similar position
and in this way, solved the problem of being a failure and bolstered their self-image.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Not all children react in the same way to labelling.

• Some might form subcultures while others may try hard to prove their teachers wrong.

Case Study: Paul Willis and Anti-School Subcultures

Paul Willis found an anti-school subculture in a school he studied in 1977. He followed a group of 12
boys in year 10 who called themselves ‘the lads’. They deliberately missed lessons and were only
interested in having a ‘laff’, as they called it. They refused to do homework and made fun of the
students who did follow the school roles calling them ‘earoles’.

Willis does not see this as a response to labelling. He argues instead that the boys simply saw the ‘lies
of the school system’. School was telling them that if they worked hard and did well at school they
would get a good job. They boys realised that in fact, it was not possible for all working class young
men like them to succeed in a career and so they made the choice to reject school and enjoy
themselves instead.

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Task
What are the similarities and differences between the two studies?

Exam Practice
Outline how anti-school subcultures are formed. (5 marks)
You should explore at least two ways in your response.

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO1 marks =5 • Subcultures are formed…
• The examiner would like to see detailed • According to Hargreaves, subcultures are
knowledge and understanding. You should formed…
refer to key terms and names where • For example…
necessary. • Willis suggests…
• You must explore two ways to qualify for 3 • Another way could be…
or more marks.
• Think about Hargreaves and Willis. Why did
the boys turn to anti school subcultures?

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Different Types of School

STATE SCHOOLS
A school which is funded by the Government (by the state) and educational services are provided
for free.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

✓ State Schools are free.  Class sizes tend to be too big (30+ students).

✓ They are more socially mixed.  Issues with disruptive behaviour.

✓ Generally students do not travel far to  High ability students can be held back.
state schools.

✓ Provide upward mobility for poor students.

Independent schools

Independent schools are sometimes referred to as a ‘Private School’. Are fee paying schools. These
schools are independent from Government control and finance. Some of the exclusive private schools
are referred to as ‘public schools’. These are schools where the Head teacher has been invited to join
the Head teachers Conference- a Professional Association of Head teachers of the world’s leading
independent schools i.e. Harrow. Talbot Heath in the Bournemouth area is an example of an
Independent school.

In 2015-16, the average day fees at a public school was £16,707 per year. (Day fees refers to fees for
pupils who do not board at the school). Eton College charged £33,343 for its boarders for the year
2015-16. In comparison, state schools in 2014 received £4,502 per year for each key stage 4 student,
with some additional funding for certain categories, such as schools in deprived areas.

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 INDEPENDENT SCHOOL

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ Lower teacher student ratio than  Expensive fees set by the school.
schools which means smaller classes and
 Teachers are not required to have a
students receive more attention
teaching degree, just knowledge of their
✓ Less behaviour problems. subject.

✓ Tend to achieve some of the best GCSE  Usually, students must pass an entrance
results. exam.

✓ Offer a range of extra curricular  Less diverse subject choice.

activities (a lot of Olympians attended
 Most private schools are religious.
private school)
 SEN classes tend to be unavailable.
✓ Resources and facilities are often better
than in some state comprehensive
schools.

✓ Independent boarding schools are said

to benefit from the full immersion of
staff and students in school life.

✓ Parental input is high in terms of fees,

support and expectations.

Exam Practice
Describe one advantage to independent schools. (2 marks)

What is the examiner looking for? Sentence starters

• AO2 marks =2 • One advantages could be…
• The examiner is testing your ability to apply • Independent schools are …
your knowledge of independent schools • For example….
and the Education module.
• You will be awarded one mark for a basic
description why independent schools are
better. To show this, you must use
sociological language where applicable.

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72
Task
How would Functionalists and Marxists view independent schools? Write a response in the speech
bubbles. Use the word bank below to help you to develop your answers.

Capitalism Social control Bourgeoisie Social order

Meritocracy Functional inequality proletariat reproduction

Link to top jobs

A high proportion of pupils from private schools end up in the top jobs in all sector of life i.e. Politics,
Armed forces, Business, the Arts. A study by the social mobility and Child Poverty Commission in 2014
found that 71% of Senior Judges and 62% of senior armed forces had attended private school. 19 British
Prime Ministers, including David Cameron, were educated at Eton. Many famous actors come from
the private sector, including Benedict Cumberbatch who went to Harrow.

Alternative Education; Vocational Courses and Home Schooling

Vocational courses involve practical, hands on, skill-based learning, alongside some sort of academia.

Vocational Education and training

In recent years, governments have placed much more emphasis on providing vocational (or work
related) qualifications and training for students aged 14 to 18. Although this policy has been
developing since the mid-1970s, it is still something known as ‘the new vocationalism.

73
This development reflect the view that the education system has to provide the skills and expertise
needed by industry and the economy in the modern world, and to engage a wider range of learners,
more effectively than in the past.

In addition to compulsory work related and enterprise learning at Key Stage 4, a range of qualifications
have been brought in, including work based National Vocational Qualifications (NVQS) which train
students on specific jobs, and GCSE and A Levels which provide a broad introduction to sectors such
as Health and Social Care. Applied Business and Applied Science. The most recent development is the
Diplomas, of which the first five were introduced in 2008, with 12 more to follow in subjects such as
Engineering, Hair and Beauty Services, and Travel and Tourism.

By 2015, it is intended that all students aged up to 18 must be involved in some form of full time or
part time education or training, at school, college or employment.

Supporters of these changes argue that they will lead to more skilled, better-qualified workforce that
will allow Britain to be kore competitive. However, some see vocational qualifications as being similar
to the ideas of the triparte system in that student who are not seen to be academic are considered
failures and are pushed into what some see as lower status vocational training.

Task https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ETSRKrofShk
With reference to your reading and the clip, why do some people follow vocational courses?
Give examples of vocational courses.

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Home-schooling

Teaching children at home is becoming increasingly popular within British society, with 60,000
children taught at home in 2019.

HOME-SCHOOLING
Refers to teaching children at home, usually by the parents.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

✓ Flexibility – parents choose what they want  Less friends

to teach.
 Costly – to buy books and facilities needed.
✓ Free time- to take children in trips, holidays
 Lack of facilities
when cheaper
 Stigma associated with home-schooling
✓ One to one learning
 Lack of qualifications
✓ Work at own pace
 Reduces chances to go to university.
✓ Provide religious and ethical education

✓ Strong bonds developed between parent

and child.

Social Policy Overview

The Butler Act (1944) (Conservatives)
Main Aims Details of the Act
• Selective education – to provide different • Tripartite system 11+
education to different types of student. • 3 Types of school (Grammar, Secondary
• Equality of opportunity – ability not money Modern, Technical schools)
to determine schooling for the first time
Evaluation
• Less equality/ More Middle class children went to Grammar
• Lacked parity of esteem

The Education Act 1967 (Labour)

Main Aims Details of the Act
• Comprehensive schools • Abolition of Tripartite system
• Equality of opportunity – one type of school • One type of school for each person
for all pupil

Evaluation
• Lack of parental choice
• Poor standards in some schools
• Banding and streaming replicates tripartite system.

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 The Education Reform Act (1988) (Conservatives)
Main Aims Details of the Act
• To introduce free market principles (more • Marketisation and Parentocracy
competition) into the education system. • League Tables
• To introduce greater parental choice. • OFSTED
• Privatisation of education • National Curriculum
• Raising standards. • Formula Funding
Evaluation
• Competition did increase standards
• Selection by mortgage
• Cream skimming
• Middle classes have more choice (cultural and social capital – makes them skilled choosers)
• Also criticisms of league tables – teaching to test
• National Curriculum – ethnocentric
New Labour Government 1997
Main Aims Details of policies
• To respond to increased competition due to • Increased funding to education
globalisation • Reduced class sizes, introduced literacy and
• Raising standards numeracy hour
• Equality of opportunity • Academies
• Increasing choice and diversity • Sure Start
• EMA
• Tuition fees introduced for HE
Evaluation
• Early academies rose standards in poor areas a lot
• Generally better at improving equality of opportunity than the New Right
• Parents liked Sure Start but it didn’t improve education (improved health)
• Tuition fees put working class students off HE

Coalition Government 2010

Main Aims Details of policies
• Same as the New Right, to reduce public • Cut funding to education (Scrapped EMA)
spending on education due to the financial • Forced academisation
crisis. • Free Schools
• Pupil Premium
Evaluation
• Standards have carried on raising.
• Academisation and Free schools are both ideological – no evidence they improve standards
more than LEA schools
• Free schools – advantage the middle classes
• Pupil Premium – too early to say

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 Exam Questions

2 MARKS EXAM QUESTIONS (AO1)

1. Describe one material factor that may affect achievement in education.
2. Describe one cultural factor that may affect achievement in education.
3. Describe one reason why children are home-schooled.
4. Describe one advantage to independent schools.
5. Describe one disadvantage to state schooling.
6. Describe one way peer group pressure can impact pupil performance
7. Describe one disadvantage to league tables.
8. Describe one advantage of children with special educational needs being educated in
mainstream school.
9. Describe one advantage to setting.
10. Describe one disadvantage to testing in primary schools.
11. Describe one function of the education.
12. Describe one change implemented due to the Education Reform Act 1988.
13. Describe one advantage to the National Curriculum
14. Describe one reason why parents may wish to send their child to a fait school.
15. Describe one advantage to coursework.
16. Describe one way parents can provide their children with cultural capital.
17. Describe one reason why boys underachieve at school.
18. Describe one feature of marektisation.
19. Describe one disadvantage to marketisation.
20. Describe one advantage to open enrolment.
21. Describe one policy that aimed to help disadvantaged children.
22. Describe one impact of labelling.
23. Describe one type of school in Britain.

5 MARKS EXAM QUESTIONS (AO2)

1. Outline the Functionalist view of the role of education.
2. Outline the Marxist view of the role of education.
3. Outline the reasons for differential educational achievements of social class groups.
4. Outline the reasons for the underachievement of boys.
5. Outline the reasons why girls tend to outperform boys in education.
6. Outline reasons for differential educational achievement of some ethnic minority groups.
7. Outline the reasons for the development of anti-school subcultures.
8. Outline the features of marketization.
9. Outline the New Right perspective of Education.
10. Outline the Feminist perspective of education.
11. Outline the labelling process in education.
12. Outline the reasons why girls perform better in their GCSEs.
13. Outline social class differences in education.

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 8 MARKS EXAM QUESTIONS (AO1=4, AO2=4)
(You should explore at least two reasons in your response)
1. Explain, using examples, why boys may not achieve as well as girls in education.
2. Explain, using examples, why the British education system has changed.
3. Explain, using examples, the differences in ethnic attainment in education.
4. Explain, using examples, the reasons why we have an education system.
5. Explain, using examples, how material deprivation can affect education.
6. Explain, using examples, how schools can affect the progress of a student.
7. Explain, using examples, how cultural deprivation can influence student performance.

15 MARKS EXAM QUESTIONS (AO1=4, AO2=3, AO3=8)

(In your answer you are advised to refer to [theory/Sociologist] and any other relevant factors to
support your judgement)
1. ‘The main reason why children underachieve in education is labelling them as failures. Do you
agree with this view?
2. ‘Working class pupils tend to underachieve in education mainly because of material factors.’ Do
you agree with this view?
3. The situation in a pupil’s home is an important cause of educational under-achievement. ’ Do
you agree with this view?
4. The way in which pupils are grouped within a school has a significant effect on their educational
performance. Do you agree with this view?
5. The main function of schools is to teach children to become part of society. Do you agree with
this view?
6. The main function of schools is to prepare pupils for the workplace. Do you agree with this
view?
7. Peer group pressure has a significant effect on a pupil’s educational achievement. Do you agree
with this view?
8. A pupil’s social class background is the main reason for differences in educational achievement.
Do you agree with this view?
9. That the social class background of pupils has a significant effect on their educational
performance. Do you agree with this view?
10. Gender inequalities still exist within education in Britain. Do you agree with this view?
11. A pupils’ gender is the main reason for differences in their educational achievement. Do you
agree with this view?
12. Educational reforms over the last 25 years have been successful in raising the achievement of
all pupils. Do you agree with this view?
13. Educational reforms over the past 30 years have led to improvements in the educational
performance of all pupils. Do you agree with this view?
14. The type of school pupils attend has a significant effect on their chances of educational success.
Do you agree with this view?
15. Parental attitudes have a significant effect on a child’s educational success. Do you agree with
this view?
16. The type of school a child attends has a significant effect on his/her life chances. Do you agree
with this view?

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 17. A pupil’s ethnicity is the main reason for differences in educational achievement. Do you agree
with this view?
18. A student’s ethnic background is the main reason for differences in educational achievement.
Do you agree with this view?
19. Parental attitudes have a significant effect on a child’s educational success. Do you agree with
this view?

Education Glossary
Key Term Definition
Academies A new type of school designed to raise standards in low income urban areas by replacing
poorly performing secondary schools. Academies are financed by central government and
sponsors- individual businesses, faiths, charities and city education authorities.
Achieved status A position earned or merited, such as a captain of the school team or a doctor.
Ascribed status A position born into, not achieved or earned, such as son or daughter.
Cultural capital A term coined by Pierre Bourdieu referring to advantages that parents can pass on to their
children in the form of knowledge, resources and lifestyle choices which help their children
to be successful.
Education Action Programmes designed to raise teaching standards and attainment levels in schools in
Zones (EAZ) deprived inner city areas. This policy was introduced in the late 1990s, but after running for
five years it had largely failed to generate any additional funds and so was axed.
Equal The idea that everyone should have the same chances of health, wealth and success.
opportunities
Formal curriculum The prescribed set of subject taught in a school, such as history, sociology and PE.
Formula Funding Money allocated per student enrolled. Used to rewards schools and colleges that succeed in
attracting customers (students).
Free schools A new type of state school, set up by an organisation or group. They receive some finding
from central government and are independent of local authorities.
Gendering of The presentation of some subjects as either more suitable for girls or for boys. Physics, for
subjects example, used to be presented as boys subject.
Hidden curriculum The messages and ideas pupils pick up at school throughout the day that are not taught as
part of the official curriculum.
Independent Schools independent from government control and finance; pupils pay t attend. Private and
schools public schools are independent.
Institutional racism Where an organisations culture and methods of operating are found to be racist throughout.
Labelling Term associated with Interactionists. Often done by a person of higher status and power,
attaching a category, type or image to aa person. It can have a powerful effect and the label
might become accurate.
Material Being without goods that you would expect to have in your house, for example a TV, your
deprivation own room, a laptop.
Meritocracy A system in which people are rewarded for their ability and hard work by gaining the best
jobs, wealth and/ or status.
Parentocracy A child’s education is dependent upon the wealth and wishes of parents, rather than the
ability and efforts of pupils. (Links to marketization and Parent Power)
Parental Parents hopes and ambitions for their children’s future.
aspirations
Parity of Esteem Equal Opportunities between the social classes.
Private school An independent fee paying school.

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Public school A high status private school whose head teacher has been invited to join the Headmasters
and Headmistresses’ conference.
Pupil Premium Extra money per head for pupils eligible for free school meals from poorer homes. Used to
encourage the best schools to attract pupils from poor areas, and to provide extra money to
help improve the education of the most disadvantaged.
Role allocation The way in which jobs are given to people in society. In the UK many jobs are filled based on
educational qualifications.
Selection by The house prices near to the best schools increase, and so over the years, only wealthier
mortgage parents can afford to move into the catchment areas of the best schools.
Social capital The advantages that middle class parents have, such as knowledge of the school system and
the ability to negotiate with teachers.
Sure Start Programmes designed to give pre-school children in low-income areas a head start in the
school system.

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