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UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION:
Electromagnetics is the study of the effects of electric charges at rest and in motion. Moving positive and
negative charges produces electric field which gives rise to magnetic field. A field is a spatial distribution of a
quantity.
There are several applications of electromagnetic theory listed as:
@ Atom smashers @ satellite communication @ television reception
@ CRO @ remote sensing @ radio astronomy
@ Radar @ microwave devices @ optical fibre communication
@ Transients in transmission lines @ Instrument landing system
@ Electromechanical energy conversion
Electromagnetic theory is used in cases where circuit theory cannot be applied.
Circuit Theory Electromagnetic Theory
Circuit theory deals with circuits consisting of Electromagnetic theory deals with parameter in
components characterized by lumped parameters space.
Voltage and current are the system variables The variables dealt in electromagnetic theory are
handled in circuit theory. They are time dependent both time and space dependent
Circuit theory uses ordinary differential equation for Electromagnetic theory uses partial differential
the analysis equations for the analysis

VECTOR ANALYSIS:
A field is a spatial distribution of a quantity. A quantity may be scalar or vector.
A scalar quantity has only the magnitude represented by a single number.
Eg: Temperature at any point in a bowl of soup, mass, pressure, density, volume
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction in space.
Eg: Force, velocity, acceleration. ax
A vector is represented as, A = A ax A
Where A is the vector, A is the magnitude, ax is the unit vector.
Magnitude of the vector = |A| unit vector, ax = A/|A|
VECTOR ALGEBRA:
Addition:
Vectors to be added follow either
 parallelogram rule
 Head – to – tail rule
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parallelogram rule Head – to – tail rule

B C=A+B B
C=A+B

A A
Vector addition obeys commutative and associative law.
 Commutative: A + B = B + A
 Associative : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Subtraction:
A – B = A + (-B) where (-B) is the reverse of B.
Magnitude of (-B) = B, but the direction of (-B) is opposite to that of B.

-B C=A-B

Multiplication:
The vector multiplication is of two types.
Case 1: Vector with scalar:
rA = r A ax
where r is a constant (scalar quantity), A is a vector = A ax
Case 2: Vector with vector:
 Scalar product(Dot product):
The scalar product of two vectors is given as
A · B = AB cos θ where A& B are the magnitude of vectors A & B and θ is the angle between A &
B. The scalar product obeys:
(i) Commutative law: A·B=B·A
(ii) Distributive law: A · (B + C) = (A · B) + (A · C) θ
Properties:
i. A · A = |A|2. ( since θ = 0º)
ii. ax · a x = a y · a y = a z · a z = 1
iii. A · B = 0 implies A is perpendicular to B( θ = 90˚, cos 90˚ = 0)
iv. If A is parallel to B( θ = 0˚, cos 0˚ = 1), then A · B = AB
v. ax · ay = ay · az = az · ax = 0 (because ax, ay, az are perpendicular)
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Applications:
(i) Scalar component of projection of P on Q is = P · Q / |Q|
(ii) Vector projection = (P · aQ)aQ
 Vector Product(cross product):
The vector product of two vectors is given as
A X B = |AB sin θ| an where A& B are the magnitude of vectors A & B, θ is the angle between A
& B and an is the unit vector normal to both A and B.
ax ay az
AXB = Ax Ay Az AXB B
Bx By Bz θ

The vector product obeys: A

(i) Distributive law: A X (B + C) = (A X B) + (A X C)
The vector product does not obey:
(i) Commutative law: A X B = - (B X A)
(ii) Associative law
Properties:
(i) A X A = 0(since θ = 0º, sin 0º = 0)
(ii) ax · ax = ay · ay = az · az = 0(since θ = 0º, sin 0º = 0)
(iii) A X B = 0 implies A is parallel to B(since θ = 0˚, sin 0˚ = 0)
(iv) ax x ay = az; ay x az = ax; az x ax = ay (because ax, ay, az are perpendicular)
Applications:
(iii) Scalar triple product:
A · (B X C) = B · (C X A) = C · (A X B)
(iv) Vector triple product:
A X (B X C) = B(A · C) - C(A · B)

Division
Vector division is not possible.
ORTHOGONAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM:
Fields are analyzed based on their position in space considered as an intersection of three surfaces. These
three surfaces are mutually perpendicular to one another and called as orthogonal co-ordinate system. This system
provides three methods for analysis of vectors such as:
 Cartesian (or) rectangular co-ordinate system.
 Circular/cylindrical co-ordinate system
 Spherical co-ordinate system
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Cartesian (or) rectangular co-ordinate system:

The three mutually perpendicular axes of the system are x, y and z. The corresponding unit vectors are
represented as ax, ay and az.
Properties:
 Position Vector:
A point, P in the Cartesian system is represented using its amplitude w.r.to each axis as P(x, y, z).
The vector joining the origin and the point P(x, y, z) is called as position vector of P and is
represented as rp = x ax + y ay + z az.
z y
rp P x

x z y

The magnitude of rp = |rp| = √(x2 + y2 + z2)

The unit vector in the direction of rp is ap = rp / |rp| = rp / √(x2 + y2 + z2)
 Differential Volume:
Consider a rectangular parallelepiped whose length is towards x-axis, breadth towards y-axis and
depth toward z-axis. dxdy
Let dy be the differential breadth z dxdz
dx be the differential length dz dx
dydz
dz be the differential depth
x dy y
The areas of the surfaces of the parallelepiped are dxdy, dydz and dxdz
The volume of the parallelepiped is V = dxdydz
 Distance Vector:
A vector formed by connecting two points in space is called distance vector. Let P(x 1, y1, z1) and
Q(x2, y2, z2) be two points in space. The position vector of point P is rP = x1 ax + y1 ay + z1 az. The position
vector of point Q is rQ = x2 ax + y2 ay + z2 az.
The vector joining the points P and Q can be obtained using the law of vector addition as
RPQ = rQ - rP
z
RPQ = (x2 – x1)ax + (y2 – y1)ay + (z2 – z1)az .
P(x1, y1, z1)
RPQ rP
Q(x2, y2, z2) rQ y
x
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Cylindrical co-ordinate system:

The cylindrical co-ordinate system is the three-dimensional versions of the polar co-ordinates of analytic
geometry. In the two-dimensional polar co-ordinates, a point was located in a plane by giving its distance ρ from the
origin and the angle  between the line from the point to the origin and an arbitrary radial line taken as  = 0.
The cylindrical system is obtained by also specifying the distance z of the point from an arbitrary z = 0
reference plane which is perpendicular to the line ρ = 0.
The point P in cylindrical co-ordinate system is located with respect to three mutually perpendicular surfaces
such as: z
 a circular cylinder(ρ = constant) ρ=0 z = constant plane
 a plane ( = constant) ρ = constant P
 a plane(z = constant)
z
the unit vectors a, a and az are defined
for the cylindrical co-ordinate system as: y
a at a point P(1, 1, z1) is directed   = constant
radially outward, normal to the  = 0 plane z = 0 plane
cylindrical surfaces =1. it lies in the x z az
planes  = 1 and z = z1
a
1
a is normal to  = 1 plane, directed
P(1, 1, z1)
towards increasing values of , lies in the z
a
plane z = z1 and is tangent to the cylindrical
surface  = 1.
az is normal to the plane z =z1 and is
same as in the Cartesian co-ordinate. y
The three unit vectors are mutually 1
perpendicular and thus by applying the right
x
hand thumb rule,
a x a = a z
a x az = a 
az x a = a 
the position vector is represented as,
A = A  a  + A a  + A z a z
The volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is obtained using its differential elements as:
The length of the parallelepiped is d.
The breadth of the parallelepiped is
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z
the length of the sector whose angle is d and radius is  = d
The height is dz.
Therefore the surface areas of the parallelepiped dz
are ddz, ddz, dd and volume is dddz.

d d
y


+d


x +d

Relationship between Cartesian co-ordinates and cylindrical co-ordinates:

y

(1) 

x y


(2) x
From (1),
x

Thus the variables of both the co-ordinate systems can be transformed to one another.
Transformation between Cartesian and cylindrical co-ordinate systems:
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Given a Cartesian vector, A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz , a cylindrical vector can be obtained by finding its co-
ordinate values(components) using the unit vector a, a, az.
A component can be determined by finding the dot product of the vector and a unit vector in the desired
direction.

= =

The dot product of unit vectors of both co-ordinate systems can be summarized as:

Spherical co-ordinate system:

A point is located in the spherical co-ordinate system formed by a sphere, a cone and a plane.
the point P is specified w.r.to z
 the distance from the origin which is the radius
of the sphere (r = constant)
θ
 the angle between z-axis and the line joining P
origin and point P. this is the cone (θ = constant) r y
 the angle  similar to cylindrical system ( = constant) 

x
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Unit vectors:
 the ar is directed radially outwards from the sphere and normal to the sphere (r = constant)
 The aθ is tangent to sphere,normal to cone and lies in  = constant plane.
 The a is similar to cylindrical co-ordinate system.
z
As per the right hand thumb rule, z
ar
a
P
rdθ
θ aθ
r dr r
y
 +d y

The position vector of P(r, θ, ) in represented as A = Ar ar + Aθ aθ + A a r
d
x of the parallelepiped are dr, rsinθd, rdθ
The differential elements
dr r sin
The differential volume, dv = r2sinθ dr d dθ
x

Relationship between cartesian and spherical co-ordinate system:

z

P(r, , )
z
 r
z
y
y
x rsin x
 a
x y ar
a
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Transformation of Vectors:

The dot product of unit vectors of spherical co-ordinate with Cartesian co-ordinates is
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Line Integrals:
Line integral is defined as any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve . it can be defined as limits of
sum. Let ‘ab’ be a curve from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’.
Consider a vector Ar in space along the curve. The curve is analysed w.r.to the vector field. If the curve ‘ab’ is
subdivided into infinitesimally small vector elements dl1, dl2, ….dlr and scalar products. A1 dl1, A2 dl2, … Ar dlr are
taken where A1, A2,….Ar are the value of the vector field A at junction points of vector elements(dl 1, dl2, ….dlr), then
the sum of the dot products.

along the entire length of the curve is known as the line integral of A along the curve ‘ab’.
z Ar
where (Cartesian: dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az) dl2 b
dlr
(Cylindrical: dl = d a + d a + dz az) dl1 a
(Spherical: dl = dr ar+ rd a + rsind a) y

x
Eg: if F is a force on a particle moving along the curve, the line integral of F over the path represents the
workdone by the force.

a
b
Note:

The line integral over a closed curve is represented as . If the line integral over the closed path is

zero, then the vector field is said to be conservative.

Surface Integrals:

The surface integral is evaluated over a surface area and is represented as, where dS = eds where e is the

unit normal to the surface and ds is the differential surface area.

Volume Integral:

Eg: where v is the volume of the closed surface.

(Del) operator:
In solving the differential equations, the vector operator( ) is used to replace the differential terms

Curl:
This gives the angular velocity at every point of the vector field. The curl is the cross product of the del
operator and any vector field. Curl is defined as the circulation of a vector per unit area. The circulation of a vector is
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obtained by multiplying the component of the vector parallel to the specified closed path at each point along it by the
differential path length and summing the results.

where is the planar area enclosed by the closed line integral.

In terms of vector operator,

The vector operator is defined by means of partial derivatives w.r.to the space co-ordinates. It is defined as

where e1, e2 and e3 are the unit vectors.

dl = hdu where u1, u2 and u3 are the space co-ordinates. h1, h2 and h3 are the scalar factors.
For Cartesian system:
e1 = a x u1 = x h1 = 1

e2 = a y u2 = y h2 = 1

e3 = a z u3 = z h3 = 1
For Cylindrical system:
e1 = a  u1 =  h1 = 1

e2 = a  u2 =  h2 = 

e3 = a z u3 = z h3 = 1
For spherical co-ordinate system:
e1 = a r u1 = r h1 = 1

e2 = a  u2 =  h2 = r

e3 = a  u3 =  h3 = rsin

curl in cylindrical co-ordinate system:

Curl in spherical co-ordinate system:

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Divergence:
This gives the rate per unit volume at which the physical entity is issuing from that point.

Cartesian:

Cylindrical:

Spherical:

Gradient:
This is rate of change of a physical quantity w.r.to distance.

Cartesian:

Cylindrical:

Spherical:

Gauss’s Divergence Theorem:

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Statement:
This theorem states that “ the volume integral of the divergence of a vector field, A taken over any volume V
is equal to the surface integral of A taken over the closed surface surrounding the volume V”

Where e is the unit vector outward normal to S and dS is the element of area on surface S.
Proof:

Stoke’s Theorem:
Statement:
This theorem states that “ the surface integral of the unit of a vector field A taken over any surface S is equal
to the line integral of A around the closed surface.
(or)
The line integral of the tangential component of a vector A around a closed path is equal to the surface integral of the
normal component of ( ) over the surface enclosed by the path.

Proof:
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Important vector identities:

a). Div Curl F = 0
b). Curl Grad φ = 0
c). φ
d). F
e).
f). Div (u x v) = v. curl u – u curl v.

UNIT-I: PROBLEMS
1. Given the two vectors, rA = - ax - 3 ay – 4 az and rB = 2 ax + 2 ay + 2 az and point C(1, 3, 4) find
(a) RAB (b) |rA| (c) aA (d) aAB (e) a unit vector directed from C toward A
ans:
(a) RAB = rB – rA
= (2 – (-1))ax + (2 – (-3))ay + (2– (-4))az
= 3 ax + 5 ay + 6 az
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(b) |rA| = √(x2 + y2 + z2)

= √((-1)2 + (-3)2 + (-4)2) = √26 = 5.10

(c) aA = rA/|rA|
= (- ax - 3 ay – 4 az)/ √26 = - 0.196ax – 0.588 ay – 0.784 az

(d) aAB = rAB/|rAB|

= (3 ax + 5 ay + 6 az)/ √((3)2 + (5)2 + (6)2)
= (3 ax + 5 ay + 6 az)/ √70
= 0.359 ax + 0.598 ay + 0.717 az

(e) a unit vector directed from C toward A.

aCA = rCA/|rCA|
rCA = rA – rC
= ((-1)- 1)ax + ((-3)- 3)ay + ((-4)-4)az
= -2 ax - 6 ay - 8 az
|rCA| = √((-2)2 + (-6)2 + (-8)2) = √104
aCA = -2 ax - 6 ay - 8 az / √104 = -0.1961 ax – 0.588 ay – 0.784 az

2. Given the vector field, F = 0.4(y – 2x) ax – [200/(x2 + y2 + z2)] az

(a) Evaluate |F| at P(-4, 3, 5)
(b) Find a unit vector specifying the direction of F at P.
Describe the locus of all points for which
(c) Fx = 1
(d) |Fx| = 2
Ans:
(a) |F| = √( [0.4(y – 2x)]2 + [200/(x2 + y2 + z2)]2)
= √( [0.4(3 + 8)]2 + [200/((-4)2 + 32 + 52)]2)
= √(19.36 + 16) = 5.946
(b) aF = F/|F| = {0.4(3 + 8) ax – [200/((-4)2 + 32 + 52)] az}/5.946
= [4.4 ax - 4 az ] /5.946
= 0.74 ax – 0.673 az
(c) given Fx = 1
0.4(y – 2x) = 1
0.4y = 0.8x + 1
y = 2x + 2.5
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(d) given |Fz| = 2

200/(x2 + y2 + z2) = 2
x2 + y2 + z2 = 100
3. Given points A(2, 5, -1), B(3, -2, 4) and C(-2, 3, 1), find
(a) RAB ∙ RAC
(b) the angle between RAB and RAC
(c) the length of the projection of RAB on RAC
(d) the vector projection of RAB on RAC
Ans:
(a) RAB = rB – rA
= (3 - 2)ax + (-2 – 5)ay + (4 + 1)az
= ax - 7 a y + 5 a z
RAC = rC – rA
= (-2 - 2)ax + (3 – 5)ay + (1 – (-1))az
= -4ax - 2 ay + 2 az
RAB ∙ RAC = 1(-4) + (-7)(-2) + 5(2) = 20
(b) RAB ∙ RAC = |RAB| |RAC| cos θ
20 = √[12 + (-7)2 + 52] √[(-4)2 + (-2)2 + 22] cos θ
20 = √75√24 cos θ
cos θ = √2/3 . Thus θ = 61.9˚
(c) the length of the projection of RAB on RAC = RAB ∙ RAC/ | RAC| = 20/√24 = 4.08
(d) the vector projection of RAB on RAC = (RAB ∙ RAC) aAC = 4.08(RAC/| RAC|)
= 4.08(-4 ax - 2 ay + 2 az )/√24
= -3.332 ax – 1.666 ay + 1.666 az
4. A triangle is defined by the three points A(2, -5, 1), B(-3, 2, 4) and C(0, 3, 1). Find
(a) RBC x RBA
(b) the area of the triangle
(c) a unit vector perpendicular to the plane in which the triangle is located.
Ans:
(a) RBC = rC - rB = (0 – (-3))ax + (3 – 2)ay + (1– 4)az = 3 ax + ay - 3 az

RBA = rA - rB = (2 – (-3))ax + (-5 – 2)ay + (1 - 4)az = 5ax - 7 ay - 3 az

RBC x RBA = ax ay az
3 1 -3
5 -7 -3
= [-3 – 21]ax + [-9 + 15]ay + [-21– 5]az
= -24ax - 6 ay – 26 az
(b) the area of the projected parallelogram = | RBC x RBA|
the area of the triangle = ½ of the area of the projected parallelogram
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= ½ (√[(-24)2 + (-6)2 + (-26)2] = 17.94

(c) unit vector perpendicular to the plane = (RBC x RBA)/| RBC x RBA| = ± ( 0.669 ax + 0.167 ay + 0.724 az)
5. Given points A(x = 2, y = 3, z = -1) and B( = 4,  = -50, z = 2), find the distance from
(a) A to the origin (b) B to the origin (c) A to B.
The point B is cylindrical system can be transformed into its Cartesian equivalent.
Ans: x1 = cos = 4cos(-50) = 2.57
y1 = sin = 4sin(-50) = -3.064
z1 = 2
B(x1 = 2.57, y1 = 3.064, z1 = 2)

(a) |rA| =

(b) |rB| =

(c) rAB = rB - rA = (2.57 – 2)ax + (-3.064 – 3)ay + (2 - (-1))az = 0.57 ax – 6.064 ay + 3 az

| rAB| =

6. Transform each of the following vectors to cylindrical co-ordinates at the point specified.
(a) 4ax – 2ay - 4az at A(x = 2, y = 3, z = 5)
Ans: A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz
Comparing the given vector equation with this equation,
Ax = 4 Ay = -2 Az = -4
= =4

= = 56.31

=4

= =

The vector is cylindrical system can be written as 0.555a - 4.44a - 4az

7. Given the points A(x =2, y = 3, z = -1) and B(r =4,  = 25,  = 120) find
(a) the spherical co-ordinates of A
(b) the Cartesian co-ordinates of B
(c) the distance from A to B
Ans:
(a)
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(b)

(c) |RAB| = |rB – rA| =

8. Transform each of the following vectors to spherical co-ordinates at the point specified
4ax – 2ay – 4az at P(x = -2, y = -3, z = 4)
Ans:
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9. Find gradient of A=x2+y2+z2

A A A
A  ax  ay  az
x y z

A =  (x2+y2+z2)/ x ax + (x2+y2+z2)/ y ay +  (x2+y2+z2)/ z az

A = 2x ax +2y ay +2z az

10. Find gradient of A= zcosϕ/(1+ρ)2

A = [zcosϕ(1+ρ2)-1]/ρ aρ +1/ρ [zcosϕ/(1+ρ2)]/ ϕ aϕ +  [zcosϕ/(1+ρ2)]/ z az

A = (2𝜌𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)/(1+𝜌)2)^2 𝑎𝜌 −(𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)/(𝜌(1+𝜌2)) 𝑎𝜑 +(𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)/((1+𝜌2)) 𝑎𝑧
11. Find gradient of T= 3/(x2+z2)

T =  [3(x2+z2)-1]/ x ax + [3(x2+z2)-1]/ y ay + [3(x2+z2)-1]/ z az

T = 3 (-2x)(x2+z2)-2 ax +3 (-2z) (x2+z2)-2 az
T = (−6x)/x2+z2)2 𝑎x +(−6𝑧)/(x2+z2)2 𝑎𝑧