Handout No.

- 02 HPD-DS

TECHNIQUES OF COUNTING

2 INTRODUCTION
Studying techniques which can be used to judge the result of a special experiment or the
number of elements in a certain set without counting contributes to have a clear
understanding on probability and Probability distributions. Such techniques are considered as
techniques of counting while sometimes considered as combinatorial analysis. From this unit,
it is expected to have a basic knowledge on these techniques.

2.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING

If a certain action n1 can occur differently and after that incident another action, n2 can occur

differently and after the second action another action, n3 can occur differently and after this
third action fourth action and fifth action occur respectively, the number of occurrences is
gained by the multiplication of the actions n1 , n 2 , n3 , . Thus, it is n1 . n 2 . n 3 .  .

Example: In a number plate of vehicles has two unequal letters followed by three numbers of
which the first number is non-zero. Then how many different number plates can be printed?

2.2 FACTORIAL NOTATION

The product of positive whole numbers from 1 to n are used frequently in mathematics. To
represent that a special notation is used.
∟n = n! (Factorial n).
Thus / n = n ! = n (n − 1)(n − 2).. 3 . 2 . 1

Example:

i. 2 ! ii. 3 ! iii. 4! iv. 5 ! v. 8 ! vii.

6!
n!
(n − 1) !
viii. (n + 2) ! ix. (n − 1) ! x. (n − r + 1) !
n! n! (n − r − 1) !

2.3 PREMUTATION

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Permutation is arranging r number of elements (r ≤ n) from n number of elements collection

into some sequence or order. Such arrangements can be symbolized as, n p r , P (n, r ) or Pn, r .

Example 1: By taking letters A, B and C

I. The number of permutations that can be made by taking all the three letters.
ABC, BAC, CAB, ACB. BCA, CBA,
Here ABC and ACB are two permutations since the order of B and C are different.
Therefore, the relevant permutation for this sum is 3 P3 = 6 .

II. The number of permutations that can be made by taking only two letters.
AB, AC, BC, BA, CA, CB.
Therefore, the relevant permutation for this sum is 3P2 = 6 .

Example 2: Find the number of permutations that can be made by taking only three letters
from the six letters A, B, C, D, E and F.

6 5 4

As per the counting theory, the number of permutations is 6.5.4 = 120. Which is
also 6 P3 = 120

In conforming with the first example n Pn = n ! number of permutations can be made by taking all the

elements. And of the second example, there are 6 ways to fill up the first box and there are (n − 1)

(5) ways to fill up the second box and the third place is filled by (n − (r − 1)) (4) . Thus, there can be
made n Pr permutations.
n
Pr = n(n − 1)(n − 2 ) (n − r + 1)
n(n − 1)(n − 2) (n − r + 1)(n − r )!
=
(n − r )!
n! . thereby, 6 P = 6! 6 ! 6.5. 4 . 3!
n
Pr = = = = 6 . 5 . 4 = 120
(n − r )! 3
(6 − 3)! 3! 3!

Example 1: 9! 9 ! 9.8. 7 . 6 . 5 . 4 !
9
P5 = = = = 9 .8. 7 . 6 . 5 =
(9 − 5)! 4! 4!

Example 2. If the given six number 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 9 are drawn without replacement, then,
a) How many three-digit numbers can be made?
b) How many of them are less than 400?

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c) How many of them are even numbers?

d) How many of them are odd numbers?
e) How many of them are multiples of 5?

Example 3: Find,
n
i. 30
P3 ii. n
P1 iii. Pn iv. n
Pn −1

2.4 PERMUTATIONS WITH REPETITIONS

At instances where there are different types with equal or identical elements, we need to
know the number of permutations which can be made out of them. So, by taking n1 number of
equal elements from one type and n2 number of equal elements from another type and n3

number of equal elements from another type, there can be made n! number of
n1 ! , n1 ! ,  n r !

permutations. Here, n1 + n 2 +  n r = n .

Example 1: How many permutations can be made from the letters of the word PROBABILITY?
Example 2: How many different signals can be made by the horizontally hung four red flags, 3
white flags and a blue flag?
Example 3: How many ways are there for five people A, B, C, D and E to sit in a circular table?

2.5 COMBINATIONS
Combination is arranging r number of elements (r ≤ n) from n number of elements collection
without considering any sequence or order. Such arrangements can be symbolized as, nCr, C
(n,r), Cn,r or (nr)
Example 1: By taking two letters at a time from letters A, B and C, how many combinations
can be made without any order?
As of the above sum, the number of ways that can be made by considering the order are,
AB, AC, BC
BA, CA, CB
But when the order is disregarded,
Only three combinations can be made as,
AB = BA
AC = CA

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BC = CB. So, n C r = 3

Example 2: How many ways are there to select a committee with two people from a group of
five people A, B, C, D and E.
There are 10 ways to create the group as, AB, AC, AD, AE, BC, BD, BE, CD, CE, DE.
The number of combinations that can be made by taking r number of elements
out of n number of elements are,

C (n, r ) = C n, r = ( nr )= n C r =
n! .
r !(n − r )!

n +1
Example 3. Find i. 12 C 4 ii. 12 C8 iii. n C 0 iv. n C n v. Cn

Example 4. How many combinations are there to create a committee with three men and two
women where there are 7 men and 5 women?
2.6 BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS AND THEOREM
Binomial theory is a very important theory in algebra which also plays a vital role in Statistics.
When n is a positive whole number, the expansion of (a + b )n is,

(a + b )n = n C 0 a n + n C1a n−1 . b + n C 2 a n−2 . b 2 +  + n C r a n−r b r +  + nC n b n . Thus, the binomial

n
theorem can be written as, (a + b )n =  n
C r a n−r b r
r =0

Here, n C = n! .
r !(n − r )!
r

Example 1. i. (a + b )5 = a 5 + 5a 4 . b + 10a 3b 2 +10a 2 b 3 +5a b 4 + b 5

ii. (a + b )6 = a 6 + 6a 5 . b + 15a 4 b 2 +20a 3 b 3 +15a 2 . b 4 +6a b 5 + b 6

According to the above result, the (a + b )n expansion comprised of the following

characteristics.
i. The expansion has n+1 terms.
ii. The sum of indices of a and b of each term is n.
iii. The index of a starts from n and gradually decreases to 0 while the index of b starts from
0 and gradually increases to n.
iv. The coefficients of the equally positioned terms from the start to finish are qual.

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v. If the general term of the expansion is taken as (r+1), then Tr +1 = n C r a n − r b r

The coefficients of the expansion derived from (a+b) consecutive index can be expressed as a number
array: Pascal’s triangle.

(a + b )0 = 1

(a + b )1 = a + b

(a + b )2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2

(a + b )3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b3

(a + b )4 = a 4 + 4a 3 b + 6a 2 b 2 + 4ab 3 + b4

(a + b )5 = a 5 + 5a 4 b + 10a 3 b 2 + 10a 2 b 3 + 5ab 4 + b5

(a + b )6 = a 6 + 6a 5 b + 15a 4 b 2 + 20a 3 b 3 + 15a 2 b 4 + 6ab 5 + b6

(a + b )0 1

(a + b )1 1 + 1

(a + b )2 1 + 2 + 1

(a + b )3 1 + 3 + 3 + 1

(a + b )4 1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1

(a + b )5 1 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1

(a + b )6 1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1

Thereby the expansion coefficients of (a+b)n can be taken by using the Pascal’s triangle. It has
the following features.
i. The first and the last term of each line is same.
ii. Each number is the numbers directly above it added together

Example 1: i. (a − b )6 ii. (3a + 2b ) 4

iii. (2 x + y 2 )5
(x 2 − 2 y )6
4 4 4 4 4
iii. v. 2 4 = 16 = C + C + C + C + C
0 1 2 3 4

2.7 ORDERD SAMPLES AND PARTITIONS

2.7.1 ORDERD SAMPLES

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In combinatorial analysis, many problems like, concerning on selecting a ball from a bag of n
number of balls and selecting r number of balls one after other, it is the selection of r
numbered ordered sample. There are two options to be considered.
i. SAMPLING WITH REPLACEMENT
Here, when selecting a ball for the second time, the first selected ball is put into the
urn before selecting a ball for the second time. Therefore, as there are n number of
different ways to choose a ball, r number of ordered samples with replacement can be
stated as follows.

n . n . n . . n = nr r Number of times
  

ii. SAMPLING WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

Here, when selecting a ball for the second time, the first selected ball is not put into the
urn before selecting a ball for the second time. Therefore, there is no repetition.
n!
n
Pr = n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − r + 1) =
(n − r )!
Example: Three consecutive cards are chosen from a card pack of 52. How many ways are there to
choose the cards,
I. With replacement II. Without replacement
2.7.2 ORDERED PARTITIONS
Suppose there are 7 plates in a box and there are numbered from 1 to 7. The number of
ordered partition obtained by the first two numbered plates (A1), the next three numbered
plates (A2) and then the last two numbered plates can be taken as follows.
7 5 2
Here, A1 → C , A2 → C , A3 → C
2 3 2

7 5 2 7 . 6 5 . 4 . 3 2 .1
C . C . C= . . = 210
2 3 2 1. 2 1. 2 . 3 1. 2

So,
7 5 2 7! 5! 2! 7!
C . C . C = . . =
2 3 2 2 ! 5 ! 3! 2 ! 2 ! 0 ! 2! 3 ! 2 !

Accordingly, if there are n elements in set A and if n1 , n 2 ,  , n r are positive whole numbers

of n1 + n 2 +  + n r = n , there are

n! number of partitions in set A.

n1! n 2 ! n3 ! n r !

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Here, A → ( A1 , A2 ,  , Ar ) is consists of elements A1 → n1 , A2 → n 2 , A3 → n3 ,  , Ar → nr

Example: In distributing 9 toys among 4 children, how many ways are there if the youngest
gets 3 toys and others get 2 toys each.

2.8 TREE DIAGRAMS

Tree diagram is a strategy to have all the possible outcomes of a sequence of finite
experiments. following shows how to draw a tree diagram.

Example 1: If A = 1, 2, B = a, b, c and C = 3, 4, find the mathematical set of A  B  C .

Example 2: draw a tree diagram to get the permutations by using the elements of the set
a, b, c

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