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Planting System on Permanent Beds; A Conservation

Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican
Plateau

Chapter · October 2011

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3612.0005 · Source: InTech

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 8

Planting System on Permanent Beds;

A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for
Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau
Agustin Limon-Ortega
INIFAP-CEVAMEX, Carretera Mexico - Lecheria, Texcoco, Edo. De México,
México

1. Introduction
Mexico is the world´s twelfth largest country. Almost one-quarter of the population depend
on the farming sector for their livelihood. More than half the territory of Mexico is arid or
semi-arid, and rainfall is the main factor limiting agricultural production (< 500 mm).
Rainfed crops occupy 58 percent of the total sown area that is characterized by a large
number of small-scale farmers. This shortage of farmland has resulted, mostly in the central
part of the country (the high plateau or Mexican plateau), in an increment of sloping lands
cultivated leading to severe soil degradation and erosion. Then, appropriate tillage/planting
techniques for crop production have to be studied and promoted to be adopted to mitigate
soil erosion and climatic constrains. This work should include the study of maize and small
grain cereals like wheat, oat and barley as these are the most common crops in the Mexican
plateau.
Indigenous farmers, on the other hand, have used raised-bed cultivation system for
centuries for some row crops like corn, beans, and squash. In some states of central Mexico,
raised field agriculture is a traditional system that dates back to as early as 300 B.C. (Crews
& Gliessman, 1991). Currently, this planting system has been modified and widely adopted
in the irrigated areas of northwest Mexico for other crops like wheat (Sayre et al., 2005).
Similarly, due to the large potential to be fully adapted in dryland areas of the Mexican
plateau, some farmers have started adopting the system. Regrettably, in both cases,
considerable use of tillage operations is been applied. Even thought this system offers
opportunities to grow crops more efficiently, the use of heavy tillage generally is promoting
soil erosion, exacerbating effects of climate change, and increasing production costs. Indeed,
Edward Faulkner (1943) with the publication of his classic book, “Plowman’s Folly,”
challenged the conventional wisdom of the day by stating in the very first sentence of the
very first page “Briefly, this book sets out to show that the moldboard plow which is in use
on farms throughout the civilized world, is the least satisfactory implement for the
preparation of crops.” He went on to say, “The truth is that no one has ever advanced a
scientific reason for plowing.” These were revolutionary ideas at the time and met with
ridicule and scorn (Triplett & Dick, 2008).
In addition to heavy tillage for seed bed preparation, another constraint for crop production
is the climate change which nowadays is clearly evident. This change is most commonly
184 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

expressed with higher temperatures and prolonged drought periods. Among the multiple
consequences of those changes are the reduction of soil fertility and organic carbon (St. Clair
& Lynch, 2010). Fortunately, the reversal can occur as increasing soil organic matter (OM)
decreases atmosphere C pools. In this regard, some governments have been initiated efforts
to develop markets for crop producers using C-sequestering cultural practices to sell C
credits (Wilhelm et al., 2004). Thus, a technological proposal to ameliorate to some degree
those ecological and economical constrains, is the application of conservation agriculture.
This modern technique has evolved in different ways. One of them is known as the planting
system in permanent beds.
This technology applied in the irrigated areas of northwest Mexico, with serious shortage of
water in the reservoirs and even though most farmers still use conventional tillage, those
that now grow wheat using the planting system on beds obtain 8% higher yield, use
approximately 25% less irrigation water, and encounter at least 25% less operational costs
compared to those still planting conventional tilled wheat on the flat using flood irrigation
(Aquino, 1998).
On the other hand, most of the research work to develop the permanent beds technology
has been carried out on wheat and maize crop but the planting system can be applied to
many others such as oat, barley, beans, etc. The basic management for this technology
consists mainly on leaving crop residues on soil surface as mulch, crop rotation, and bed
reformation when needed (Verhulst et al., 2011). Research results have shown that if those
practices are applied accordingly, grain yields can be even greater than those from a
conventional planting system (Sayre, 2004; Govaerts et al., 2005), in addition to the
improvement and conservation of soils (Govaerts et al., 2007). For example, diverse benefits
on soil physical, chemical, and biological attributes have been identified from crop rotation
and residue management (Torbert et al., 2007).
However, it is has been throughout reported that during the first years at the establishment
of the permanent bed planting system, crop yields can be reduced as the net N
immobilization is increased (Yadvinder-Singh et al., 2004) by microorganisms to undergo
residue decomposition. This phenomenon reduces the N availability to plants to such extent
that additional N fertilizer should be applied for several years until disequilibrium comes to
an end (Gentile et al., 2010; Govaerts et al., 2006a) and crop yields become stable (Sayre &
Hoobs, 2004). After this period, the bed planting increases the N use efficiency compared
with conventional planting (Fahong et al., 2004) overall if the appropriate management
practices are applied (Limon-Ortega et al., 2000). Nevertheless, there is some inconsistency
between studies as other reports indicates that soil water or soil N is conserved when tillage
is reduced in some environments, but not in others. The apparent inconsistency between
studies suggests that complex interactions between climatic and edaphic factors affect the
impact of tillage on soil water and soil N content. Therefore, more research is needed to
elucidate why soil water and soil N status are not affected consistently across environments
(Carr et al., 2003a; Schillinger, 2005).
This chapter aims on summarizing the dynamics of wheat and maize grain yields over years
of research on permanent beds under the dry land conditions of the Mexican plateau. This
includes the discussion on the effect of various management factors on the performance of
those crops, as well as the advantages of this planting system and their effect on soil
attributes.
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 185

2. Description of the planting system on permanent beds

Conservation tillage is broadly defined as any tillage system that leaves enough crop
residues to adequately protect soil from erosion throughout the year (Reeder, 1992;
Scillinger, 2005). Because erosion control is improved with increasing soil cover, systems
with 30% or greater soil cover at planting time have been defined as conservation-tillage
system (USDA-SCS, 1984). More recently the name of ‘conservation agriculture’ has been
adopted to highlight this sustainable system from the narrowly defined ‘conservation
tillage’ (Govaerts et al., 2009). Zero-tillage (no-till) is one of the primary categories of
conservation agriculture, in which the soil is left undisturbed from the harvest of one crop to
the seeding of the next one with only slight soil disturbance associated with creating a
narrow slot to place the seed/fertilizer (Dickey, 1992).
Similar to zero-tillage, the permanent bed planting system is initiated using conventional
tillage to allow the raising of well-formed beds and planting the initial crop. Subsequently,
no additional tillage is used except to reshape the beds as required, by passing a winged-
shovel in the furrow to maintain the shape of the bed (Morrison et al., 1990). This field
operation is usually made before planting each crop but frequency may change depending
on crop and/or soil type (Morrison & Gerik, 1983). No tillage is made on the top of the bed
except that associated with planting. Since crop residues should be retained, a cutting-disc
may need to be placed ahead of the reshaping shovel to allow its free passage through the
furrow without clogging with residue during the simple bed-reshaping process. This
depends upon the amount of crop residues left that generally vary according to the crop,
yield and amount removed for fodder or other purposes. If the amount of crop residues left
on the soil surface is the minimum required for a zero-tillage system to adequately protect
the soil from erosion, it is likely that the cutting disk may not be needed. Actually this is the
case in low- and moderate - rainfall environments of the Mexican plateau where the average
grain yield of maize is less than 4 t/ha. The equipment used to reshape beds, with or
without cutting-disk, can also be used for mechanical weed control in the furrow areas even
in crops like wheat, oat and barley (Sayre, 1998).
The raised bed-planting technology for wheat-based cropping systems was developed in the
irrigated areas of northwest Mexico by which a defined number of rows of wheat, or other
crops, are planted on the top of beds with furrow irrigation between beds (Wang et al.,
2009). Due to the benefits reported by farmers, the bed-planting technology needs to be
applied in dryland production areas. The permanent bed planting system applied to
irrigated or dryland conditions has various topological variants; bed width and number of
seed-rows per bed are probably the most important. (Fig. 1a, b, c, and d). Bed width is
mostly determined by user´s preferences to fit individual farm needs and grain yield
potential. In general, for the case of small grain cereals, bed-width measured from furrow
bottom –to- furrow bottom ranges from 0.75 to 1.6 m and the number of seed-rows per bed
from 2 to 6, respectively. As the environment becomes drier and grain yield lowers, beds
should be wider (Fig. 1d) and as the environment improves and grain yield increases, beds
can be narrowed (Fig. 1b and c) (Sweeney & Sisson, 1988; Iragavarapu & Randall, 1997). In
any case, bed width should match machinery to confine wheel traffic to the furrow bottom
to maintain the cropping area (bed-top) free from soil compaction (Morrison & Gerik, 1988).
Most farmers that have adopted the bed planting system for dryland wheat, oat and barley
production under conventional tillage in the Mexican plateau, plant two or three defined
seed rows, regardless of the environment potential, on the top of narrow raised beds (about
186 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

80 cm wide) with modified conventional-drills. Analogously, the no-till equipment for small
grain cereals to plant multiple rows per bed should be modified as it is not sold
commercially. This implies that farmers have to modify no-till equipment so that it can plant
through crop residues on beds. This modification requires not only money, but also time
and creativity. In fact the machinery problem appears to be greater than any cultural or soil
related problem (Morrison, 1985), and this will not be quite solved until machinery
designers and agronomist interact to develop models with specific standards for the bed
planting system. Those standards should be specific to each region and most common crops.
For example, the type of planters should vary according to the amount of crop residues left
which in turn depends upon farmer, crop type, and potential environment.

Fig. 1. Planting systems for dryland wheat production in a) conventional planting system on
the flat; narrow-raised beds with b) two rows per bed and c) three rows per bed; and wide-
raised beds with d) six rows per bed. Farmer´s fields in the Mexican plateau.

3. Benefits on soil attributes

The application of the permanent beds with residue retention as a form of conservation
agriculture has several aims. One is to improve soil quality which is a concept based on the
premise that management can deteriorate, stabilize, or improve soil ecosystem functions
(Franzluebbers, 2002). The annual practice of crop rotation and rational crop residue
management as minimum set is crucial to obtain the benefits on chemical, physical and
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 187

biological soil attributes which are a function of OM (Chan et al., 2002). However, if those
benefits are ultimately to be extended to improve grain yield, those practices should be
accompanied with other factors as described in section 5 of this chapter.

3.1 Physical attributes

The primary soil physical characteristic influenced by OM is soil structure through
aggregation and aggregate stability (Six et al., 1999). Organic matter improvement is in turn
the result of crop residues left or incorporated into the soil. Soil aggregation is the process
whereby primary soil particles are bound together into secondary units, usually by natural
substances derived from root exudates and microbial activity (Soil Science Society of
America, 1997). Reduction of soil crusting on the top of the beds as result of the
improvement of soil aggregation (Egball et al., 1996; Fahong et al., 2004) allows a better crop
establishment due to a rapid emergence (Guerif et al., 2001). Furthermore, top soil aggregate
stability is considered as erodibility factor with strong influence on water run-off and
erosion (Barthes et al., 2000). Nevertheless, there is no way universally accepted to measure
this parameter (Diaz-Zorita et al., 2002). An approach that has provided an adequate
description of aggregate stability is the fractal approach (Guerif et a., 2001). Examples
applied to permanent beds can be found in Limon-Ortega et al. (2002) and Limon-Ortega et
al. (2006).
For purposes of this chapter a rustic experiment to demonstrate the aggregate stability was
carried out using two large clods from the same type of soil; one from a plot under
conventional tillage and other from a plot under permanent beds for ten years (Fig. 2a and
b, respectively). The experiment consisted on immersing both clods in tab water for about 30
sec. The effect of this immersion on the clod from conventional tillage was to disrupt the
initial porosity impeding water infiltration after a rain. The opposite occurred on the clod
from permanent beds; porosity was maintained allowing water to infiltrate. In the former
case water stagnancy on the surface promotes soil erosion through run-off while in the latter
soil erosion is greatly reduced.
Actually, soil erosion due to water run-off is the largest soil degradation process and it is
associated to management practices which tend to leave the soil without protection when
the rainy season starts. In Mexico, about of 85% of the territory is affected by this sort of
degradation (Etchevers et al., 2006) and is frequently caused by the inopportune practice of
extensive cattle grazing (Haulon et al., 2007). Regrettably, appropriate management of crop
residues from the previous crop is a key to soil structural development and stability
(Govaerts et al., 2009).
Relative to grain yield, it has been reported that differences in maize yield between tillage
systems are attributed to a better water supply in no-till due to the maintenance of a larger
mesopores and a greater hydraulic conductivity (Diaz-Zorita et al., 2004). According to Fig.
2, one might surmise that water supply is greater, and then grain yield, in permanent bed
plots (2b) than in conventional tillage plots (2a).
Soil bulk density, another physical attribute, decreases as the soil organic C increases
contributing to improve soil quality enhancing the performance of disk-type drills in seed
placement in addition to the efficient C sequestration (Halvorson et al., 1999b). However, if a
no-till system is practiced on the flat without beds there is a potential increase of bulk
density, and thus soil compaction, as machinery circulates randomly (Jones et al., 1989). In
the case of permanent beds, this constrain is confined to the furrow bottoms; bed tops
remain intact without compaction.
188 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

Fig. 2. Stability of two soil aggregates and its effect on water infiltration after a rain storm.
Both aggregates from the same type of soil but different till system; a) conventional tillage
and b) permanent beds. Arrows indicate the corresponding field plots. Chapingo, Mexico.

3.2 Chemical attributes

The work of Govaerts et al. (2007) in the Mexican plateau reported that sodicity as chemical
parameter was highest for conventional-till raised-beds. However, sodium content in
permanent beds varies according to the amount of residues left; as the amount is increased,
sodicity decreases. The opposite was reported for pH; alkalinity slightly increases.
The decrease in soil salt concentration, on the other hand, resulting from the application of
permanent beds may have a tremendous relevance for saline areas (Sayre et al., 2005).
However, variations may occur depending upon crop residue management. For example
permanent beds with residues burned increases electrical conductivity while the opposite
occurs with residue retention (Verhulst et al., 2011). Fig. 3 from a field experiment at
Chapingo, Mexico shows how salt concentration is reduced over time with the application
of permanent beds with slight variations due to crop rotation.
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 189

1.4
Wheat - Maize
Electrical conductivity, dS/m

1.2
Maize - Wheat
1

0.8 Wheat - Wheat

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Crop season

Fig. 3. Soil-salt concentration reduction as result of the use of permanent beds technology
under three crop rotations; wheat – maize, maize – wheat, and wheat - wheat. Soil cores
were taken from 0 to 30 cm depth. Chapingo, Mexico.
Even thought the initial soil salt concentration in this study was not high enough to be
considered as saline soil, it is interesting to see how the electrical conductivity of the soil
solution decreases over time from an initial of about 1.2 to 0.5 dS/m after a period of eight
cropping cycles. According to this result, the electrical conductivity reduction for the wheat
– wheat crop rotation is not as high as showed by the rotation with maize likely due to the
higher quantity of crop residues left with this crop. This differential result is attributed to a
poor aggregate stability (Verhulst et al., 2011) resulting from an inappropriate crop rotation
(Limon-Ortega et al., 2009a).

3.3 Biological attributes

Biological erosion in México is the second largest soil degradation process after water
erosion and it represents the rate of organic mater mineralization. Approximately 80% of the
territory is affected by some degree of biological degradation (Etchevers et al., 2006).
Optionally, the continuous return of crop residues increases the soil OM content. It is
estimated that about 11% and 37% of C in corn residues and roots, respectively, ends up as
OM indicating that the latter is the major contributor to maintenance of OM in the soil
(Barber, 1979). This parameter plays a key role in the soil quality and it is interrelated to
physical and chemical properties, far out of proportion to the small quantities present
(Kubat et al., 2008). However, the increase in OM is not easily detected by chemical analyses
in the short-term. Instead, measurement of soil microbial biomass (SMB) can be used as
early indicator of the OM trend (Powlson & Brookes, 1987).
The amount of SMB is an important component of soil quality assessment because of its
important roles in nutrient dynamics; decomposition of natural and synthetic organic
amendments; and physical stabilization of aggregates. Crop residues, including roots, are a
source of nutrients for SMB and plants. Soil microbial biomass is the living component of
soil OM and although it comprises less than 5% of OM, it performs various critical functions
for plant production in the ecosystem; is a labile source of C, N, P, and S; and is an agent of
nutrient transformation (Dalal., 1998). Returning crop residues has a tendency to increase
190 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

soil organic C and N (Malhi & Kutcher, 2007) and an example applied to permanent beds
can be reviewed in Limon-Ortega et al. (2006).

4. Grain yield variations at the establishment of the permanent bed planting

system
The adoption of the permanent bed planting system by farmers faces multiple restrictions,
two of them are related to 1) issues of the N cycle and to 2) the visual perspective of wheat
fields, i.e. the topological arrangement of plants on beds makes growers hesitate about the
appropriateness of the system.

4.1 Variations due to N

Leaving crop residues on the soil surface, among other practices, is critical for the practice of
zero tillage to get the benefits on grain yield. Likewise, it can take some time –roughly five
years- before the benefits are evident (Govaerts et al., 2005) albeit other authors state that
three years are enough (Triplett & Dick, 2008).Other reports indicate that‘many’ years are
required to reach an equilibrium (Motta et al., 2000). This inconsistency leads to think that
different effects actually appear due to local conditions, assigning priorities to specific
factors and/or processes (Guerif et al., 2001), and offers a great challenge to discern and
account for the impact of crop residue on nutrient availability (Schoenau & Campbell, 1996)
for plant uptake.
As first instance, the soil N availability declines (Carr et al., 2003a) but the question still
remains about how many years of good management it will take before the potential for
greater N mineralization will be reflected in situ (Grant et al., 2002). The temporarily N
declination is mainly due to organic residues added to the soil surface that should undergo
decomposition through the SMB present in soil and/or residues (Cabrera et al., 2005).
However, if the amount of N present in the residues is smaller than that required by SMB
activity, additional inorganic N will be immobilized from the soil to complete the
decomposition process (Corbeels et al., 1999). To offset this temporal deficiency, additional
inputs of mineral fertilizer should be applied (Triplet & Dick, 2008) to improve the synchrony
between nutrient availability and crop demands (Gentile et al., 2010). Nevertheless, in the
long-term the cumulative effects of straw incorporation will play an active role in providing
greater amounts of plant-available N from mineralization (Bird et al., 2001) and thus reducing
the need of fertilizer inputs. This effect on N will depend upon crop residue quality (Gentile et
al., 2010) evaluated as C and N as main parameters (Salinas-Garcia et al., 1997).
Yet, during some seasons and climates, the effect of N immobilization/mineralization at the
establishment of a no-till system will inhibit biological activity which may be associated
with either production or reduction of plant available nutrients (Schoenau & Campbell,
1996) which will be eventually reflected in grain yields. Fig. 4a and b is an example of what
happened to maize and wheat yields, respectively, in a water-limited environment of the
Mexican plateau.
Maize yield differences due to N application occurred during the first three years. Lowest
yields were obtained with 0 kg N/ha and can be attributed to an initial N immobilization.
However, after three years grain yields among N rates were similar (Fig. 4a). This indicates
that effect of N immobilization on grain yield occurs only in the absence of N fertilizer
suggesting that no additional rates are required to offset immobilization as other factors
should be determining final yields.
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 191

6500
a) 3500 b)

5500
3000

Wheat grain yield, kg/ha

Maize grain yield, kg/ha

4500

2500
3500

2000
2500 NITROGEN RATES
0 kg N/ha

60 kg N/ha 1500 NITROGEN RATES

1500
120 kg N/ha 0 kg N/ha 40 kg N/ha

500 1000
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
CROP SEASON
CROP SEASON

Fig. 4a and b. Maize and wheat yield response to N application and crop season from a trial
on permanent beds with residue retention from a trial initiated in 2002 at Chapingo, Mexico.
In contrast, wheat grain yield differences among N rates (Fig. 4b) does not show a clear
trend. In average, grain yield differences are clearly lesser than 500 kg/ha, except for the
2007 crop season when the difference was about 600 kg/ha. But from a practical point of
view, these differences are minor if the economy of fertilizer acquisition and application is
considered. Statistical analysis for this study suggests that wheat grain yields are mostly
driven by rainfall amount and distribution albeit there was a slight reduction of soil NO3
during the first three years.
It is clear that grain yield variations in Fig 4 can not be generalized to other locations as
other limiting-factors may be determinants. Indeed, an additional fact in this study is that
the application of P and K has been excluded in both crops. Statistical analysis (unpublished
data) does not reveal these nutrients as limiting factors. Thus, one may surmise that P is bio-
recycled from residues as water-soluble forms and moved with rain to the mineral soil
below (Schoenau & Campbell, 1996; Motta el al., 2000). This is of major importance
considering the world shortage of mineral P (Cordell, et al 2009).

4.2 Variations due to topological arrangement of small grain cereals

An additional farmers’ constrains to adopt the bed planting system even using conventional
tillage is the open space in furrows between beds without plants. Generally, they argue that
this space is wasted and then grain yields reduced as the seeding rate is too light, or the
space between beds too wide for maximum utilization of available resources. However,
results from field studies have demonstrated the opposite; grain yields from planting on
beds can be even higher than those from conventional planting on the flat. For example,
Sweeney & Sisson (1988) reported 15 % wheat grain yield increases in a bed planting system
compared to yield obtained in the ‘flat’ indicating that other factors such as rainfall patterns
may be accounting for the differences between systems. The higher yield from beds can be
attributed to greater resource utilization through the changes in row spacing and plant
density configuration (Chen et al., 2008).
It is well known that wheat plants in narrow-raised beds can compensate, within certain
limits, for the lost cropping areas of the open furrows between beds. The exclusion of wheat
plants from the furrow bottoms between beds may stimulate tillering, or number of heads,
and grain production in location/years with adequate precipitation (Gerik & Morrison,
1985). This increase in tillering can be attributed to more favorable soil moisture and
nutritional conditions as well as greater light intensity (Siemens, 1963). Alternatively, if
192 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

precipitation is relatively scarce and distribution inadequate, the number of rows per bed
should be increased through a wider bed size to compensate for the low number of heads
(Sweeney & Sisson, 1988; Iragavarapu & Randall, 1997). And under even harsher conditions,
it is likely that a seed row in the furrow bottom may be needed to increase the number of
heads but this option in this sort of environment has not been documented al least for the
Mexican plateau.

5. Key components for a successful establishment of permanent beds

Most farmers in the Mexican plateau are small, near subsistence producers who practice
extensive tillage and mono-cropping combined with direct removal of most crop residues
mainly by baling for livestock fodder or by pasturing and/or burning. These traditional
practices, which result in bare, exposed fields for most of the year, leads considerable run-
off losses of rain water associated with the occasional heavy-afternoon thunder-showers,
especially on the extensive sloping fields (Sayre et al., 2001).
Given this scenario, field research has been conducted to provide a sound basis technology
to farmers of the Mexican plateau and other regions based on reduced/zero-till, crop
rotation, and crop residue retention. One of those technologies is the planting system on
permanent beds whose research results are based on long term trials carried out by diverse
institutions. Some of the components identified for a successful establishment of this system
are discussed below.

5.1 Seeding equipment

Conservation agriculture in its form of permanent beds has many advantages over
conventional planting systems; however, crop residues on the soil surface complicate the
planting activity (Torbert et al., 2007). Among the commercial equipment developed for
direct seeding, there is no one designed specifically for the planting system on permanent
beds. Under these circumstances, some agricultural research institutions in the world have
developed their own prototypes with varying features among them (Hobbs et al., 2008). This
surely has been made based upon how machinery designers conceptualize the planting
system and on the particular situation of the farming areas including type of crops, amount
of residues, and fertilizer requirements. Consequently, there should be a great variety of
local designs ranging from equipments with a forward residue mover to planters with
cutting disks. But a common factor is that those designs, including small-scale planters,
should be able to penetrate untilled soils to both place and cover the seed, usually through
variable amounts of crop residues on the surface (Sayre, 1998).
In general, appropriate field machineries are necessary for successful operation of this crop
production system. Fertilizing and seeding machines must effectively interact with varying
physical conditions of crop residues and surface soil. They must cut surface residues and
soil and perform the desired functions with minimum disturbances of soil and surface
residues (Morrison et al., 1990). This fact is critical as suboptimal plant stands may result
when tillage is reduced, because crop residue maintained on the surface may interfere with
penetration by seed delivery system and contribute to hair-pinning of residue into the
bottom of seed furrows (Carr et al., 2003a; Torbert et al., 2007). When this is the case, a
suboptimal population will result in lower final grain yield and grain quality (Geleta et al.,
2002).
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 193

As additional rule of thumb, wheel traffic, not only for planters but cultivators, sprayers,
and fertilizer spreaders, should be restricted to furrow bottoms; otherwise, the bed area can
be compacted by the tires of the field equipment (Parsons et al., 1984). Similarly, tire width
must be preferably minimized to avoid compaction on the edges of the bed area (Morrison,
1985). These principles are particularly important on coarse-textured soils, i.e. sandy loams
and silt loams, since they tend to form traffic pans more readily than clayey soils (Mascagny
et al., 1995).
The National Institute for Agricultural, Forestry and Livestock Research (INIFAP) of
Mexico, developed a planter for this planting system at the ‘Valle de Mexico research
station’ (CEVAMEX). This development has proved to be particularly successful on the
basis of its ability to plant wheat and maize through relatively heavy crop residue (Fig. 5).
This ability is based on the need to rotate crops as required for the permanent bed planting
system.

Fig. 5. Prototype of disk-type planter for small-grain cereals and maize developed for the
planting system on permanent beds.
This equipment is basically the assembly of commercial seed boxes and disk-type planters
into a designed frame. One seed box is to drill small cereals and the other to plant maize. A
gear mechanism in the frame permits to select the seed box to operate. The installation of the
furrow opener allows planting and reshaping beds simultaneously. This planter has proved
to be particularly successful on the basis of its ability to plant through the amount of wheat
and maize residues resulting from the yields commonly obtained in the Mexican plateau. A
feature of this drill is its paired-row configuration for wheat seeds, whereby rows are
planted in pairs spaced 20 to 25 cm apart by means of two heavy-duty double-disk openers
per bed. To plant maize only one planter per bed is needed and distance between them
194 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

should be adjusted accordingly. Since un-tilled soil does not flow, a small wheel in the back
of the disk-type planters pushes the soil to close the slot and cover the seed.
Interestingly, this equipment does not include a hopper to band fertilizer at planting. This
apparent ‘lack’ is partly explained in Fig. 4a and b where crop yield response to N
application is negligible. However, it is important to emphasize that this only applies to
about 400 mm dryland conditions of the Mexican plateau. Nevertheless, in areas with
different conditions the need for fertilizer may be critical. Meanwhile, investment cost of this
prototype is low which may promote its copy and then the adoption of the planting system
on permanent beds.

5.2 Variety
Research results on bed-planting methods have shown that not all wheat varieties perform
adequately on beds. One reason is that during the breeding process genotypes were
generally selected in conventional planting systems (Freeman et al., 2007a). Thus a crucial
first step in initiating research on bed-planting wheat is to test a wide spectrum of varieties
with differing heights, tillering abilities, phonologies and canopy architectures (Sayre, 1998).
Close cooperation between breeders and agronomists to jointly identify and understand the
proper plant type needed for optimum performance on beds is highly recommended
(Freeman et al 2007b).
Work in the Mexican plateau showed that only three out of eight Mexican wheat varieties
recommended for rainfed areas performed acceptably on beds (Limon-Ortega et al., 2008).
This differential response can be ascribed to plant height (Sweeney & Sisson, 1988), for
example, a tall genotype may perform adequately on beds but not in a conventional
planting system on the flat. This means that caution should be exercised when making
general recommendations on the basis of studies in which only one variety was used
(Siemens, 1963). Results from a study with six wheat varieties and seven locations are
presented in Fig. 6 using a basic stability analysis.
This figure clearly shows that performance of wheat varieties changes with the
environment. In low-grain yield-environments all varieties perform similar to each other,
but as environment improves, grain yield differences become greater reaching up to 2 t/ha
difference. This result is an indication on the importance to select the adequate variety
before planting on beds. In this case, variety Nahuatl F2000 was the most stable across
environments probably due to its tillering ability.
Yield components that determine wheat grain yield are heads per m2, heads per plant,
kernels per head and kernel weight and there are compensatory relations among them in
response to the changes of environmental conditions and agronomic practices, such as row
spacing and seeding rate (Chen et al., 2008). Research work has shown a consistent
relationship between grain yield and number of heads; the former increases as the latter
improves (Zhang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2008). This suggests that factors constraining tiller
survival should be considered to improve production under such planting systems (Pierce &
Lizaso, 1993) regardless of the ability of wheat plants to adjust one yield component when
another one is reduced due to environment or other factors (Carr et al., 2003b). In this
scenario, if the environment is conductive, genotypes may have the ability to compensate
under relatively lower seeding rates to establish good stands with many tillers, larger heads,
or more kernels, resulting in higher grain yield (Geleta et al., 2002). According to Schillinger
(2005), the number of heads is generally the most important yield component and is
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 195

primarily affected by management practices such as seeding rates and N inputs (Zhang et
al., 2007). One way to optimize tillering and yield component formation is through the
timing of N application (Weisz et al., 2001; Limon-Ortega & Villaseñor-Mir, 2006). A
regression analysis with grain yield suggests that attaining 350 heads/m2 is key to achieving
about 3500 kg/ha of wheat in the Mexican Plateau (Limon_ortega, 2011). Assuming that
spring wheat has a tiller survival rate of 70-75% (Zhang et al., 2007), it is then estimated that
500 – 466 tillers/m2 should be targeted to attain an optimum grain yield in this region.

Juchi F2000 Tlaxcala F2000

Nahuatl F2000 Romoga F96

Rebeca F2000 Temporalera M87

8000

7000
Mean wheat grain yield, kg/ha

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Environmental wheat grain yield, kg/ha

Fig. 6. Stability analysis of eight wheat varieties planted on narrow-raised beds in seven
environments of the Mexican plateau (Courtesy, Dr. E. Villaseñor-Mir, 2005).

5.3 Crop rotation

Several researchers have suggested that phytotoxins from residues on the surface in a mono
crop system may inhibit plant growth. The potential phytotoxic effect can not be reverted
unless the period between successive crops provides sufficient time for residues to
decompose and potential phytotoxic compounds be broken down or leached away (Carr et
al., 2003b). Alternatively, diversifying crop rotations with different water use patterns and
requirements can increase yield potential by influencing plant diseases and weeds
(Campbell et al., 1990). The total crop yield increase and nutrient removal will depend upon
the root depth of each crop (Grant et al., 2002). However, some crops in the rotation may
cause reductions in subsequent wheat yields by decreasing the number of heads but they
provide diversification and may prove beneficial when the yield and economics of the
whole cropping system is considered (Norwood, 2000).
196 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

For the specific case of the Mexican plateau, it has been reported that maize-wheat as crop
rotation is adequate. Otherwise, wheat grown in a mono-crop system tends to produce
lower grain yields (Fig. 7). Data points in this figure are the average of four N rates (0, 40, 80
and 120 kg/ha).

3500 CROP ROTATION

Wheat - Maize

3000 Wheat - Wheat

Wheat grain yeld, kg/ha

2500

2000

1500

1000
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Crop season

Fig. 7. Wheat grain yield variations when grown in rotation with maize and a mono crop.
Chapingo, Mexico.
In general, wheat grain yield was greater for the rotation with maize compared to wheat –
wheat rotation. One reason for this result is related to the development of root and foliar
diseases as residues from the same crop serve as source of infection (section 6.1 of this
chapter). Other relates to soil deterioration, mainly soil aggregate stability and its
concomitant effects on numerous quality parameters. In general, wheat – wheat rotation
produces less crop residue biomass compared to wheat – maize crop rotation. This results in
a greater soil surface exposure to environment and thus deteriorating its aggregate stability.

5.4 Crop residues management

There are several constrains associated with crop residue management that may inhibit the
farmer adoption of conservation agriculture. Currently many farmers in the Mexican
plateau remove crop residues by baling to get an extra income. Farmers who convert to
conservation agriculture, but continue to remove crop residues by any means, will usually
produce lower yields than with conventional tillage practices. A good rule of thumb is that
conservation agriculture should probably not implemented if it is not possible to maintain
sufficient residues for adequate ground cover, especially under erosion-prone, low-but
intense-rainfall dryland conditions (Sayre, 1998). When only certain amount of residue can
be removed, the recommendation for removal rates must be based on regional yield,
climatic conditions, and cultural practices. In this regard, agronomists are challenged to
develop a procedure (tool) for recommending maximum permissible removal rates that
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 197

ensure sustained soil productivity (Wilhelm et al., 2004). Since there is intense competition
to use residue in many rainfed areas, especially by small- and medium- scale farmers, it is
allowed to remove 50 -70 % of the residues as remaining portion will provide adequate
benefit to the soil (Sayre et al., 2005). Similarly, more (or improved) knowledge about
residue decomposition dynamics is essential for developing effective management strategies
as no single residue management practice is superior under all conditions (Kumar & Goh,
2000).
The nature of crop residues and their management has a profound influence on soils over
the short – and long -term (Schoenau & Campbell, 1996). Albeit chopping and incorporating
crop residues is an acceptable practice for soil improvement, the planting system on
permanent beds as conservation agriculture requires crop residues chopped and distributed
uniformly over the soil surface, preferably during harvesting with the combine’s chopper.
But depending on the local conditions, sometimes is better to chop residues after harvesting
when the season of winds is over. For example, winds of January and February in the
Mexican plateau have the potential to blow off chopped crop residues. It is also important to
point out that the initial location of crop residues at the soil surface, the clustering, and the
spreading of fragments modify many soil physical factors (Guerif et al., 2001).
Residues, on the other hand, can enhance the loss of N fertilizer by volatilization from
broadcast urea because urease enzyme present in the residues can increase the rate of NH3
release (McInnes et al., 1986). Therefore, in a planting system like permanent beds with crop
residues on soil surface is crucial the separation of fertilizer from the residues by placing
fertilizers below the soil surface to increase fertilizer use efficiency. In irrigated conditions
the incorporation can be accomplished by watering immediately after the fertilizer
application (Limon-Ortega et al., 2000), while in rainfed areas this should necessary be done
by mechanical means below the soil. Alternatively, fertilizer application can be scheduled to
coincide with favorable conditions as predicted by short-term (48 – 72 h) weather forecast
(Limon-Ortega, 2009b; Nielsen et al., 2005). Furthermore, guidelines routinely used for seed-
banded N fertilization that only consider N application rate, should be modified to also
consider N source and soil moisture (Mahler et al., 1989).

5.5 Bed formation and maintenance

Certain guidelines to begin the permanent beds should be followed (Griffith et al., 1990); 1)
on nearly level soils with poor internal drainage, beds should not interfere with natural
drainage-ways as ponded water in furrows may result, 2) on slopes of more than 6%, even
with all crop residues left, beds should be oriented across the slope, 3) careful driving is
needed to maintain proper furrow spacing between adjacent passes when raising beds the
first time, any mistake made initially will be carried over from year to year, 4) a cultivator
and planter with the same number of rows should be used as none drives straight all the
time, 5) bed spacing from center –to- center must be exactly the same as spacing of planter
rows, improperly adjusted winged-shovels may not move soil equally to both sides of the
ridge, 6) to minimize potential planter centering and control problems, no attempt should be
made rising beds too tall or ‘peaked’ (crowned) on top. Interestingly, harvesting individual
rows on crowned beds, grain yield increases from furrow rows to center of the bed, while on
flat beds, grain yield can be about the same on the top of the bed (Mascagni et al., 1995).
Furrow bottoms, on the other hand, should be periodically reformed to maintain the shape
of the bed to provide surface drainage in situations of waterlogin (Morrison et al., 1990), and
198 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

to restore the macroporosity to promote water infiltration into the soil and gas exchange. An
additional benefit in certain production systems from re-shaping beds can be obtained in
soils that tend to develop compaction constrains (Mascagni & Sabbe, 1990) that in other
cropping systems occur from the wheel traffic of cultural practices applied at random over
the field (Gerik et al., 1985).

6. Advantages and disadvantages of the permanent beds

The planting system on permanent beds as conservation agriculture for crop production
offers many advantages and disadvantages to users. Both are mostly described by the key
components for a successful establishment of the permanent beds in section 5 of this
chapter. However, there is not a clear-cut to identify a component as absolutely
advantageous as occasionally it might be beyond the farmer’s control. Crop rotation, for
example, is fundamental but not always feasible. This depends on the onset of the rainy
season or expected market in a given year. If the onset of the season is delayed and the
following crop in the rotation is maize, farmers should change the cropping plan to wheat or
even oat depending upon the time the rain season is established. Regardless of this, other
points to take into account about the planting system on beds are described below.

6.1 Foliar and root diseases

Direct seeding methods like permanent beds with crop residues left on surface have proved
to promote the development of both foliar and root diseases and become yield-limiting
factors if crops are grown without adequate rotation (Cook et al., 2000). For example,
seedlings which encounter buried residues may be injured if the residues have not had
enough time and moisture to lose their pathogenicity (Wuest et al., 2000). Thus, appropriate
management techniques are needed to reduce the effects of these factors. Nitrogen fertilizer,
on the other hand, has been identified as management factor affecting the incidence of
diseases; in general, adequate N rates tend to reduce incidence but this varies according to
moisture conditions (Halvorson et al., 1999a).
Foliar diseases, namely Yellow leaf spot (Helminthosporium tritici-repentis), and Septoria
(Septoria tritici) and root diseases, namely take-all (Gaeumannomyces graminis), Rhizoctonia
root rot (Rhizoctonia solani), and Pythium root rot (Pythium spp), become yield-limiting to
wheat when grown without adequate rotation, especially in no-till plant systems.
Nevertheless, the degree of incidence is influenced by the microenvironment formed by the
configuration of the plant rows (Cook et al., 2000). For the case of planting on beds, there is a
skipped furrow without plants that results in a more open space that affects disease
incidence due to the microclimate from the row orientation (English et al., 1989). Foliar
diseases that have been found to be suppressed by the planting system on beds include the
sharp eye spot disease caused by Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides and powdery mildew
caused by Erysiphe graminis (Fahong et al., 2004; Sayre et al., 2005).
Visual scores taken from tillering to grain filling stage on the foliar diseases complex using a
0 to 10 scale, allowed to estimate the amount of initial disease and the exponential rate of
disease increase (Fry, 1982) for each plot in a field study on permanent beds at Chapingo,
Mex. Results showed that only the amount of initial disease was related to final wheat grain
yield. Fig. 8 indicates that for every unit increase in the scale, grain yield will be reduced by
246 kg/ha (equation not showed). According to this figure, the wheat – wheat rotation has
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 199

the largest visual scores and consequently the largest grain yield reductions. In contrast, the
annual wheat – maize rotation showed less incidence of foliar diseases which resulted in
greater grain yield.

CROP ROTATION
2500
Wheat - Maize
2300
2100 Wheat - Wheat
Wheat grain yield, kg/ha

1900

1700
1500

1300
1100
900
700
500
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Amount of initial disesase during tillering stage, 0-10 scale

Fig. 8. Relationship foliar disease score - wheat grain yield in 2009 crop season. Chapingo,
Mexico.
The work on root disease incidence on permanent beds in the Mexican plateau, on the other
hand, has also shown the effect of crop rotation. For wheat – maize rotation with full residue
retention, the root rot incidence in wheat was intermediate while for maize was even lower.
However, in contrast to foliar diseases, the root rot incidence in both crops had minor
influence on final grain yield as other factors such as water availability and nutrient status
were more critical (Govaerts et al., 2006b).

6.2 Diking
Water is often the most limiting factor to dryland agricultural production. Practices that
conserve water received as rainfall can greatly improve the potential for success of cropping
systems (McFarland et al., 1991). One of those practices should include the bed planting
system joined with furrow diking.
Furrow dikes are small dams formed periodically between the beds along the furrow
bottoms. The furrow diking practice is known by many names, including tied-ridges;
furrow damming; basin tillage; basin listing; and microbasin tillage. Furrow diking is a soil
and water conservation practice that is very well adaptable to dryland crop production. It is
most often used on gently sloping terrain in arid and semiarid areas where crops are grown
under water deficit conditions (Jones & Baumhardt, 2003). Furrow diking in the Mexican
200 Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture

plateau for wheat production on conventional-till raised-beds was first used in 2000 by Mr
Emigdio Taboada, a wheat farmer at Nanacamilpa, Tlaxcala state. This farmer modified his
conventional drill removing three planters and replacing them by three small furrow
openers connected to an eccentric wheel which causes a trip movement to form small dikes.
As immediate result wheat grain yields were improved, the amount of water runoff was
substantially reduced, and water infiltration through the soil profile increased. Similar
results have been reported for other places and crops (Jones & Baumhardt, 2003) indicating
a strong correlation between grain yield and amount of rain during critical growth stages
(Tewolde et al., 1993).
The application of furrow diking technology in a bed planting system is of particular
importance in many semi-arid regions where rainfall is often of high intensity and short
duration (Lyle & Dixon, 1997). This rainfall pattern is characteristic of many developing
countries (Clair & Linch, 2010) including the Mexican plateau and will be surely extended to
other areas of the world as the climate change will continue. For example, precipitation
intensity in terms of the number of days with precipitation above 25 mm, shows a statistical
significant increase in many areas of the globe (Porter & Semenov, 2005). Those changes in
rainfall distribution can be parameterized by means of standard deviation (Monti & Venturi,
2007). The effect of furrow diking on water retention in conventional-till raised-beds appears
to offset those climatic changes as shown in Fig. 9. Nevertheless, the implementation of tied
ridges has no effect on soil parameters (Govaerts et al., 2007).
However, care should be taken in permanent beds as research has shown that furrow diking
in every furrow may not be desirable as wheat grain yield can be slightly reduced (Saye et
al., 2005). Alternatively, to improve yields furrow diking should be applied in alternate
furrows (Limon-Ortega, 2011). This differential effects of furrow diking options on grain
yield can be ascribed to an excessive amount of rain water accumulated in the soil profile
due to the improvement of soil structure stability and suggests that there should be a
balance between water conservation and drainage .

Fig. 9. Rainfall water retention with furrow diking in conventional-till raised-beds applied to
wheat.
Planting System on Permanent Beds;
A Conservation Agriculture Alternative for Crop Production in the Mexican Plateau 201

Apparently the added water through the sole use of conservation practices compared with
more intensive conventional tillage, is enough to take full advantage of the often low and
erratic growing-season precipitation (Grant et al., 2002). But care should be taken as
contrasting results have been reported for crops like maize from wetter areas with rain
amounts exceeding 900 mm where diking had little effect on grain yields (McFerland et al.,
1991). The inconsistency of furrow diking in increasing grain yields can also be attributed to
size of rain events –rainfall distribution. For example, small rain events (< 20 mm) can be
lost to evaporation and then no-till with crop residues can be more effective than furrow
dikes in improving water conservation in semiarid regions (Nielsen et al., 2005).

7. Conclusion
Given the large number of advantages of the planting system on permanent beds over the
conventional planting for wheat and maize production, researchers have to joint efforts to
accomplish two basic requirements. One is the work of agronomists with machinery
designers to develop prototypes of planters that can be copied by small-scale farmers and be
easily reproduced in local shops. Other is the joint work with breeders to identify and select
the appropriate wheat and maize genotypes for the bed planting system. Furthermore, local
governments should provide subsidies to allow those farmers to acquire planters and
simultaneously provide some incentive to trigger the adoption of the system.
The stabilization period required to obtain the benefits of the permanent beds appears not to
have a pronounced effect on wheat and maize yields under the rainfed (about 400 mm
rainfall) conditions of the Mexican plateau. The adoption of this planting system as
conservation agriculture and its effects on the improvement on soil attributes has the
potential to reduce substantially the degree of soil erosion, as well as to improve the
farmer’s income by increasing grain yields and reducing production costs.

8. Acknowledgment
Author acknowledges the financial support of ‘Grupo Produce Estado de Mexico, A.C.’ to this
project publication (Project No 000884).

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