1.8.

Interfaces

Due to the different properties of the soil and the rigid elements (piles/inclusions), sliding and
separation may occur at the soil-pile interfaces (Maheshwari and Watanabe 2006). The interface
elements in Flac3D are able to simulate the slip and detachment of these contact surfaces. In general,
these elements are not considered in this study; however, in some calculations (Chapter 4) the
influence of these elements was checked in the pile/inclusion response considering systems with and
without interface elements.

The interface elements in Flac3D are presented by triangular components each one defined by three
nodes and are modeled as spring-slider systems as illustrated in Fig. 3.10a. The absolute normal
penetration and the relative shear velocity are calculated for each interface node and its contacting
target face during each time step. Then these values are utilized by the interface constitutive model to
calculate a normal and a shear force vector. The constitutive model of the interfaces is defined by a
linear Coulomb shear-strength criterion that limits the shear force acting at an interface node, normal
and shear stiffnesses (𝑘𝑛 and 𝑘𝑠), tensile and shear bond strengths (𝑇𝑠 and 𝑆𝑠) and a dilatation angle
(𝜓) that causes an increase in effective normal force on the target face after the shear-strength limit is
reached (Fig. 3.10b).

In the elastic stage, the normal and shear forces at the calculation time 𝑡 + Δ𝑡 are given by the Eqs.
3.17 and 3.18.

…………………………3.17

…….3.18

Where F𝑛(𝑡+Δt) is the normal force at time (𝑡 + Δ𝑡), 𝑘𝑛 is the normal stiffness, 𝑢𝑛 is
the absolute normal penetration of the interface node into the target face, 𝐴 is the representative area
associated with the interface node, 𝜎𝑛 is the additional normal stress added due to interface stress
initialization. In the Eq. 3.18, F𝑠𝑖 (𝑡+Δt) is the shear force vector at time (𝑡 + Δ𝑡), 𝑘𝑠 is the shear
stiffness, Δ𝑢𝑠𝑖 is the incremental relative shear displacements vector, 𝜎𝑠𝑖 is the additional shear stress
vector due to the interface stress initialization.
Fig. 3.10 Interfaces in Flac3D

As recommended by Itasca (2012) the normal and shear stiffness of the interface elements are set
ten times the equivalent stiffness of the neighboring zone expressed by Eq. 3.19.

…..3.19

where K is the bulk moduli, G is the shear moduli, ∆𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the smallest width of an adjoining zone in
the normal direction. The values given by Eq. 3.19 are large enough to avoid the normal penetration
and detachment on the pile-soil interface as suggested by Fan et al. (2007) and Rayhani and El Naggar
(2008). Other authors suggested that the value of k𝑛 should be on the order of 108 N/m³. Some
authors (Wu et al. 2016, Xie et al. 2013) state that to correctly simulate the soil-pile interface, a larger
value of kn should be selected. However, the increment of this value is closely related to the time step
in Flac3D, which induces an increase of the time calculation.

In the perfectly plastic stage, three types of contact states of the interface are allowed: the bonded
interface, slip while bonded and the Coulomb sliding state. The yields relationships in the shear and
normal directions are given by Eqs. 3.20 and 3.21.

…..3.20

…..3.21

where F
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum shear strength, 𝑐 is the cohesion of the interface, 𝜙 is the friction
angle of the interface, 𝐹𝑛 is the normal force, 𝑝 is the pore pressure and 𝜎𝑡 is the normal tensile
strength of the interface. The values of the Eqs. 3.20 and 3.21 are automatically set to zero once gap is
formed between the soil and the rigid elements and uplift between the foundation slab and soil.

1.5.1.1 Behavior of Shear Coupling Springs

The shear behavior of the pile/grid interface is represented as a spring-slider system at the pile
nodal points. The shear behavior of the interface during relative displacement between the pile
nodes and the grid is described numerically by the coupling spring shear stiffness (cs -sstiff in
Figure 1.46(b)) – i.e.,

where: Fs = shear force that develops in the shear coupling spring (i.e., along the interface
between the pile element and the grid);

cssstiff = coupling spring shear stiffness (cs sstiff);

up = axial displacement of the pile;

um = axial displacement of the medium (soil or rock); and

L = contributing element length.

Figure 2: Shear-directional material behavior for pile elements.

Figure 1.46 Material behavior of shear coupling spring for pile elements
The maximum shear force that can be developed along the pile/grid interface is a function of the
cohesive strength of the interface and the stress-dependent frictional resistance along the
interface.
The following relation is used to determine the maximum shear force per length of the pile:

where: csscoh = cohesive strength of the shear coupling spring (cs scoh);
σ c = mean effective confining stress normal to the pile element;
cssfric = friction angle of the shear coupling spring (cs sfric); and
perimeter = exposed perimeter of the element (perimeter).
The mean effective confining stress normal to the element is defined by the equation

Where: p = pore pressure;

= out-of-plane stress; and
 = σxx n2 1 + σyy n2 2 + 2 σxy n1 n2,
ni = unit vectors as defined in Eq. (1.4).
The limiting shear-force relation is depicted by the diagram in Figure 1.46(a). The input
properties are shown in bold type on this figure.

The same interpolation scheme as that employed for the cable elements is used to calculate the
displacement of the grid in the pile axial direction at the pile node.

1.5.1.2 Behavior of Normal Coupling Springs

The normal behavior of the pile/grid interface is represented by a linear spring with a limiting
normal force that is dependent on the direction of movement of the pile node. The normal
behavior during the relative normal displacement between the pile nodes and the grid is
described numerically by the coupling spring normal stiffness (cs nstiff in Figure 1.47(b)) – i.e.,

where: Fn = normal force that develops in the normal coupling spring

(i.e., along the interface between the pile element and the grid);

= coupling spring normal stiffness (cs nstiff);

= displacement of the pile normal to the axial direction of the pile;

= displacement of the medium (soil or rock) normal to the axial direction of the pile; and
L = contributing element length.

2.4.3 Soil-Pile Interface

Soil-pile interface modeling also contributes to the behavior of the soil-pile system. The soil-pile
interfaces are usually modeled either as a perfectly bonded interface or as a frictional
interface where soil-pile slipping and gapping may occur. In reality, the interface should be
modeled to incorporate slipping and gapping. However, due to the high computational time and
convergence problems, researchers consider a perfect bonding, if the problem to be analyzed is
not dependent on slipping and gapping.

Due to the different properties of the soil and the rigid elements (piles/inclusions), sliding and
separation may occur at the soil-pile interfaces (Maheshwari and Watanabe 2006). The interface
elements in Flac3D are able to simulate the slip and detachment of these contact surfaces.

In FLAC3D, the interface element is characterized by Coulomb sliding and/or tensile separation.
Parameters include friction, cohesion, dilation, tensile strength, normal and shear stiffness values, (Kn
and Ks) and should be assigned to the interface elements.It is recommended that the lowest stiffness
consistent with small interface deformation must be used. A good rule-of-thumb is that Kn and
Ks be set to ten times the equivalent stiffness of the stiffest neighboring zone:

An interface is represented as normal and shear stiffness between two planes which may contact
each other (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1a. An interface represented by sides a and b, connected by shear (ks) and normal (kn)
stiffness springs b. Figure 1: Zone dimension used in stiffness calculation

The code keeps a list of the gridpoints (i,j) that lie on each side of any particular surface. Each
point is taken in turn and checked for contact with its closest neighboring point on the opposite
side of the interface. Referring to Figure 5.1, gridpoint N is checked for contact on the segment
between gridpoints M and P. If contact is detected, the normal vector, n, to the contact gridpoint,
N, is computed. A “length,” L, is also defined for the contact at N along the interface. This length
is equal to half the distance to the nearest gridpoint to the left of N plus half the distance to the
nearest gridpoint to the right, irrespective of whether the neighboring gridpoint is on the same
side of the interface or on the opposite side of N. In this way, the entire interface is divided into
contiguous segments, each controlled by a gridpoint.

The incremental relative displacement vector at the contact point is resolved into the normal and
shear directions, and total normal and shear forces are determined by

…….
 ……….

where the stiffnesses, kn and ks, have the units of [stress/displacement].

where K & G are the bulk and shear moduli, respectively, and Z min is the smallest dimension of an
adjoining zone in the normal direction as shown in figure (b. Figure 1: Zone dimension used in stiffness
calculation).

The following three options are available for specifying the conditions of the interface which
may require adjustment of the contact forces.

1. Glued Interfaces – If interfaces are declared glued, no slip or opening is allowed, but
elastic displacement still occurs, according to the given stiffnesses.
2. Coulomb Shear-Strength – The Coulomb shear-strength criterion limits the
shear force by the following relation:

….. 5.3

where c = cohesion (in stress units) along the interface, L = effective contact
length (Figure 5.1), and φ = friction angle of interface surfaces.

If the criterion is satisfied (i.e., if |Fs| ≥ Fsmax), then Fs = Fsmax, with the sign of shear
preserved.

In addition, the interface may dilate at the onset of slip (nonelastic sliding).
Dilation is governed in the Coulomb model by a specified dilation angle, ψ.
Dilation is a function of the direction of shearing. Dilation increases if the shear
displacement increment is in the same direction as the total shear displacement,
and decreases if the shear increment is in the opposite direction.
During sliding, shear displacement can cause an increase in the effective normal stress on
the interface, according to the relation

…….. 5.4
Where |Fs|0 is the magnitude of shear force before the above correction is
made.
 3. Tension Bond – Two conditions are available for a bonded interface:

a. Bonded interface – If a (positive) tensile bond strength is specified

for an interface, each segment of the interface acts as if it is glued
(elastic response only), while the magnitude of the tensile normal
stress is below the bond strength. If the magnitude of the tensile normal stress of a
segment exceeds the bond strength (set with tbond),
the bond breaks for that segment, and the segment behaves thereafter as un-bonded
(separation and slip allowed, as described above,
in the normal way).

A shear bond strength, as well as the tensile bond strength, can be

specified. The bond breaks if the shear stress exceeds the shear bond
strength, or the tensile effective normal stress exceeds the normal
bond strength. The shear bond strength is set to sbr times the normal
bond strength, using the sbratio= sbr property keyword. The default
shear bond strength is 100 times the tensile bond strength.

b. Slip while bonded – There is an optional switch (bslip=on) that

allows slip to occur for a bonded interface segment, even though
separation has not occurred. Shear yield is under the control of the
friction and cohesion parameters, using the absolute value of the
effective normal force. Note that dilation response is suppressed
(i.e., ψ = 0) when bslip=on. By default, bslip=off if not specified.

The corrected forces are then rotated back to the global xy-reference frame (from the normal and
shear directions) and lumped onto the adjacent gridpoints in such a ratio as to preserve moment
equilibrium. These are then summed with all other forces when unbalanced force sums are
calculated for each calculation step.
Figure 1.47 Material behavior of normal coupling spring for pile elements

A limiting normal force can be prescribed to simulate the localized three-dimensional effect of
the pile pushing through the grid (e.g., a soil being squeezed around a single pile). The limiting
force is a function of a normal cohesive strength and a stress-dependent frictional resistance
between the pile and the grid. The following relation is used to determine the maximum normal
force per length of the pile:

Where:

csncoh = cohesive strength of the normal coupling spring (cs ncoh),which is dependent on the
direction of loading;

σc = mean effective confining stress normal to the pile element;

csnfric = friction angle of the normal coupling spring (cs nfric); and

perimeter = exposed perimeter of the element (perimeter).

The mean effective confining stress normal to the element is defined by Eq. (1.35).
The limiting normal-force relation is shown in the diagram in Figure 1.47(a). The cohesive
strength is defined by two property keywords (cs ncoh and cs nten). The value that will be used
in Eq. (1.37) depends on the direction of motion of the pile node. Conceptually, a single normal
spring is considered to be located at each pile node. Positive normal motion is defined to be to
the left when facing along the pile element in the direction of node n to node n+1. The sign
convention is shown in Figure 1.48. Displacement of the node in the positive normal direction is
considered as a positive displacement with the spring in compression, and cs ncoh is used;
displacement in the negative normal direction is considered as a negative displacement with the
spring in tension, and cs nten is used. The dual cohesion parameters are useful for cases in which
different conditions exist on both sides of the pile (e.g., the pile acts as a retaining wall). If cs
nten is not specified, then its value defaults to that for cs ncoh, and the response is the same for
normal movement in either direction.

Figure 1.48 Sign convention for compressive strength of normal coupling

springs