Review of

Basics
Prime movers
prime mover
The primary source of power

Before gas turbines

Three principal competitors in the field of prime movers were there
(i) the steam turbine plant,
bulky and expensive steam-generating equipment
(ii) the diesel piston engine, and
Diesel piston engines started replacing bulky steam power
plants for power generation
(iii) the gasoline piston engine. Gasoline engines were used in early
days for aircraft propulsion.
Gas turbines

Of the various means of producing

mechanical power available today the gas
turbine, in many respects, seems to be the
most satisfactory power plant.

It is mainly due to
(i) the absence of reciprocating and rubbing
members which reduces the
vibration and balancing problems,
(ii) high reliability,
(iii) low lubricating-oil consumption, and
(iv) high power-to-weight ratio
Review of basic principles
INTRODUCTION

Turbines and compressors are usually analyzed using thermodynamic and fluid dynamic equations.

The thermodynamic equations relate temperature, pressure and volume whereas the fluid dynamic equations
relate force, mass and velocity.

The following are the laws that are frequently

used in dealing with problems of and operation of these machines:

(i) energy equation in its various forms from the first law of thermodynamics,
(ii) temperature, entropy and gas relations from the second law of thermodynamics,
(iii) continuity relationships from the law of conservation of mass, and
(iv) momentum equation from Newton’s second law of motion.
Laws of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of First Law of Thermodynamics Second Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics Law of conservation of energy: The second law of thermodynamics
If A is in equilibrium with B Energy neither created nor destroyed but can be stated in a number of ways.
and C can convert from one form to the other Some of them are as follows:
Then B and C are also in (i) Clausius statement
equilibrium
Heat cannot flow from low to high
This law serves as a basis for temperature.
the (ii) Kelvin-Planck’s statement
validity of temperature It is impossible to construct a heat
measurement. engine
which performs a complete cycle
and delivers work exchanging heat
from a single source.
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
system: A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.

Surroundings:
The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.

Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the

system from its surroundings is called the boundary.
• boundary has zero thickness,
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
 system: A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study.
Types of system

Open system: Closed system: Isolated system.

closed system is also known as a control mass.
An open system, is also called
A closed system consists of a fixed amount of In isolated system both mass
control volume,
mass. no mass can enter or leave a closed system. and energy are not allowed to
Both mass and energy can cross the
But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross cross the boundary.
boundary of an open system
the boundary
Thermodynamic properties
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.

Intensive properties are independent of the mass of a system,
Example: temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties are depend on the mass of the system.
Example: Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties.

1lit Density =mass/volume 1kg/1lit 1

½ lit = mass/volume 0.5kg/0.5lit 1
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
State:
At a given state, all the properties of a system have
fixed values.

If the value of even one property changes, the state

will change to a different one.

In Fig. 1–23 a system is shown at two different states.

 Equilibrium
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.

There are many types of equilibrium,

thermal equilibrium
Mechanical equilibrium
chemical equilibrium

• If a system involves no temperature change then it is in thermal equilibrium

• If a system involves no change in pressure then it is in mechanical equilibrium
• If a system involves no chemical composition change then it is in chemical equilibrium.

Note: A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the relevant equilibrium criteria are
satisfied.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to
another is called a process,
and the series of states through which
a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process
State
A State 1
B state 2

Process
A-B path of the process 1
B-A path of the process 2

Cycle
A-B-A
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final
states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions
with the surroundings.

Quasistatic process (very slow process)

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasistatic, or quasi-
equilibrium, process.

A quasi-equilibrium process can be

viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself
internally so that properties in one part of the system do not change any
faster than those at other parts.
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct
forms:
heat and work
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two
systems by virtue of a temperature difference

The direction of heat energy transfer is always from the

higher temperature body to the lower temperature one

A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic

process

The amount of heat transferred during the process between

two states (states 1 and 2) is denoted byQ, 12 or just Q. Heat transfer per

unit mass of a system is denoted q and is determined from

Specific heat
The specific heat of a gas is the heat carrying capacity in a process.
two types of specific heats are there

1) Specific heat at constant-volume, 2) Specific heat at constant-pressure.

the amount of heat required the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one
gas by one degree at constant volume. degree at constant pressure .

The ratio of the two specific heats, (γ), is an important parameter in compressible flow problems of
turbomachines and is defined as
The two specific heats and the gas constant for an ideal gas are
related by the following equation:
Internal Energy
The internal energy of a gas is the energy stored in it by virtue of its
molecular motion.
it is assumed that the internal energy of a perfect gas is zero at the
absolute zero temperature

Enthalpy
The heat supplied to a system or rejected by a system at constant-pressure is the
change of enthalpy during the process.
Reversible Process
A process is reversible if the system and its
surroundings can be restored to their initial
states by reversing the process. A reversible
process in a flow machine is possible only in
the absence of fluid friction and heat transfer
with finite temperature difference.
Since these conditions are impossible to
achieve in actual processes, all real flows in
compressors and turbines are irreversible.
The reversible process is used only as an ideal
reference process for comparison with its
equivalent actual process.

Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is one which does not satisfy
the above conditions of reversibility.
Adiabatic Process
During a process if there is no heat transfer between the system
and the surroundings, it is known as an adiabatic process. All
the rotating machines discussed in this book are assumed to
follow only adiabatic processes.

Isentropic Process
An adiabatic process in which entropy remains constant is
known as a reversibly adiabatic or isentropic process. For unit
mass, this is governed by the following relations:
Non-flow Process
A process that occurs in a closed system is a non-flow
process. One such example is shown in Fig. It represents the
expansion of a fixed mass of gas inside the cylinders of a
reciprocating engine.

Flow Process
A process that occurs in an open system or in a control
volume is a flow process. Processes occurring in all
turbomachines are of this type.
Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete
description of a heat or work interaction requires the specification
of both the magnitude and direction.

One way of doing that is to adopt a sign convention.

The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows:
heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are
positive;
heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.
Another way is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate direction
As shown in figure

Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.

Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at
a state. Both are path functions
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear,
The sum of all the energies is called total energy E of a system.
The total energy of a system is divided in to two groups:
macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy

Total energy E = macroscopic forms of energy + microscopic forms of energy

Total energy E =(kinetic energy +potential energy)+(internal energy U)
E =KE+ PE + U
E =1/2mv2+mgz + U

The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is

called the internal energy of a system and is denoted
by U It is related to the molecular structure and the
degree of molecular activity and can be viewed as the
sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the
molecules
The Steady flow energy equation

In
System work

out
FLUID DYNAMICS
The analysis of flow in turbomachines requires the application of Newton’s
second law of motion along with the equations of continuity and energy

The application of Newton’s second law of motion provides the equations

of motion which are also known as Euler’s momentum equations.

Fluid
A fluid is a substance which gets deformed continuously when shearing
forces are applied. Liquids, gases and vapors are all fluids. A non-viscous
or inviscid fluid is referred to as an ideal fluid.

Fluid Velocity
The instantaneous velocity of the fluid particle passing through a point is
known as the fluid velocity at that point.

Streamline
A curve in a flow field which is always tangential to the direction of flow is
referred to as a streamline.
Stream Tube
It is a collection of a number of streamlines forming an imaginary tube.
There is no flow through the walls of a stream tube. The properties of the flow
are constant across the section of a stream tube. Therefore, the flow in a stream tube is one-dimensional.
Incompressible Flow
If the relative change in the density of a fluid in a process is negligible, it
is referred to as an incompressible process. In such a flow (or process) the
fluid velocity is much smaller than the local velocity of sound in it. The
flow of gases and vapors at Mach numbers less than 0.30 can be assumed
to be incompressible without much sacrifice in accuracy.
Compressible Flow
In compressible flows the relative changes in the fluid density are considerable and cannot be neglected. The fluid
velocities in such flows are appreciable compared to the local velocity of sound. If the Mach number in
a flow is higher than 0.3, it is considered to be compressible.
Steady Flow
A flow is known to be steady if its properties do not change with time.
Unsteady Flow
If one or more parameters (c, p, T, ρ, m etc) in a flow change with time, it
is known as unsteady flow.
Viscosity

Viscosity is the property which resists the shearing motion of two adjacent
layers of the fluid.
A fluid is known as a Newtonian fluid if the relation between the shear
stress and the angular deformation is linear. The shear stress is given by

The constant of proportionality, μ, is known as the coefficient of viscosity

or dynamic viscosity.
The kinematic viscosity, ν, is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity and the
density of the fluid.

All real flows experience fluid viscosity.

Therefore, their behaviour is influenced by the viscous forces.

Inviscid Flow
If the viscosity of the fluid is assumed to be absent, the flow is referred
to as inviscid flow. Such a flow glides freely over its boundaries without
experiencing viscous forces.
Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces.

Mach Number
The Mach number is an index of the ratio of inertia and elastic
forces. This is defined by
(i) Impulse Machine
In impulse machines there is no change of static pressure in the rotor.

Therefore these machines have a degree of reaction (R) equal to zero.

In the case of a turbine of this type the
energy transfer is wholly effected by a jet of fluid striking the blade.

(ii) Reaction Machine The reaction principle is best illustrated by rocket

propulsion or ordinary lawn sprinkler.

In a pure reaction machine, R = 1, all energy transfer occurs by virtue of change of static
pressure in the rotor.
A reaction of unity for a compressor means that the fluid
enters and leaves with the same absolute velocity.
ELEMENTARY AIRFOIL THEORY
Aerofoil shapes are used for aircraft wing sections and the blades of various turbomachines.
In order to achieve a high lift-to-drag ratio, the
leading edge is rounded and the blade section is
tapered towards the thin trailing edge.

To obtain further increase in the value of L/D, the

blade is slightly curved, thus giving a curved
camber line.
It may be seen here that such a blade approaches a
cambered aerofoil shape.
principle of jet propulsion
• The principle of jet propulsion is obtained from the application of Newton’s laws of motion.

• the working of jet propulsion is based on the reaction principle.

• Thus all devices that move through fluids must follow this basic principle.

• In principle, any fluid can be used to achieve the jet propulsion.

• Thus water, steam or combustion gases can be used to propel a body in a fluid.

• But there are limitations in the choice of the fluid when the bodies are to be propelled in the atmosphere.

• Experience shows that only two types of fluids are particularly suitable for jet propulsion.
(i) A heated and compressed atmospheric air – admixed with the products of combustion produced
by burning fuel in that air can be used for jet propulsion.

(ii) The thermochemical energy of the fuel is utilized

for increasing the temperature of the air to the desired value.

(iii) The jet of this character is called a thermal jet and the jet propulsion engine
using atmospheric air is called air breathing engines.
(ii) Another class of jet-propulsion engines use a jet of gas produced by the
chemical reactions of fuel and oxidizer.
Each of them is carried with the system itself.
The fuel-oxidant mixture is called the propellant.
No atmospheric air is used for the formation of the jet. But the oxidant in the
propellant is used for generating the thermal jet.
A jet produced in this way is known as rocket jet and the equipment
wherein the chemical reaction takes place is called a rocket motor.
The complete unit including the propellant is called a rocket engine.
 From the above discussion it is clear that jet-propulsion engines may be classified
broadly into two groups.
(i) air breathing engines and
(ii) rocket engines
In this chapter, we will discuss the air breathing engines.
Air breathing engines can be further classified as follows:
(i) reciprocating or propeller engines
(ii) gas turbine engines.
RECIPROCATING OR PROPELLER ENGINES
In early days, the source of power for an air breathing engine was a reciprocating internal combustion engine which used
to drive a propeller connected to it.
Further development resulted in the use of highly supercharged and turbocharged engines.
All these engines were gasoline engines.
Diesel engines in spite of their good fuel economy and reliability was not used due to higher weight.
For small aircraft flying at velocities less than about 500 km/h reciprocating engine is in an enviable position due to its
excellent fuel economy and good take-off characteristics.
However, due to comparatively large drop in power with altitude operation and the need of using high octane fuels,
along
with the difficult cooling and lubrication problems, high weight/power ratio, and larger frontal area these are being replaced by
turbojets in higher speed ranges.

Rapid developments in design of turbojet and turboprop engines have started.

They are nearing the specific fuel consumption value of reciprocating engines.

Still the reciprocating engine is likely to be used for small aircraft needing only a few hundred kilowatts both because of good take o
characteristics and due to difficulties in the development of smaller gas turbine engines giving reasonable fuel economy and cost.

However, the use of reciprocating engines is continuously on the decline

because its development has reached almost a saturation stage as far as
maximum power is concerned.

The demand of present day aircraft, in terms of high flight speeds, long distance travels and high load carrying capacities, is soaring
to new heights.

A power output more than 4000 kW is difficult to obtain without modifications in the present reciprocating engine power plant.

The output can be increased by increasing the cylinder sizes, installing large number of cylinders or by running the engine at higher
speeds.
Unfortunately all these methods of raising the output of the engine increase the engine size, frontal
area of the aircraft, complexity and cost of the plant.
The drag of the plane will also increase to critical values with increase in engine size. Hence, for
aircraft propulsion, gas turbine engines are the ideal power plant.
7.2 GAS TURBINE ENGINES
World War II was the turning point for the development of gas turbine
technology. All modern aircrafts are fitted with gas turbines. Gas turbine
engines can be classified into
(i) ramjet engines,
(ii) pulse jet engines,
(iii) turbojet engines,
(iv) turboprop engines, and
(v) turbofan engines.
Taken in the above order they provide propulsive jets of increasing mass
flow and decreasing jet velocity. Therefore, in that order, it will be seen that
ramjet can be used for highest cruising speed whereas the turboprop engine
will be useful for the lower cruising speed at low altitudes. In practice, the
choice of the power plant will depend on the required cruising speed, desired
range of the aircraft and maximum rate of climb.
The details of various gas turbine engines mentioned above are discussed
under two categories:
(i) pilotless operation, and (ii) piloted operation.
The ramjet and pulse jet engines come under the category of pilotless operation
whereas the turboprop and turbojet engines are used for piloted operation.