ABES ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PROGRAM # B. TECH.

Even Semester: 2023 – 2024

Subject Name: Power Electronics

Subject Code: KEE603

Notes

Unit-2
DC-DC Converters

CO-2: Upon the completion of the course, the student will be able to comprehend the non-
isolated DC-DC converters and apply their use in different Power electronics applications.

Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma (Associate Professor, EN)

Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

Unit - 2
DC-DC Converters
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DC-DC Converters: Introduction, Control Strategies, Buck converter, Boost Converter,
Buck-Boost converter, Analysis of buck converter, Switched Mode power Supply
(SMPS).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

• Chopper is a basically static power electronics device that converts fixed DC

voltage/power to variable DC voltage or power.
• It is nothing but a high-speed switch that connects and disconnects the load from the source
at a high rate to get variable or chopped voltage at the output.

• Devices used in Chopper

➢ For Low power application: GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, Power MOSFET or IGBT.
➢ For High power application: Thyristor or SCR.
➢ These devices are represented as a switch in a dotted box for simplicity. When it is
closed current can flow in the direction of arrow only.

2.1. Types of Chopper

(a) Based on the average DC output voltage of chopper:

1. Step-down chopper
2. Step-up chopper

2
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

(b) On the basis of quadrant operation:

1. Class-A chopper,
2. Class-B chopper,
3. Class-C chopper,
4. Class-D chopper
5. Class-E chopper.

2.1.1 Principle of Chopper Operation (Step-down Chopper)

• A chopper can be said as a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. Source to load
connection and disconnection from load to source happens in a rapid speed.
• A Step-down chopper is a static device that step downs its DC input voltage. The value
of average output DC voltage of this chopper is less than that of its fixed DC input
source voltage. This type of chopper is more common.
• To get the variable DC voltage, we will switch ON and OFF the chopper CH at some
frequency called the chopping frequency (f).

Working Principle:

Case-1: When Switch/chopper is switched ON

• When SW (or CH) is switched ON, the source is directly connected to load and hence
the output voltage Vo becomes equal to Vs. The time period for which chopper is kept
ON is called ON Time of chopper and represented by TON. Thus, Vo will be equal to Vs
for time TON.
• Free-wheeling diode (D) is reversed biased during TON, hence it doesn’t come into
circuit during this period.
• During the ON period of chopper, the current will build in the load exponentially and
will reach its maximum value at the end of TON (It is assumed that TON is less than the
time required for load current to reach its steady state value). This, simply means that
the maximum value of load current io will be less than the steady state value.
• For a small time period, the exponential rise of current may be approximated to the
linear rise.

Case-2: When Switch/chopper is switched OFF

3
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

• When chopper is switched OFF, the load is disconnected from the source Vs and hence
load voltage Vo will be ZERO during the entire period for with switch is OFF. The time
for which chopper is kept OFF is known as OFF time and represented by TOFF.
• As soon as the CH is switched OFF, the current through the inductor L (io) cannot
suddenly drop to zero. Rather, it starts decreasing and hence the polarity of induced emf
across the inductor reverses.
• This induced emf of inductor makes free-wheeling diode forward biased and hence,
free-wheeling diode (D) acts as a short during TOFF. Thus, the load current continues to
decay through inductor L, free-wheeling diode D and load even though the source Vs is
disconnected.
• The load current reaches its minimum value during OFF time and then CH is again
switched ON.

The formula for Average DC Output Voltage of step-down chopper is shown below.
𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑉0 = 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑉0 = 𝑉
𝑇 𝑠

𝑉0 = 𝛼𝑉𝑠

Where, α = Duty cycle = (TON / T)

T = TON +TOFF
Chopper frequency f = 1/T
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔, 𝜶 = 𝑰𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏 𝒔𝒐 𝑽𝟎 < 𝑽𝒔

The load voltage depends on two factors.

• The supply voltage
• The duty cycle of the chopper

4
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.1.2 Output Voltage Control Techniques of Chopper

1. Time Ratio Control (TRC) Method
2. Current Limit Control.
(1) Time Ratio Control (TRC) Method:
(A) Constant Frequency System
(B) Variable Frequency System.
(A) Constant Frequency System or Pulse Width Modulation Technique:
➢ In this technique, the time period of chopper is maintained constant and a change
in the duty cycle is achieved by changing the TON period.
➢ Since, time period is constant, the chopping frequency will be constant, hence this
scheme is called a constant frequency system.
➢ Changing TON leads to change in duty cycle “α” and hence output voltage Vo.
➢ Ideally α can be varied from ZERO to UNITY. Therefore, output voltage Vo can
be controlled from ZERO to source voltage Vs.

Vo = (Vs/4) = 25% of Vs

TON = (3T/4). Duty cycle from this waveform is, therefore, (3/4). This simply means
that, the output voltage Vo will be 75% of the input source voltage Vs.

(B) Variable Frequency System or Frequency Modulation Scheme:

➢ In this scheme, the chopping frequency is varied (hence, chopping time period T)
either by maintaining ON time TON or OFF time TOFF. Therefore, the duty cycle of
chopper is varied.

5
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

• In the first figure, TON = T/4 so that duty cycle α = 0.25. Therefore, the output voltage
Vo will become 0.25Vs from (1).
• In the lower diagram, TON = 3T/4 so that duty cycle α = 0.75. Therefore, the output
voltage will become 0.75Vs
Disadvantage of Frequency Modulation Scheme:

• The chopping frequency has to be varied over a wide range for control of output
voltage in frequency modulation. Filter design for such wide frequency variation is
quite difficult.
• A wide frequency variation is required for control of the chopper duty cycle.
Therefore, there is always a chance of interference with signaling and telephone lines
in frequency modulation scheme.
• The large off time in this scheme may make the load current discontinuous which is
undesirable.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) scheme is better than the variable frequency scheme.
However, the PWM technique has a limitation. In PWM, the ON period can not be reduced
near to zero. Therefore, a low range of duty cycle is not achievable in this technique.
However, this can be achieved by increasing the chopping period or decreasing the
chopping frequency of the chopper.

(2) Current Limit Control Technique:

• In this method, the ON and OFF time of chopper circuit is governed by the previously
set value of load current.
• The chopper is switched ON when the load current reaches the minimum set value and it
is switched OFF when load current becomes equal to the maximum set value.
• The duty cycle is adjusted in such a way that load current never becomes discontinuous.
• The value of ripple content is equal to (Iomax – Iomin).
• To reduce this ripple content, the chopping frequency has to be increased which in turn
lead to more switching losses.

6
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

• Current limit control involves feedback loop, the trigger circuitry for the chopper is,
therefore, more complex.

2.1.3 Step-up Chopper or Boost Converter

Step-up chopper is a static device whose average output DC voltage is greater than its input
DC voltage.
Working Principle of Step-up Chopper:

(a) Switch ON Period:

• When chopper (CH) is switched ON, the current will flow through the closed path
formed by supply source Vs, inductor L and chopper CH.
• During this period, no current will flow through the load. Only source current is will
flow and the value of load current io will be ZERO during the ON period.

7
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

• Also, during the TON period, energy is stored in the inductor L. This energy storage
in L is essential to boost the load output voltage above the source voltage. Therefore,
a large value of L is essential in a step-up chopper.

Vo = 0

(c) Switch OFF period:

• When the chopper CH is switched OFF, the current through the L cannot die instantaneously
rather it decays exponentially. Due to this behavior of L, it will force the current through the
diode D and load for the entire time period TOFF.
• Since, the current through the inductor L tends to decrease, the polarity of the emf
induced in inductor L is reversed as shown in above figure.
• As a result, the voltage across the load becomes equal to the sum of source voltage
and emf induced in inductor. Thus, the output voltage exceeds the source voltage Vs.
Vo = Vs + L(di/dt)

• When chopper is switched OFF, the source current starts decreasing from its peak value
I2 to least value I1. Thus, the current through the inductor decreases from I2 to I1 during
the OFF period. Since, load only comes into circuit during the OFF period, it may be
said that, load current decreases from I2 to I1 during OFF time.

Output voltage and current waveforms:

8
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

The average value of current flowing through load and inductor are same and equal to (I1+I2)/2.

Calculation of Output Voltage:

The energy is stored in L during chopper ON time.

𝑾𝒊𝒏 = (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑳)(𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝑳). 𝑻𝒐𝒏

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝑾𝒊𝒏 = (𝑽𝒔 ) ( ) . 𝑻𝒐𝒏
𝟐
When the chopper is switched OFF, this stored energy is transferred to the load.

𝑾𝒐𝒇𝒇 = (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑳)(𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝑳). 𝑻𝒐𝒇𝒇

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝑾𝒐𝒇𝒇 = (𝑽𝑶 − 𝑽𝒔 ) ( ) . 𝑻𝒐𝒇𝒇
𝟐
Consider the system to be lossless:
𝐼 +𝐼2 𝐼 +𝐼
(𝑉𝑠 ) ( 1 ) . 𝑇𝑜𝑛 = (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑠 ) ( 1 2 2 ) . 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
2

(𝑉𝑠 ). 𝑇𝑜𝑛 = (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑠 ). 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝑉𝑠 . 𝑇𝑜𝑛 =𝑉𝑂 . 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 − 𝑉𝑠 . 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

9
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚, 𝜶 = 𝑰𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝟎 & 𝟏 𝒔𝒐 𝑽𝟎 > 𝑽𝒔

2.1.4 Buck/Boost Converter (Step-down/Step-down)

The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter, that has an output voltage
magnitude which is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. The output
voltage of the magnitude depends on the duty cycle.
A typical Buck-Boost converter is shown below.

10
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

Mode I : Switch is ON, Diode is R.B (OFF)

• The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally offering zero resistance
to the flow of current so when the switch is ON all the current will flow through the
switch and the inductor and back to the DC input source.
• The inductor stores charge during the time the switch is ON.
Mode II : Switch is OFF, Diode is ON
• In this mode the polarity of the inductor is reversed and the energy stored in the inductor
is released and is ultimately dissipated in the load resistance and this helps to maintain
the flow of current in the same direction through the load and also step-up the output
voltage as the inductor is now also acting as a source in conjunction with the input
source.

𝜶
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒔 .
𝟏−𝜶

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟓, 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒔
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝟎 < 𝜶 < 𝟎. 𝟓, 𝑽𝟎 < 𝑽𝒔 It operates as a step-down chopper.
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟓 < 𝜶 < 𝟏, 𝑽𝟎 > 𝑽𝒔 It operates as a step-up chopper.

11
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.2 Types of DC chopper Circuits:

A chopper can work in any of the four quadrants, we can classify chopper circuits according
to their working in any of these four quadrants as:
1. First-Quadrant or Type-A chopper
2. Second-Quadrant or Type-B chopper
3. Two-Quadrant Type-A chopper or Type-C chopper
4. Two-Quadrant Type-B chopper or Type-D chopper
5. Four-Quadrant chopper or Type-E chopper

2.2.1 First-Quadrant or Type-A chopper

Class-A or Type-A chopper is defined as the chopper in which the direction of power flow is
always from source to load. The operation of this chopper is always in first quadrant.

When chopper CH is ON:

• The current flows from source to load and voltage across the load is equal to the source
voltage. The direction of flow of current is shown using arrow. We assume the shown
direction of voltage and current as positive. Thus, the output voltage Vo and Io both are
positive when chopper is ON.
When chopper CH is switched OFF:
• The load gets disconnected from the supply. However, the flow of current to the load
continues due to the presence of inductor L. The current through the inductor decreases
during the OFF period and hence the polarity of induced emf across it is reversed from
what shown in the circuit diagram. This makes free-wheeling diode forward biased and
hence the load current continues to flow through free-wheeling diode (D), L and load.
The direction of flow of load current is still the same as that was during the ON
condition. This means, the Io is positive. The value of load voltage becomes ZERO
during the OFF time of chopper.
Thus, we see that the average value of load voltage and load current is always positive from
the step-down chopper.

2.2.1.1 Steady-state Time-Domain Analysis of Type-A Chopper / Buck

Converter
The object of this analysis is to study the type-A chopper with RLE load for current variation
over T, current ripple and also for the Fourier analysis of output voltage. For RLE type load, E
is the load voltage which may be a de motor or a battery.

12
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

• When chopper CH is ON:

For :- (1)
• When chopper CH is OFF:

(2)

Type-A chopper (a) continuous load current and (b) discontinuous load current

Solution of Eqs. (1) and (2) may be obtained by the use of Laplace transform. It is
seen from Fig. (a) that initial value of current is Imn for Eq. (1) and Imx for Eq. (2).
Therefore, Laplace transform of Eqs. (1) and (1) is

(3)

(4)

13
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

From Eqn (3)

Laplace inverse of above eqn:

(5)
Similarly, the time-domain expression for current from Eq. (4) is

(6)

Where.
In eqn (5),

(7)
In eqn (6),

(8)

By using Eqn (7) and (8)

and

Steady State Ripple:

14
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

As
Then,

Fourier Analysis of Output Voltage:

The maximum value of nth harmonic occurs when sin nπα = 1 and its value is

AC ripple voltage, Vr

15
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.2.2 Second-Quadrant or Type-B chopper

Class-B or Type-B chopper is defined as the chopper in which the direction of power flow is
always from load to source.
The operation of this chopper is confined in the second quadrant. This is the reason; it is also
known as Second Quadrant Chopper. In second quadrant chopper, the output voltage is positive
but the load current is negative all the time. Class-B or Type-B chopper is also known as Step-
up chopper. It should be noted that load must contain a DC source (E) in Class-B / Type-B
chopper.

When chopper CH is ON:

• The load voltage or output voltage vo becomes zero. But, load voltage E drives current
through inductor L and CH. During this ON period of chopper, the inductor stores
energy in it.
• It may be noted that diode D is reversed biased during ON time and hence the load is
disconnected from the source.

When chopper CH is switched OFF:

• The load gets connected from the supply source Vs. However, due to the presence
of inductor L, the current cannot be reversed suddenly. Rather, the current through
inductor must die down before the current gets reversed. During this time when
current is decaying through the inductor, the current io flows from load to source.
In fact, the voltage across the load Vo = E + Ldi/dt which is more than the source
voltage. This is the reason; this type of chopper is also called step-up chopper.
• This voltage (E + Ldi/dt) makes the diode D forward biased and hence the current
starts to flow from load to source. Hence, power flows from load to source.
• Now, if we switch ON the chopper CH before the current through inductor gets
reversed then source will never get a chance to transfer power to the load. The
chopping frequency is kept high so that load always feeds power to the source.

From the above discussion, it is clear that current io always flows out of the load irrespective
of the fact that whether chopper is ON or OFF. Therefore, current io is always negative (A
general convention is that current is positive if it flows from source to load). Since, output
voltage Vo is always positive and current is negative, the load power is negative. Negative load
power means that load feeds the source.

16
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.2.3 Two-Quadrant Type-A chopper or Type-C chopper

Class-C or Type-C Chopper is a category of chopper which can operate in first as well as second
quadrant. This basically means that, the power can either flow from source to load or load to
source in this chopper. This kind of chopper is also known as Two Quadrant Class-A chopper.

• As we know that, a Class-A and Class-B chopper operates in first and second quadrant
respectively. Therefore, if we connect both these types of chopper in parallel then it is
possible to have chopper operation in first as well as second quadrant.
• In fact, Class-C or Type-C chopper is obtained by the parallel connection of Class-A
and Class-B chopper. Figure below shows the circuit diagram of this type of chopper.

Case-1: When CH1 is switched ON / OFF

• When chopper CH1 is switched ON, source Vs directly gets connected to the load
and hence, load voltage Vo is equal to source voltage. The direction of load current is
from source to load as shown in the circuit diagram which is assumed positive.
• When CH1 is switched OFF, the free-wheeling diode FD comes into the circuit as it
gets forward biased and hence shorts the load. Therefore, the output voltage
Vo becomes zero. However, the io continues to die down through the FD and L in the
same direction as shown in circuit diagram. Thus, the average output voltage Vo and
current Io are positive and hence operation of chopper is in first quadrant. In fact, this
is the Class-B mode of operation.
Case-2: When CH2 is switched ON / OFF
• When chopper CH2 is switched ON, load DC source E drives current through CH2
and load. The direction of this current io will be opposite to that shown in circuit
diagram and hence is assumed negative. Output voltage Vo is zero during this time.
• When CH2 is made OFF, diode D2 gets forward biased and hence the current into
the source from the load. The output voltage is Vs in this time as the load is connected
to the source through D2 during OFF time of chopper CH2. Thus, the load current is
always negative i.e. operation of chopper is within second quadrant. In fact, this is the
Class-B mode of operation.
From the above two cases, we can conclude the following points:
• The output voltage Vo is zero when chopper CH2 is ON or free-wheeling diode FD
conducts.
• The output voltage Vo is equal to source voltage Vs when chopper CH1 is ON or
diode D2 conducts.
• The load current flows in the direction shown in circuit diagram i.e.io is positive when
CH1 is ON or FD conducts.

17
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

• The load current flows opposite to the direction shown in circuit diagram i.e.io is
negative when CH2 is ON or D2 conducts.
The average load voltage is always positive but the average load current may be positive or
negative. Therefore, power flow may be from source to load (first quadrant operation) or load
to source (second quadrant operation).

2.2.4 Two-Quadrant Type-B chopper or Type-D chopper

Class-D or Type-D chopper is a circuit configuration of chopper in which power can flow in
either direction i.e. from source to load and load to source. The operation of this chopper is
confined in first and fourth quadrant. This type of chopper is also known as Two quadrant Type-
B Chopper. The necessary condition for this chopper is that load should be inductive.

Case-1: CH1 and CH2 both are switched ON simultaneously.

• When both the choppers are switched ON, the load is directly connected to source and
hence the output voltage Vo will become equal to the source voltage Vs. The current

18
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

flows from source to load in this case. Thus, both the current and output voltage i.e.
io and vo are positive in this case, hence the operation is in first quadrant.
• It should be noted that diode D1 and D2 are reversed biased in this case and hence
they can be treated as an open switch.
Case-2: CH1 and CH2 both are switched OFF simultaneously.
• When both the choppers are made OFF simultaneously, the current through the load
doesn’t suddenly drops to zero due to inductive nature of load. However, it decays
gradually and hence a huge amount of voltage is induced in the inductor in the reverse
direction (opposite to the direction of vo). This makes diode D1 and D2 forward biased.
Thus, D1 and D2 starts conducting and connects the load to source again. But this time,
the current flows from load to source (carefully observe the circuit diagram).
• It shall be noted that, the direction of load current has not changed. The current is still
flowing as shown by the direction of io in the diagram but the polarity of vo has changed.
Thus, io is positive but vo is negative and hence operation of chopper is in fourth
quadrant. The power flows from load to source.

Average output voltage Vo is given as: Vo = Vs [(TON – TOFF) / T]

The average output voltage of Class-D chopper may either be positive or negative depending upon
whether TON is more or TOFF.

If TON time is more than TOFF time

19
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.2.5 Four-Quadrant chopper or Type-E chopper

A four-quadrant chopper is a chopper which can operated in all the four quadrants. The power
can flow either from source to load or load to source in this chopper. In first quadrant, a Class-
E chopper acts as a Step-down chopper whereas in second quadrant it behaves as a Step-up
chopper. This type of chopper is also known as Class-E or Type-E chopper.

First Quadrant Operation:

• For first quadrant operation, CH1 is operated, CH4 is kept ON and CH2 and CH3 is
kept OFF and. When both CH1 & CH4 are ON simultaneously, the load gets directly
connected to the source and hence the output voltage becomes equal to the source
voltage. This essentially means that Vo = Vs. It may be noted that the load current flows
from source to load as shown by the direction of io.
• When CH1 is switched OFF, the load current free wheels through CH4 and D2.
During this period, the load voltage and current remains positive.
• Thus, both the output voltage Vs and load current io are positive and hence, the
operation of chopper is in first quadrant. It may be noted that, Class-E chopper operates
as a step-down chopper in this case.

20
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

Second Quadrant Operation:

• To obtain second quadrant operation, CH2 is operated while keeping the CH1, CH3 &
CH4 OFF. When CH2 is ON, the DC source in the load drives current through CH2,
D4, E and L. Inductor L stores energy during the ON period of CH2.
• When CH2 is turned OFF, current is fed back to the source through D1, D4. It should
be noted at this point that (E+Ldi/dt) is more than the source voltage Vs. As load
voltage Vo is positive and Io is negative, it is second quadrant operation of chopper.
Since, the current is fed back to the source, this simply means that load is transferring
power to the source. Kindly read Step-up chopper for detailed analysis and better
understanding.
• For second quadrant operation, load must contain emf E as shown in the circuit
diagram. In second quadrant, configuration operates as a step-up chopper.
Third Quadrant Operation:
• To obtain third quadrant operation, both the load voltage and load current should be
negative. The current and voltage are assumed positive if their direction matches with
what shown in the circuit diagram. If the direction is opposite to what shown in the
circuit diagram, it is considered negative. One important thing to notice is that the
polarity of emf E in load must be reversed to have third quadrant operation.
• For third quadrant operation, CH3 is operated, CH2 is kept ON and CH1 is kept off.
When CH3 is ON, load gets connected to source and hence load voltage is equal to
source voltage. But carefully observe that the polarity of load voltage Vo is opposite to
what shown in the circuit diagram. Hence, Vo is assumed negative. Let us now see what
is the status of load current io. It may be seen that io is flowing in the direction opposite
to shown in the circuit diagram and hence negative.
• When CH3 is turned OFF, the negative load current free wheels through the CH2 and
D4. In this manner, vo and io both are negative. Hence, the chopper operates in third
quadrant.
Fourth Quadrant Operation:
• To obtain fourth quadrant operation, CH4 is operated while keeping CH1, CH2 and
CH3 OFF. The polarity of load emf E needs to be reversed in this case too like third
quadrant operation.
• When CH4 is turned ON, positive current flows through CH4, D2, L and
E. Inductance L stores energy during the time CH4 is ON.
• When CH4 is made OFF, current is fed back to the source through diodes D2, D3.
Here load voltage is negative but the load current is always positive.
• This leads to chopper operation in fourth quadrant. Here, power is fed back to the
source from load and chopper acts as a step-up chopper.

21
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.3 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

SMPS works like a DC chopper. By operating the on/off switch very rapidly, ac ripple
frequency rises which can be easily filtered by L and C filter circuits which are small in size
and less weighty. It may therefore be inferred that it is the requirement of small physical size
and weight that has led to the widespread use of SMPSs.
The four categories of SMPSs are:
• Flyback Converter
• Push-pull Converter
• Half bridge Converter
• Ful1-bridge Converter
The main advantages of SMPSs over conventional linear power supplies are as under:
• For the same power rating, SMPS is of smaller size, lighter in weight and possesses
higher efficiency because of its high-frequency operation.
• SMPS is less sensitive to input voltage variations.
The disadvantages of SMPS are as under:
• SMPS has higher output ripple and its regulation is worse.
• SMPS is a source of both electromagnetic and radio interference due to high frequency
switching.
• Control of radio frequency noise requires the use of filters on both input and output of
SMPS.

2.3.1 Flyback Converter:

Flyback converters are defined as power converters, which convert AC to DC with galvanic
isolation between the inputs and outputs. It stores the energy when the current flowing through
the circuit and releases the energy when the power is removed. It used a mutually coupled
inductor and acts as an isolated switching converter for step down or step-up voltage
transformers. It can control and regulate the multiple output voltages with a wide range of input
voltages. The components required to design a flyback converter is a few when compared to
other switching mode power supply circuits. The word flyback is referred to as the on/off action
of the switch used in the design.
Flyback converter offers simple SMPS and is useful for applications below about 500 W.

22
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

Flyback SMPS equivalent circuit during (a) Ton and (b) Toff

Advantages of flyback converter:

• The primary is isolated from the output.

• Capable of supplying multiple output voltages, all isolated from the primary.
• Ability to regulate the multiple output voltages with a single control.
• Can operate on a wide range of input voltages
• The Flyback converters use very few components compared to the other types of
SMPSs.

23
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.3.2 Push-pull Converter:

A push–pull converter is a bidirectional converter that uses a transformer to provide galvanic

isolation for the load and to provide voltage conversion (AC-DC and DC-DC).

• When switch M1 is ON and switch M2 is OFF, the energy is transferred to the load
through transformer secondary D1 and L.
• When switch M2 is ON and switch M1 is OFF, the energy is transferred to the load
through transformer secondary D2 and L.
• When both switches are OFF, the body diode of the switch provides the path for the
leakage energy stored in the transformer primary. The output rectifier
diode D2 becomes forward-biased and carries half of the inductor current through the
transformer secondary, and half of the inductor current is carried by the
diode D1 through the transformer secondary. This results in equal and opposite voltages
applied to the transformer secondaries, (both secondary windings have an equal
number of turns) therefore, the net voltage applied across the secondary during
the Toff period is zero.

2.3.3 Half-bridge Converter:

This topology also uses two major magnetic components, a transformer and an output
inductor, but in this case the transformer core is better utilized than in a forward converter.
The switching elements operate independently, with a dead time in between, switching the
transformer primary both positive and negative with respect to the centre point.

24
Power Electronics: Unit-1 Prepared By: Dr. Bhupender Sharma

2.3.4 Full-bridge Converter:

• The full-bridge converter is a higher power version of the half-bridge and provides the
highest output power level (up to 1000 W) of any of the converters discussed above.
• Full-bridge converters use a transformer to step down the pulsating primary voltage, as
well as to provide isolation between the input voltage source and the output
voltage Vout.
• The full-bridge converter uses four switches that operate in an alternating fashion. Two
diagonal switches turn ON and OFF in one PWM cycle and then the other two
diagonal switches in the next PWM cycle. The flux is reset when the other switch pair
is turned ON, so duty cycles from 0 to 1 are possible. There are two power pulses
transferred each cycle, enabling the use of a smaller inductor and output capacitor.

Advantages:
• Requiring one mains smoothing capacitor compared to two for the half-bridge saves space.
• Handles of a wide range of input and output voltage levels
• High power density
• Voltage stress on the switch is Vin
• High core utilization is (full flux swing in quadrants 1 and 3) allow the use of a smaller
core.

25