Chapter 4; Analysing

Texts
Analysing, interpreting, and responding
To analyse a text, you must deconstruct its component parts: generic, language, structural,
and stylistic features.

What is an interpretation?
An interpretation of a text is your understanding of its meaning and effects. A critical
interpretation, however, is one that is supported by thoughtful analysis of the construction
of the text, to identify how these meanings and effects are produced.
• Meanings can refer to the themes or arguments developed within a text. Not all
meanings are directly intentional from their creator. Meanings arise from individual
ideas within a text; the representations it offers; and its perspectives, values and
attitudes. Meanings can arise from what is not said.
• Effects are the outcomes or consequences of a text - intended or otherwise. Texts
may persuade audiences to act, produce an emotional response, or surprise by
innovating upon an established genre. Effects can relate to a text's purpose, but due
to other factors such as audiences as their contexts can vary the effect per person.
• Construction of a text is relevant to both its meanings and effects. You should be
able to identify, provide example of and explain the the functions of a text's generic,
language, structural and stylistics features. As part of this, consider the mode and
medium of the text as well.

What is a response?
A response goes a step further than an interpretation. A considered response to a text
involves interpretation, but also evaluation. To evaluate means to make a judgement about
the quality or merit something. In relation to a text. we might evaluate it in terms of its
construction, meanings or effects - or, more likely, a combination of these. Therefore, a
considered response is more than just our initial emotional reaction to a text; it shows
reflection on and justification for that reaction. Some examples of the way we might
evaluate a text are outlined in...
Construction
It's generic features; convention and subversion. It's language features such as camera
work in a film or complexity of an article. It's structural features such as an argument that
us poorly ordered or a novels clever plot twist. It's stylistic features such as tone. It's
aesthetic features such as cinematography.

Meaning
Its accuracy, such as if a documentary shows the full story. It's quality; do we believe the
argument is well researched? It's biases; are their omissions of the story in order to sell us
to an agenda? Our exposure to other interpretations and to the extent they match ours. Our
own personal experiences: e.g. how our family life will alter how we react to a family
sitcom.

Effects
It's perceived relevance, such as whether we believe a novel from another context that
doesn't have bearing in our world. Our engagement with the text, were we entertained or
moved? Our reaction to the values or attituded presented; are we offended by them? Our
expectations being / not being matched or exceeded.

Multiple responses to texts

Different audiences are likely to have varying responses to texts. For reasons such as...
• Different understand with language.
• Different expectations of genre.
• Differences in the contexts of the audience.
• Differences in the knowledge and understanding of audiences.
• Changes over time.
• Ambiguity's in texts, and open interpretation.
• The use of different reading practices; ideological reading practices such as feminist
or post-colonial reading practices.

Skills involved in analysis

These skills are identified in the English syllabus so its important to incorporate these is
your responses. Each of the following rise in complexity the further down on the list.
• Recognising: Identifying literal ideas stated in the text, and the various elements of
construction: generic features, and language features.
 • Comprehending: Making inferences about the meanings and effects of texts.
• Analysing: Explaining the construction of texts and how this contributes to
meanings and effects.
• Comparing: Reflecting on the ways in which texts are similar or different in terms
of their construction, meaning and effects.
• Synthesising: Drawing together various aspects of analysis, or other
interpretations, to create a holistic interpretation.
• Evaluating: Critically appraising a text and making informed judgements about its
construction, meaning and effects.
Another thing that you must consider is that interpreting a text does not start and end with
the text alone. We must also consider:
• Purpose
• Context
• Audience
• Comparisons
• Other interpretations

Analysing imaginative texts

The majority of texts designated as imaginative are narratives, that tell stories and draw us
into other worlds and lives. When studying narrative texts we need to understand how the
author constructed the narrative. Which language, structural and stylistic features had the
author used and how these shape the narrative, its meanings, and effects.

Plot
The way in which events unfold in a narrative is crucial in making sure the narratives effect
is exhibited in the way the author intended. The way a text is ordered can create suspense,
impact, engagement, and lay out the main message that the author is trying to convey.

Narrative structure
Analysing narrative structure requires an understanding of the different parts of the plot
and the functions they perform. The structure of a narrative includes the following key
points or scenes that create rising and falling tension...
• Exposition: The introduction of the main characters and main situation, setting the
scene for some kind of conflict.
• Crisis points and Turning points: Moments when a character faces a conflict that
tests their values and beliefs; decisive changes in the course of events.
 • Climax: The tension rises to a peak ; the main conflict between characters and/or
ideas must now be resolved on way or the other.
• Denouement: The unknotting of narrative threads where questions are finally
answered.
• Resolution: The tension relaxes as conflicts are resolved.

Narrative structure can also be described in terms of the overall sequence of events.
• Linear - Origin to conclusion
• Circular - Origin to conclusion to origin
• Framed - Story within a story
• Fragmented - The events are not revealed in order
• Parallel - Two or more plot lines

Narrator and Npov

The narrator is the character or voice that tells the story. Npov refers to the way in which a
narrator may be related to a story. Sometimes authors present more than one Npov, in
order to...
• Introduce a different perspective or convey information not available to every
narrator.
• Show different sides of a conflict or problem.
• Create a contrast between how characters see themselves and how they are seen by
others.
• Reveal complexities in a character that are not apparent to others.
• Demonstrate present consequences of past decisions.

Settings
The settings of a narrative are the places and times in which the action is located. Settings
help to bring the world of a narrative to life in our imagination. When you are writing about
the setting, show your understanding of how they influence an audience and how they link
to other elements of the text such as character, plot, and the texts intended effect.

Characters
Understanding characters is central to your study of a narrative text. Characters generate
the action of the narrative; our interest and emotions are engaged by their fortunes and
misfortunes, their aspirations and challenges. Most importantly, an understanding of
characters is crucial to understanding the themes and values they represent in the text.
Remember that the main characters will develop through the narrative, and that their
attitudes may change between points of the narrative. The main techniques of
characterisation include...
• Direct description
• Characters speech and actions
• What other characters say about them
• Their relationships / interactions with others
• Images and symbols associated with the character
• Physical appearance, facial expressions, movements

Character development
When analysing and interpreting an imaginative text, you need to go further than just
describing the characters. You can do this by showing how characterisation and other
narrative features work together to present a view of human behaviour and experience.
Three strategies for analysing characters links between narrative structure and
characterisation are...

Characters responses at crisis points

Characters are tested at crisis and turning points where they are forced to make decisions
which in turn reveal their priorities an motivations. For example...
• Acting for oneself or for another
• Acting impulsively and acting cautiously
• Giving in or fighting back
• Commitment to justice or commitment to their own prerogative
• A decision to right the wrongs of the past

Character interactions
Some characters appear in narratives simply to impact others development, other
characters grow alongside the protagonist. Consider how protagonists may evolve as a
result of...
 • A chance meeting
• An intense relationship
• A forced collaboration
• A mentor
• A relationship with an antagonist

Character change
Like real people. characters are not static, they develop and adapt to their surroundings,
with some change being more dramatic than others. How characters respond to the
changes in their lives can offer important comments on human nature. Key changes to look
for...
• A shift in the way a character thinks of or interacts with others
• A transformation in the way they think about themselves
• A new understanding or appreciation of the world around them
• A change in their beliefs and values

Voice
Voice refers to the persona we hear communicating with us as we read. It is constructed
through the various language features employed by the writer, such as diction, register, and
tone. It is how the writers perspective is conveyed, and is significant to how the audience
responds. Writers may also incorporate other voices into the text and their corresponding
perspectives. The construction of these multiple and the degree to which they are allowed
to speak contribute to our understanding of the writer’s overall perspective.

Style
Style refers to the language features that are characteristic of a particular author, literary
period or genre of text. Style is the result of the particular use of diction, syntax.
paragraphing and other language features such as figurative language. You might think of
style as the flavour of the text.
Analysing persuasive texts
Persuasive texts come in different forms. They can include advertisements, speeches,
feature articles, documentaries, posters and essays. Persuasive texts present an argument
designed to position the audience to respond in a particular. This might be to change a
belief, develop a new understanding or perform an action. When studying persuasive texts,
we need to be able to identify the arguments and techniques of persuasion that have been
employed.

Persuasive structures
Persuasive structure are a key element of making meaning; persuasive texts offer more
explicit explanations or arguments. Persuasive structures guide the audience through the
information being presented. Some persuasive structures are...
• Appearance vs reality
• Case studies
• Cause and effect
• Compare and contrast
• Mistaken critic
• Occurrence and possibility
• Problem and solution
• Proposition and support
• Thesis, antithesis, synthesis
• Ubiquity
Appeals to values
The purpose of persuasive texts is, ultimately, to position the audience to agree with the
writers viewpoint. Within this, though, a writer might hope to achieve a number of
outcomes by influencing the way their intended audience thinks, feels and acts. The writer
may seek to...
• Lead the audience to reflect on the complexity of a moral or ethical issue
• Influence the audience to take a side on an issue
• Convince the audience to take action
Some persuasive techniques that appeals to values:
• Appeal to a sense of justice
• Appeal to a fear and insecurity
• Appeal to the hip-pocket nerve

Persuasive still images

Images associated with a persuasive text do more than simply illustrate what is said in
words. They often have a powerful emotive impact that underpins their persuasive effect
on the reader. They can support / present a pov through...
• Highlighting an extreme aspect of the issue
• Expressions on peoples faces presenting an emotion
• A landscape that emphasises the beauty or ugliness of it
• Light, colour, focus, angle and framing can be used to show an individual in a
positive or negative light.
Analyzing interpretive texts
Interpretive texts have one feature in common: they offer an interpretation of a person,
place, event, concept or idea. Interpretive texts are often hard to define as there is such a
broad range of texts that can be considered interpretive. We can view interpretive texts
being on a range from being more persuasive or more imaginative.
Opinionative
More persuasive
Shares an opinion on a topic
• Blogs
• Current affairs programs
• Documentaries
• Editorials
• Opinion columns
• Reviews
Discursive
In the middle
Offers a balanced discussion on a topic
• Blogs
• Discursive essays
• Documentaries
• Feature articles
• Panel discussions
Narrative
More imaginative
Tells a story about a topic
• Allegory
• Autobiographies
• Blogs
• Biographies
• Documentaries
• Fables and folk tales
• Myths and legends
• Reality TV
Interpretive structures
Many of the structures used in interpretive texts are also used in persuasive and
imaginative texts. Discursive structures tend to incorporate multiple perspectives, or
approach a topic from a variety of angles. Opinionative structures may only offer a single
perspective, but they tend to be quite upfront about their subject matter. A lot of
opinionative texts are used as a vehicle to create a conversation about the topic they are
arguing about.

Selection and omission

A key aspect of analysing a text is to not only see what a text has, but what a text is missing.
Many writers may exclude details that may undermine their argument, this is called an
omission, typically aimed at people who do not understand the full context behind the
topic.

Voice
Voice in interpretive texts fall into two broad types: subjective / engaging, and objective /
reasoned. As with anything there are exceptions. However, these two broad categories of
voice correspond to the intensely subjective or more objective.

Analysing still images

There are three main groups of conventions to consider when analysing still images...
• Mise en scene: The elements that are visible within the frame of the image.
• Composition: The arrangements of the elements within the frame of the image.
• Text: Any words or typography that have been added to the image.

Gaze
The concept of gaze come from gender studies. Critics noticed that women were often
represented in images as objects to be gazed upon. Male subjects however were typically
represented as performing the gaze, sometimes even staring boldly at the viewer. There
are two main types of gaze...
• An intra-diegetic gaze occurs when the figure in the image is looking at something
or someone within the world of the image.
• An extra-diegetic gaze is one which the subject seems to be looking at something or
someone out of the frame of the image.
Analysing moving images
In feature films, documentaries, tv programs, and web series, moving images are used to
tell a story. As well as using visual language features of still images these multimodal texts
have additional visual and auditory language features. Camera movement and editing are
two visual features you should be aware of when analysing moving images, Auditory
language features include dialogue, diegetic sounds and music.