Lecturer: Assoc. Prof.

DANG QUOC Vuong

Email: [email protected]
Phone: +84-963286734

Department of electrical Engineering

1
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
 INTRODUCTION
q Training process

September 2013 International

Teaching & researching Collaborating

January 2013
PhD degree In Electrical Engineering 2013-5/2016
Dept. of Electrical engineering
and Computer Science Lecturer of Dept. of Electrical Engineering
University of Liege - Belgium School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
June 2007
Master degree
In Electrical Engineering, SEE 6/2016 until now
Hanoi University of Science and Lecturer of Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Technology Deputy Director of Training Center of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering
Hanoi University of Science and Technology

June 2002
Engineer degree
In Electrical Engineering, SEE
Hanoi University of Science and 2
Technology
 INTRODUCTION

1. Name of subject: Electrical Machines

2. Code: EE3140E
3. Content: 3(3-0-1-6) credits
- Theory: 45 hours
- Exercises: 0
- Experiments: 4 units (equivalent to 15 hours of theory)

4. Participants
Students at the Department of Electrical engineering, Control engineering and Automation

5. Prerequiste course
- Previously studying course : EE2030
- Parallel course

3
 INTRODUCTION

1. Objectives:
u By the end of this course, students will have gained:
§ Basic knowledge of electrical machines
§ Structures and operating principles of electrical machines, and
Modeling of mathematics described in physic processes
§ Application scope of electric machines in practice

2. References
[1] Fundamental Electric Machines textbook (compiling); Electrical machines
and transformers
[2] Lecture of electrical machines composed by lecturers at the Department
of electric and electronic equipments)

4
 INTRODUCTION

[3] Electric_Machinery_Fundamentals. Stephen_J_Chapma. 2004

[4] Handbook of Small Electric Motors. William H. Yeadon, 2001.
[5] Electric Power Transformer Engineering. James H. Harlow.2004
[6] Handbook of Transformer Design and Applications. William M. Flanagan.
1993
[7] Noise of Polyphase Electric Motors. Jacek F. Gieras, Chong Wang, Joseph
C.S. Lai 2006
[8] Power Transformers Principles and Applications, John J. Winders. 2002.
[9] Synchronous_generators. Ion Boldea. 2006
[10] The J & P Transformer Book . Martin J. Heathcote. 1998.
[11] Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook. Colonel Wm. T. McLyman.
2004
[12] Transformer Engineering - Design and Practice. S.V.Kulkarni
S.A.Khaparde. 2004
[13] Electric_Motor_Handbook. H. Wayne Beaty, James L. Kirtley. 2004
[14] Energy-Efficient Electric Motors, Third Edition. Ali Emadi. 2004

5
 INTRODUCTION

2003 2005

- Máy điện 1. Vũ Gia Hanh, Trần Khánh Hà, Phan Tử Thụ,

Nguyễn Văn Sáu. NXBKHKT, 2006.
- Kỹ thuật điện. Đặng Văn Đào, Lê Văn Doanh. NXBKHKT,
2002.
- Đặng Văn Đào. Trần Khánh Hà. Nguyễn Hồng Thanh.
Giáo trình Máy điện. NXB Giáo dục. 2002. 179 trang.

2006
 INTRODUCTION

1998 2005
1998 2001 2006

- Máy điện 2. Vũ Gia Hanh, Trần Khánh Hà, Phan Tử Thụ, Nguyễn
Văn Sáu. NXBKHKT, 2006
 INTRODUCTION

1998 2005
1998 2001 2006

2007 2007

- Máy điện. Tập 1. Bùi Đức Hùng. Triệu Việt Linh. NXB Giáo dục. Hà nội. 2007. 155 trang
- Máy điện. Tập 2. Bùi Đức Hùng. Triệu Việt Linh NXB Giáo dục. Hà nội. 2007. 215 trang
 INTRODUCTION

3. Requirements for students:

§ Participating in lessons of this course

§ Completing 4 units of experiments

4. Evaluation and Assessment: Grading KT/BT(0.3)-T(TL:0.7)

§ 1998
Participation and mid-term exam: 30% 2005
§ Final exam: 70%
1998 2001 2006
§ Achievable total mark:10
 INTRODUCTION

Table of contents
Chapter 1. Transformers
Chapter 2. General issues of rotating electrical
machines
Chapter 3. Asynchronous electrical machines
Chapter 4. Synchronous electrical machines
Chapter 5. DC electrical machines

10
 Chapter 1. Transformer

Table of contents

I. Overview of the electrical energy system

II. General concept of transformers
III. Electromagnetic relations in transformers
IV. Operating modes of transformers
V. Three-phase transformers

11
 Chapter 1 Transformer

Table of contents

I. Overview of the electrical energy system

II. General concept of Transformers
III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers
IV. Operating modes of Transformers
V. Three-Phase Transformers

12
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system
1.1. Electrical energy system

13
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system
1.1. Electrical energy system

14
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system
1.1. Electrical energy system (Cont)

15
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system
1.1. Electrical energy system (Cont)

16
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system
1.1. Electrical energy system (Cont)

17
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system
1.2. Basic laws used in electrical machines
a. Faraday’s law

§ The voltage induced in a coil by the magnetic flux is directly proportion to

series of number connected- turns in the coil, and to rate of change of
flux to its windows. This relationships, known as Faraday’s Law, is
expressed mathematically as
d d
e= w =
dt dt
e
Where:
-e is the induced voltage (V),
Fig 1.1
-w is the number of connected-turns,
- dF/dt is the rate of change of flux through the window (Wb/s)

Note: the direction of e is defined by corkscrew rule

18
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system

a. Faraday’s law (cont)

u A conductor of length l (Fig 1.2) is moving with a constant velocity v
perpendicular to a magnetic field of flux density B, the electromotive force
e is defined by the right-hand rule
e = Blv,
Where:
B - Magnetic flux density (Wb)
l - length of conductor (m) e
e
l

v
,B Fig 1.2 ,B

19
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system

b. Electromagnetic force law (EMF)

A current-carrying conductor is in direction perpendicular to a magnetic field of flux
density B. The electromagnetic force is defined by the left hand rule, i.e.,
Fdt = Bil,
Where:
B- Magnetic flux density (Wb)
l - length of conductor (m)
i - current-carrying conductor (A) i

l i
Fdt Fdt

,B Fig 1.3
,B

20
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system

c. Ampere’s law
u The integral of the magnetic field along a closed curve of magnetic circuits is
equal to total currents in turns of those circuits, i.e.,
I X
Hl = wi = F

u Applying this equation to Fig 1.4, it gets: i

S
Hl = wi = F w
where:
H - Magnetic field intensity (A/m) l
l - length of magnetic circuit (m)
Iron core
w - number of turns of coil
Fig 1.4
i - excitation current in coil (A)

21
 I. Overview of the electrical energy system

1.3. Materials used in electrical machines

a. Electrical conductive materials: Al, Cu
b. Magnetic conductive materials (ferromagnetic materials): Electrical engineering steel
(0,28-0,35mm), cast steel, wrought steel…

c. Electrical insulation materials:

- High electrical insulation intensity
- Good heat diffusion
- Damp-proof and mechanical strength
- Solid modeling: 4 groups
+ Organic materials: paper, silk,
+ inorganic materials: amiang, mica, fiber glass
+ enamel covered wire, electric vanish
- isolation in gassy and liquid: air and oil ….

Insulation level Y A E B F H C
Working temperature 90 105 120 130 155 180 > 180

7 insulation levels of insulated materials 22

 Chapter 1. Transformers

Table of contents

I. Overview of the electrical energy system

II. General concept of transformers
III. Electromagnetic relations in transformers
IV. Operating modes of transformers
V. Three-phase transformers

23
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.1. Definition of transformers

u The transformer is a static electromagnetic device operated following to the
principle of electromagnetic induction, it can transfer electrical energy from
one voltage level to another with a constant frequency.

u Notations of transformers in electrical systems:

Y
D

24
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.2. Role and application of transformers

u Play an important role in transmission and distribution systems, and to
reduce power and voltage losses…

Consumers
0,4 – 6kV
Generator Step-up 35, 110, 220, Step-down
3 ÷ 21kV transformers 500 kV transformers

S
IL = (IL – line current, UL – line voltage)
3U L
With the same transmission power S, if ­ UL ® IL ¯ ® SL (line cross-sections
area) ¯
® DU = RLIL ¯ (voltage loss (drop))
® DP = RLI2L ¯ (power loss )

25
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.3. Application of transformers

u To transmit and distribute electrical systems

u In special devices (cases), such as:
Ø In furnaces-> furnace transformers
Ø In electric welds -> Welding transformers
Ø In experiments-> experimental transformers
Ø In measures-> measuring transformer (voltage transformers,
current transformers)

26
II. General concept of Transformers
Pictures of pole mounted transformers

27
II. General concept of Transformers

28
 II. General concept of Transformers
Power transformer 220KV –
Quang ngai City

Power transformer Power transformer 110KV

500KV – Đa Nang City – Da Nang City

29
II. General concept of Transformers

30
II. General concept of Transformers

31
II. General concept of Transformers
II. General concept of Transformers

33
II. General concept of Transformers

34
II. General concept of Transformers

35
II. General concept of Transformers

36
 II. General concept of Transformers
2.4. Construction of transformers
They consist of two main parts: an Iron core (for carrying magnetic fields) and
windings (for carrying electric currents). Besides, they also have covers,
insulations, porcelain ceramics and etc ….
2.4.1.Iron core: The iron
core is matched by
laminations to create a
closed-magnetic circuit
used for carrying main
magnetic flux and so on…

37
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.4.1.Iron core (cont):

1
G
Thickness of laminations are often
from 0,27 to 0.35mm and is
T T T covered an electric vanish to
reduce hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
G
2 3
Construction of three phase transformers

1 – Secondary winding; 2 – Primary winding; 3 – Magnetic circuit

38
II. General concept of Transformers
Arrangements of magnetic circuits of transformers

39
II. General concept of Transformers (16/27)

40
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.4. Construction of transformer (continued)

2.4.2. Windings:
u The windings are electrical parts of the transformer, and they are used to
attract energy and to transmit energy
u The windings are required to induce an electromotive force given in
advance, and they allow the rated current to go without overheat
1
G

T T T

G
2 3

1 – Secondary winding; 2 – Primary winding; 3 – Magnetic circuit

41
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.4.2. The windings (continued):

Ø Concentric windings:
- Many layers (using for high voltage windings,
e.g, 35KV)
- Two layers (using for low voltage windings)

Ø Helical windings: this winding is used for the

LV windings, and there are some open slots
in turn-to-turn

Ø Continous helical winding:This type of the

winding is used for HV windings and uses
rectangular wire to wound into galets
arranged side by side.

42
 II. General concept of Transformers

Ø Inter-leaved winding: This is a type of winding

which HV and LV windings are alternately wound.
This winding is wound into galets and used for HV
windings. In order to ensure a insulated distance,
the HV windings usually is located closer to the
magnetic circuit than the HV winding, which is
preferable from an electrical-insulating point of
view.

2.4.3. The shield of transformers

The shell is designed to contain oil, and protect the oil of transformers. On
the top of shield has input porcelains of the HV winding and output porcelain
of the LV winding. In addition, a conservator oil is mounted on the cover
(top) to be sure that the oil level in the tank is always full

43
II. General concept of Transformers

Cross-sections of transformer
44
 II. General concept of Transformers
Location of windings around the Iron core

High and low voltage windings

High voltage winding 45
II. General concept of Transformers

46
II. General concept of Transformers

47
II. General concept of Transformers

48
 II. General concept of Transformers
2.5. Transformer principles

d𝜙# d𝜙#
Lentz's Law 𝑒! = −N" dt 𝑒$ = −N%
dt

Induced voltage
has opposite
polarity from
source

u When a sinusoidal voltage U1 is applied to the primary winding Np, the current Ip
flowing in the primary winding produces the variable magnetic flux Φ in the core, i.e., Φ
= Φm.sinwt (với w = 2pf)

u The variable magnetic flux Φ will induce electromotive forces ep and es in the primary
winding and secondary winding, respectively. The directions of e and Φ are defined
according to the corkscrew rule. Flowing to the law of electromagnetic induction, it has
49
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.5. Transformer principle (cont)

#$!
𝑒! = −N" #%
=−N". 𝜔. 𝜙&.cos 𝜔t =
' '
N". 𝜔. 𝜙&.sin (𝜔t- )= 2. E"). sin (𝜔t- )
( (

#$!
𝑒* = −N+ =−N+ . 𝜔. 𝜙&.cos 𝜔t =
#%
' '
N+ . 𝜔. 𝜙&.sin (𝜔t- )= 2. E"). sin (𝜔t- )
( (

u Where: E"& and E%& are effective values of electromagnetic forces of the windings
Np and Ns:

," -.$! ('./.," .$!

𝐸!) = = =4.44.𝑓. N". 𝜙&
( (
,# -.$! ('./.,# .$!
𝐸*) = = =4.44.𝑓. N* . 𝜙&
( (

It is worth noting that: 𝐸!& và 𝐸$& have same frequencies and different effective
values.
50
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.5. Transformer principle (cont)

§ For sinusoidal sources Primary Secondary

E¢p = 4.44 × N p × f × f max

E¢s = 4.44 × N s × f × f max
§ Dividing the above equations gives:

E¢p 4.44 × N p × f × f max

= = 𝑘 (transformer ratio)
E¢s 4.44 × N s × f × f max

Where:E’p = voltage induced in the primary (V); E’s = voltage induced in the secondary
(V); Np = turns in the primary coil; Ns = turns in the secondary coil.
§ If the voltage drops in the windings are neglected, we have

," 0$% 1& 1& 1'

𝑘= = = → =
,# 0#% 1' 2$ 2#

51
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.6. Rated parameters

a. Rated voltages
u Phase voltage (for a single-phase transformer)
u Line to line voltage (for a three-phase transformer )
u Primary voltage : U1đm (V) or kV
u Secondary voltage: U2đm (V) or kV
b. Rated currents
u Primary current : I1đm (A)
u Secondary current: I2đm (A)

52
 II. General concept of Transformers

2.6. Rated parameters (continued)

a. Rated powers
u For a single-phase transformer: S = U1dm I1dm = U 2 dm I 2 dm

u For a three-phase transformer: S = 3U1dm I1dm = 3U 2dm I 2dm

53
 II. General concept of Transformers
2.6. Rated parameters (continued)

54
 Chapter 1. Transformer

Table of contents

I. Overview of the electrical energy system

II. General concept of Transformers
III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers
IV. Operating modes of Transformers
V. Three-Phase Transformers

55
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.1. Electromagnetic balance equations

a. Directions of current and voltage
To be simple, we consider a single-phase
transformer (Fig 3.1). The primary winding
w1 is connected to u1, and the secondary
winding w2 is connected to a load (Z).
Current, voltage and flux directions are
defined as in Fig 3.1
Fig 3.1 Current and voltage directions
u The leakage flux Φt1 induces an electromotive force et1 having the
same direction as the electric current i1:
di1
et1 = L1
dt
u The leakage flux Φt2 induces an electromotive force et2 having the same
direction as the electric current i2:
di2
et2 = L2
dt 56
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.1. Electromagnetic balance equations (Cont)

b. Voltage balanced equations
u Applying to the second kirkhoff for both sides of the primary and
secondary magnetic circuits in Fig 3.1, we get:

di1
u 1 = e 1 + R1 i 1 + L 1
dt
di2
u2 = e 2 R2 i 2 L 2
dt
u The voltage balanced equations are written via the complex number, i.e.,
U1 = - E1 + (R1+jωL1)I1 = - E1 + (R1+jX1)I1 = - E1 + Z1I1
U2 = E2 - (R2+jωL2)I2 = - E2 - (R2+jX2)I2 = E2 - Z2I2

R1, R2, L1, L2 – Resistances, leakage inductances of the primary and

secondary windings
Z1 = R1+jX1, Z2 = R2+jX2 – complex impedances of the primary and
secondary windings
57
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.1. Electromagnetic balance equations (cont)

c. MMF balanced equation

u When the secondary winding is not connected to loads (i1 = i0), then the
main magnetic flux is generated by i0w1.

u When the secondary winding is connected to loads, then the main

magnetic flux is generated by both primary and secondary MMFs (i1w1 +
i2w2).

58
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

c. MMF balanced equation (cont)

Thus, if the applied voltage is a constant, the magnetic flux is also a constant.
This means that the general magnetomotive force (mmf) is a constant in any
states of the loads. From that, MMF balanced equation is defined as

w2 i
i0w1 = i1w1 + i2w2 or i0 = i1 + i2 = i1 + 2 = i1 + i,2
w1 k
The MMF balanced equation is rewritten flowing to the current blanced
equation, i.e.,
i2 w
i1 = i0 + (- i’2 ), with i , = Where k is the transformer ratio ( k= 1 )
2
k w2

59
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

c. MMF balanced equation (cont)

u The current balanced equation is written via the complex number, i.e.,

!I 0 = !I1 + !I¢2 « !I1 = !I 0 + (-!I¢2 )

è The set of three balanced equations is rewritten as

ì! ! 1 + I Z! = - E! 1 + !I r + j !I X
ï 1 U = - E 1 1 1 1 1 1
ïï
íU ! = E! 2 - !I Z = E! 2 + ( - !I r ) + ( - j !I X )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ï
ï!I1 = !I 0 + ( - !I '2 )
ïî

60
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.2. Referred transformer

u As mentioned, two windings are insulated together. Hence, the

consideration of energy process will become difficult

u In order to be convenient for studying, we should assume that two windings

are connected together. This means that we must reduce parameters of
this winding to another one. Referred values are noted with the exponent
comma, e.g., U’2, I’2

61
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.2. Referred transformer (continued)

a. The referred secondary EMF and voltage:
In order to refer, then two windings should have the same voltage level or
EMF, i.e.,
E ¢2 = 4,44.f .w ¢2 .F m = 4,44.f .w 1 .F m ü w1
¢
ý ® E2 = E 2 = k.E 2
E 2 = 4,44.f .w 2 .F m þ w2

b. The referred secondary current:

With no change of transmission power, we get
I2
E 2 .I 2 = E ¢2 .I¢2 ® I¢2 =
k

62
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

c. Referred primary resistance and inductance:

With no change of power losses, we get

I 22 .r2 = I¢22 .r2¢ ® r2¢ = k 2 .r2
In the same way: x ¢2 = k 2 .x 2 ® Z¢2 = k 2 .Z 2
Z¢t = k 2 .Z t
d. Set of referred equations:

ì! ! 1+ I Z ! = -E ! 1 + !I r + j !I X
ï U 1 = - E 1 1 1 1 1 1
ï
ïU !' = E ! ' - !I ' Z = E ! ' + ( - !I ' r ) + ( - j !I ' X )
í 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ï! ! !I ' )
ï I1 = I 0 + ( - 2
ïE!' = E !
î 2 1
63
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.3. Equivalent magnetic circuit and vector diagram of the transformer

a. Equivalent magnetic circuit (diagram)
u Based on the set of basic equations of transformer, Fig (a) can be changed
into Fig 1

Where: U.. = - E 1 = - kE 2 = I 0(Rth + jXth)

- Rth , Xth are respectively resistance and inductance of magnetized branch

64
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

b. Vector diagram of transformer

u The loads of transformers are inductive (RL) and capacitive (RC)
loads. Thus, we consider two cases:

Inductive load capacitive load 65

 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

c. Equivalent magnetic circuit (continued)

u Normally, the impedances of magnetized branch (Rth, Xth) are very high
in comparision with the others, this means that the magnetized current
I0 is very low. Thus, the magnetized branch can be neglected. The
equivalent diagram is represented as

where: Rn = R1+R’2, Xn = X1+X’2 – short circuit resistance, short circuit

inductance of transformer.
Note that: for the rated load zt =zt.đm, the currents flowing in the windings of
transformers are: I1 = I1đm; I2 = I2đm.
66
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

c. Equivalent magnetic circuit (continued)

67
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

d. Basic parameters of transformer

68
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.4. Experiments of transformers

The experiments are to determine parameters of transformers. There are here
two experiments., i.e, open-circuit (no-load) and short-circuit test
a. Open-circuit test
x 1 r 1 r' x'
2 2

A W
I1 = I0 I0 I2 = 0
V1 V2 U1 -E1 r m

x
m

From results of experiments, we can define the resistance, inductance,

impedance and ratio of transformer, namely:
w 1 U1đm
u The transformation ratio : k= =
w2 U 20

u The no-load current %:

69
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

3.4. Experiments of transformers (continued)

u The no-load power loss and resistance:

P0
P0 = I 02 .(r1 + rm ) = I 02 .r0 ® r0 = 2 = r1 + rm
I0
u The no-load impedance and inductance:

U1đm
Z0 = x0 = Z 02 - r02 = x 1 + x m
I0
u The no-load power factor:
Po
cos j 0 =
U1dm .I o

70
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

b. Short-circuit test
x1 r 1 r' x'
2 2

A1 W
Boä
ñieàu In = I1ñm = I'2ñm
U1 chænh Un V A2 Un
ñieän
aùp

From results of short experiments (In, Un, Pn), we can define the short circuit
resistance, inductance and impedance values of the transformer, i.e.,:

Un Pn
Zn =
2
¢ 2
Pn = I n .(r1 + r2 ) = I n .rn ® rn = 2 xn = Z 2n - rn2
In In
ì ¢
xn
ï x1 » x 2 =
ï 2
and í
ïr » r ¢ = rn
ï
î
1 2
2
71
 III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers

b. The short-circuit test (cont.)

u Short-circuit voltage test %

Zn I1dm
Un % = ⇥ 100%
U1dm
u Short-circuit voltage test for active component %
rn I1dm Unr
Unr % = ⇥ 100% = ⇥ 100%
U1dm U1dm
u Short-circuit voltage test for quadrature component %
xn I1dm Unx
Unx % = ⇥ 100% = ⇥ 100%
U1dm U1dm
u Short circuit power factor %
Pn rn
cos' = =
I1dm U1dm Zn

72
 Chapter 1. Transformer

Table of contents

I. Overview of the electrical energy system

II. General concept of Transformers
III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers
IV. Operating modes of Transformers
V. Three-Phase Transformers

73
 IV. Operating modes of Transformers
4.1. Operating conditions with balance loads
4.1.1. Energy diagram of transformer
F P2 + jQ2
Pđt + jQđt cosjt (cosj2)
P1 + jQ1
cosj1
pCu2 + jq2
pFe + jqth
pCu1 + jq1

u If the load is an inductive load, j2 > 0 → Q2 > 0, then Q1 > 0 ® the reactive
power is transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding.
u If the load is a capacitive load, j2 < 0 → Q2 < 0
ü Q1 < 0: the reactive power is transferred from the secondary side to the
primary side
ü Q1 > 0: the transformer will take reactive powers from both side to
magnetize the iron core.
74
 IV. Operating modes of Transformers

4.1.2. Voltage variations and regulations

a. Voltage variations
u As mentioned above, the primary voltage U2 depends on the values of load
currents (inductive load or capacitive load)

u The voltage variation is denoted as DU,. i.e.,

DU = U20 – U2
U 20 - U 2
ΔU% = * 100
U 20

75
 IV. Operating modes of Transformers

a. Voltage variations (continued)

DU% D U%
4
Cosj2 =0.7
4

3 3

2
j >0 Cosj2 = 1 2
2
1 1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
b
0
-1 j <0 j< 0 -1 j> 0
2
Cosj2 =0.7
2 2
-2 -2
3
4

D U = f(b) khi cosj2=const U = f(cos j2) khi b =const

It gets ΔU=f(β,cosj2), this means that U2 depends on β (load factor) and

cosj2. Hence, what do we have to do to keep U2 = const with variable
loads ®? 76
 IV. Operating modes of Transformers

b. Voltage regulations

u In general, there are some regulation windings in transformer, with

different levels, i.e., 2,5% 5%
u Voltage regulations are usually located in the primary winding. Purpose
of regulations is to change the ratio of transformer to get a stabilized
output voltage.

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 IV. Operating modes of Transformers

4.1.3. Transformer loss and efficiency

a. Transformer loss
u The power loss pFe caused by the hysteresis and eddy current is defined
as
é 2 f f ù
pFe = p1/ 50 ê BT ( )GT + BG ( )GG ú
2

ë 50 50 û
- p1/50 dissipated power loss at the frequency 50Hz and B = 1Tesla
- BT, BG, GT, GG – Magnetic flux density and weight of the core yoke.

u Power loss in the primary winding is denoted: pcu1

u Power loss in the secondary winding is denoted: pcu2

å p = p cu1 + p cu 2 + p Fe - Called total losses

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 IV. Operating modes of Transformers

a. Transformer efficiency

P2 P1 - å p
h % = *100 = *100
P1 P1
pFe » P0 - no-load loss

pCu1 + pCu 2 = Pn - short-circuit power losses

I2
pCu = r I = b pn
2
n 2
2
b= - Load factor
I 2 dm
The transformer obtains a maximum efficiency when the power loss of the iron
core is equal to the copper loss, i.e., P0 = Pn

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 IV. Operating modes of Transformers
4.2. Operating conditions with unbalance loads

Note that: This part will be presented in the “advanced electrical machine ”

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 Chapter 1. Transformer

Table of contents

I. Overview of the electrical energy system

II. General concept of Transformers
III. Electromagnetic relations in Transformers
IV. Operating modes of Transformers
V. Three-Phase Transformers

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.1. Introduction
u In order to create the three-phase voltage system, we can use three
single-phase transformers (Fig-a) or one three-phase transformer (Fig
5.1c).

u Fig-b shows that we can change three single-phase transformers into one three-
phase transformer. It is worth noting that the magnetic flux in the core MN is
presented Φ = ΦA + ΦB + ΦC (Φ = 0 for the symmetric magnetic circuit). This means
that the core (MN) can be neglected. The rest of three cores is presented in the
same plane as shown in Fig-c.
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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.1. Introduction (cont.)

83
 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.1. Introduction (continued)

To transform three-phase AC voltage
n Two choices

Three single-phase transformers Three-phase transformer

 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.1. Introduction (continued)

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.1. Introduction (continued)

u Fig 5.2 is a dry transformer used in the distribution line, with 150kVA –
6/0,4kV – Δ/Y0.

Fig 5.2: Iron core of three-phase transformers

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.2. Three-phase transformer connections

a. Connected winding symbols

head of windings End of windings Neutral

High voltage winding : A B C X Y Z N O

Medium voltage winding: Am Bm Cm Xm Ym Zm Nm Om
Low voltage winding : a b c x y z n o

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.2. Connection of transformer windings

b. Different connected winding groups

u Each of the primary and secondary windings can be connected in either

star (Y) or delta (Δ or D). This gives four basic connections, i.e.,
Ø Both the primary and secondary sides are connected in star: Y/Y, Yy
Ø Both the primary and secondary sides are connected in delta: Δ/Δ, Dd
Ø The primary winding is connected in star, and in delta for the secondary
winding: Y/Δ, Yd
Ø The primary winding is connected in delta, and in star for the secondary
winding: Δ/Y, Dy

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers
b. Different connected winding groups (continued)
In order to determine connected winding groups/vector groups, we need to
define a phase displacement angle between the line-to-line EMF of primary
winding and the line-to-line EMF of secondary winding

89
 V. Three-Phase Transformers
b. Different connected winding groups (continued)

90
 V. Three-Phase Transformers
b. Different connected winding groups (continued)

91
 V. Three-Phase Transformers

c. Connected winding groups Primary winding EMF

Secondary winding EMF
Minute-hand
A A
Primary (12)
X a
a 3600 Hour hand
Secondary x
(1...12)
x X

F
Single-phase
transformer I/I - 12
 V. Three-Phase Transformers

c. Connected winding groups (continued)

A
A A
X X
a x x X 1800

x a
a
F F I/I - 6
 V. Three-Phase Transformers

C. Connected winding groups (cont.)

 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.3. Parallel operation of transformers

u The conditions for transformer to operate in parallel:
Ø The same vector groups
Ø The same voltage levels and ratios
Ø The same short-circuit voltages

u The load factor of transformer is inversely proportional to the short-circuit

voltage, i.e.,

1 1 1 1
b1 : b 2 : b3 : ...b n = : : : ...
un1 un 2 un 3 unn

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

5.3. Parallel operation of transformers (continued)

u The load factor (b ) of transformer can be also determined as follows:

S1 S S S
b1 = = b2 = b3 =
S dm1 u S dmi S dmi S dmi
n1 å un 2 å un 3 å
uni % uni % uni %

S – Total load powers; Sdmi - Rated power of transformer i

uni% - Percentage short-circuit voltage of transformer i

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

Note that:
Ø Transformers should be not operated with no load or low load
Ø Transformers should be located near or at the center of loads to reduce the voltage
drop
Ø Transformers should be periodically maintained
Ø The oil in the tank of transformer need to be periodically checked
Ø Parallel operation transformers must be satisfied conditions as the above mentioned.

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

Example 1: A building is supplied by the transformer station with

parameters given as:
S = 1250kVA, U = 22/0,4kV, f = 50Hz , Y/ -11
Po = 1720W, Pn = 12910W, Io% = 1,2% , Un% =5,5%
The load current measured in case of the continuous operation transformer is
700A – 800A. There are some ideas saying that it is working with the low
load, and to save energy, then it should be replaced by another with
parameters given as:
S = 630kVA , U = 22/0,4kV, f = 50Hz , Y/ -11
Po = 1150W, Pn = 6040W, io% = 1,4 , Un = 5%
According to your opinion, does it save energy? Please calculate the load
current of the transformer to obtain a maximum efficiency.

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

Answers:
For the transformer 1250kVA, it gets:

+ The secondary rated current:

S 1250000
I 2 dm = = = 1804 A
3.U 2 3.400
+ The load factor:
I 700 ÷ 800
b= 2 = = 0,388 ÷ 0, 443
I 2 dm 1804
+ Copper losses:
pCu = b 2 pn = 0,3882.12910 ÷ 0, 4432.12910 = 1943,5 ÷ 2533,5
+ Total losses:
pS = pFe + pCu = P0 + pCu = 1720 + (1943,5 ÷ 2533,5)
è pS = 3663,5 ÷ 4253,5

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

For the transformer 630kVA, one gets:

+ The secondary rated current:

S 630000
I 2 dm = = = 909 A
3.U 2 3.400
+ The load factor
I2 700 ÷ 800
b = = = 0, 77 ÷ 0,88
I 2 dm 909
+ The copper losses
pCu = b 2 pn = 0, 77 2.6040 ÷ 0,882.6040 = 3581 ÷ 4677
+ Total losses
pS = pFe + pCu = P0 + pCu = 1150 + (3581 ÷ 4677)
è pS = 4731 ÷ 5827

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

Conclusions:
u For above results, if we replace a transformer 1250kVA by a
transformer 630kVA, it will not save energy and economy
u Thetransformer of 1250kVA will obtain a maximum effeciency as
copper losses are equal to iron losses, i.e.,
r r
2 P0 1150
P0 = Pn ) = = = 0, 436
Pn 6040
u The load current:
I2 = I2dm = 0, 436 · 1804 = 786, 5 A

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

Example 2: Three transformers get parameters given in the table:

No S (kVA) U1/U2(kV) f (Hz) Connections Un

Transformer 1 400 22/0,4 50 Y/Y-6 5%
Transformer 2 630 22/0,4 50 Y/Y-6 5.5%
Transformer 3 1000 22/0,4 50 Y/Y-6 6%

These transformers are worked in parallel to supply for a load 1900KVA.

Please compute capacities and currents of the transformers.
Answers:
S 1900
+ One gest: b1 = = = 1, 05 Þ S1 = b1S1dm = 420kVA
S dmi 5.361, 2
un1 %.å
uni
S dmi 400 630 1000
å u % = 5 + 5,5 + 6 = 316, 2
ni

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 V. Three-Phase Transformers

Answers (cont.):
1900
b2 = = 0,956 Þ S 2 = b 2 S 2 dm = 602, 2kVA
5,5.361, 2
1900
b3 = = 0,876 Þ S 2 = b 2 S 2 dm = 876kVA
6.361, 2
u Rated current of each machine:

S1dm 400.103
I1dm = = = 577,3 A Þ I1 = b1 I1dm = 1, 05.577,3 = 606 A
3U1dm 3400

S 2 dm 630.103
I 2 dm = = = 909,3 A Þ I 2 = b 2 I1dm = 0,956.909,3 = 869,3 A
3U1dm 3400

S3dm 1000.103
I 3dm = = = 1443 A Þ I 3 = b3 I 3dm = 0,876.1443 = 1264 A
3U1dm 3400

103