2019

MECHANICAL

-FIROZ MANIYAR
4/22/2019
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PURPOSE OF ENGINEERING DRAWING

Communication tool throughout the design and manufacturing process.

Determines the manufacturing process and other detail for manufacturing.

ISOMETRIC VS. ORTHOGONAL VIEW :

ISOMETRIC VIEW: Ability to see the three sides from one point of view.
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ORTHOGONAL VIEW : Ability to see the dwg from all functional angle ,typically
front, side & top etc.

SECTION VIEW : Shows normally hidden section of drawing.

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DETAIL VIEW : It used to gain a better view of tight feature.

ASSEMBLY DRAWING: provide instruction for putting the component

togeather along title block and notes.they include bill of material.

EXPLODED DRAWING: assembly drawing that shows the relation between the
components
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PROJECTION METHODS

FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

THE OBJECT IS IMAGINED TO BE IN FIRST THE OBJECT IS IMAGINED TO BE IN THIRD
QUADRANT QUADRANT

THE OBJECT IS LIES BETWEEN THE OBSERVER AND THE PLANE IS LIES BETWEEN THE OBSERVER
PLANE OF PROJECTION AND OBJECT

THE PLANE OF PROJECTIONS ASSUMED TO BE NON THE PLANE OF PROJECTIONS ASSUMED TO BE

TRANSPERANT TRANSPERANT

WHEN VIEW ARE DRAWN IN THEIR RELATIVE WHEN VIEW ARE DRAWN IN THEIR RELATIVE
POSIOTION TOP VIEW COMES BELOW THE FRONT POSIOTION TOP VIEW COMES ABOVE THE
VIEW RIGHT HAND SIDE VIEW TO LEFT SIDE OF FRONT VIEW
FRONT VIEW

SYMBOL SYMBOL
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GD&T?

Drafting is graphical representation of 2D/3D objects with the help of

dimensions, GD&T symbols.

Purpose of determining how the device or object should created.

GD&T (GEOMETRICAL DIAMENSIONING &TOLERANCES)

Its an international language used to describe part accurately. It comprises

14 basic symbols.
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 Datums in GD&T

A datum is theoretical exact plane, axis or point location that GD&T or

dimensional tolerances are referenced to. You can think of them as an
anchor for the entire part; where the other features are referenced from.

All GD&T symbols except for the form tolerances (straightness, flatness, circularity
and cylindricity) can use datums to help specify what geometrical control is
needed on the part.

The datum features on a drawing are denoted with a series of capital

letters. These letters are in boxes and tied to the datum feature with a black
triangle.

Relative to Datum: No

Straightness actually has two very different functions in GD&T depending

how it is called out. In its normal form or Surface Straightness, is a
tolerance that controls the form of a line somewhere on the surface or the
feature. Axis Straightness is a tolerance that controls how much curve is
allowed in the part’s axis.

Surface Straightness Axis Straightness

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A part is constrained and a gauge measures along a straight line.

Relative to Datum: No

GD&T Flatness is very straight forward. It is a common symbol that

references how flat a surface is regardless of any other datum’s or features.

The flatness tolerance references two parallel planes (parallel to the

surface that it is called out on) that define a zone where the entire
reference surface must lie.
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Gauging / Measurement:

Flatness is can be measured using a height gauge run across the surface of
the part if only the reference feature is held parallel. You are trying making
sure that any point along the surface does not go above or below the
tolerance zone. Modern CMM’s are best for measuring the part as they can
create virtual planes that the true surface profile can be compared to. This
is a 3D measurement so points must be measured across the length and
width of the part to ensure the entire surface is in tolerance.Flatness cannot
be measured by simply placing the part on a granite slab and
running height gauge over it. This would be measuring parallelism instead
as you are fixing the bottom of the part as a datum.
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Relative to Datum: No

The circularity symbol is used to describe how close an object should be to

a true circle. Sometimes called roundness,

Circularity is the 2D version of cylindricity. While cylindricity ensures all

the points on a cylinder fall into a tolerance, circularity only is concerned
with individual measurements around the surface in one circle. If you think
of a stack of coins, circularity would be a measurement around one coin
while cylindricity would have to measure the entire stack. (cylindricity is
actually a combination of circularity and straightness)
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Circularity is a very common measurement and is uses in all forms of

manufacturing. Any time a part needs to be perfectly round such as a

rotating shaft, or a bearing, circularity is usually called out.

Cylindricity is a 3-Dimensional tolerance that controls the overall form of a

cylindrical feature to ensure that it is round enough and straight enough
along its axis.

Relative to Datum: No

When a part needs to be both round and straight along its axis, such as a
sliding shaft
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Relative to Datum: Optional

Profile of a line describes a tolerance zone around any line in any feature,
usually of a curved shape.

Profile of a line is a 2-Dimensional tolerance

Profile of a line is of course closely related to profile of a surface. The

difference being that profile of a line takes only the measurement at a
specific cross section

Profile is usually measured using a CMM for more complex geometries.

A common use of line profile would be if you were comparing a curving

surface such as the hood of a car, or an airplane wing
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Relative to Datum: Optional

Profile of a surface describes a 3-Dimensional tolerance zone around a
surface, usually which is an advanced curve or shape. If it is called out on a
curved surface, like a fillet on a welded part, the entire surface where the
radius is has to fall within the tolerance zone

3-Dimensional tolerance zone existing of 2 parallel surface curves that

follow the contour of the surface profile across the entire length of the
surface. This tolerance zone may or may not be referenced by a datum.

Profile of a surface is the 3D version of profile of a line. The difference

between them is that profile of a surface would cover the entire required
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surface, making sure that every point falls in the tolerance zone, not just at
a cross section.

Commonly, casted parts call out surface profile when the surface is curved
to control the amount of variation

Relative to Datum: Yes

Two parallel planes or lines which are oriented at the specified angle in
relation to a datum. All points on the referenced surface must fall into this
tolerance zone.
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Gauging / Measurement:

Angularity is measured by constraining a part, usually with a sine bar, tilted

to the reference angle, so that the reference surface is now parallel to the
granite slab
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Relative to Datum: Yes

Parallelism is a fairly common symbol that describes a parallel orientation

of one referenced feature to a datum surface or line

Gauging / Measurement:

Parallelism is quite simple to measure. Like flatness, a gauge is run across

the reference surface or feature. However unlike flatness, the part is
constrained against a granite block or flat plane that acts as the datum
surface where it is measured.
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Relative to Datum: Yes

The normal form or Surface Perpendicularity is a tolerance that controls

Perpendicularity between two 90° surfaces, or features.

Axis Perpendicularity is a tolerance that controls how perpendicular a

specific axis needs to be to a datum.
Surface Perpendicularity: Axis Perpendicularity:

Note: Perpendicularity does not control the angle of the referenced feature
–the tolerance is in distance units. (mm/in)
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Relative to Datum:Yes
Position is one of the most useful and most complex of all the symbols in
GD&T.

True center position of a hole (RFS w/ 2 Datums)

The Position tolerance is the GD&T symbol and tolerance of location. The
True Position is the exact coordinate, or location defined by basic
dimensions or other means that represents the nominal value. In other
words, the GD&T “Position” Tolerance is how far your features location
can vary from its “True Position”.

Position is defined as the total permissible variation that a feature can have
from its “true” position.
Gauging of an Internal Feature

For the true position under MMC of a hole:

Gauge Ø (pin gauge)=Min Ø of hole (MMC)-True Position Tolerance

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Gauging of an External Feature

For true position under MMC of a pin:

Gauge Ø (hole gauge) = Max Ø of pin (MMC) + True Position Tolerance

Bonus Tolerance = Difference between MMC & Actual condition.

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Location of Hole

true location would be 40 mm from datum A and 40 mm from datum B. The

holes center is calculated, usually by a CMM and compared to the true
location. As long as the holes center is in the blue tolerance zone of 0.2 mm
specified by the feature control frame, the part is in tolerance.
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aking the same example, the true position can also be specified with a
maximum material condition callout. This means you are now controlling
the envelope of the entire hole feature, including the size of the hole
throughout its entire depth.

Relative to Datum: Yes

Concentricity, sometimes called coaxially, is a tolerance that controls the
central axis of the referenced feature, to a datum axis
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Relative to Datum: Yes

Symmetry is the non-circular version of concentricity.

Symmetry is not a very common GD&T callout since it has very limited
functional uses (centering location is done with Position) and the
verification and measurement of symmetry can be difficult

Relative to Datum: Yes

Runout is a combination of concentricity and circularity.

Runout is how much one given reference feature or features vary with
respect to another datum when the part is rotated 360° around the datum
axis.

It is essentially how much “wobble” occurs in the one part feature when
referenced to another.
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Gauging / Measurement:

Runout is measured using a simple height gauge on the reference surface.

The datum axis is controlled by fixing all datum points and rotating the
central datum axis. The part is usually constrained with V-blocks, or a
spindle on each datum that is required to be controlled. The part is then
rotated around this axis and the variation is measured using the height
gauge held perpendicular to the part surface.

Runout and its 3D component, Total runout, are very common symbols in
GD&T due to the control

they have on a rotating part. They are used in any rotating components
such as drills, gears, shafts, axles and many machine tool parts.
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Relative to Datum: Yes

Circular Runout = Concentricity (axis offset) + total Circularity (out of

round)

Total Runout is how much one entire feature or surface varies with respect
to a datum when the part is rotated 360° around the datum axis.
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WELDING & ITS SYMBOLS :

TYPES OF WELDING
The main Types of welding used in industry and by home
engineers are commonly referred to as :

MIG WELDING :-

 More commonly called MIG welding this welding type is the most
widely used and perhaps the most easily mastered type of welding
for industry and home use.
 The GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding) process is suitable for fusing
mild steel, stainless steel as well as aluminum.
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ARC WELDING :-

 Generally known as stick or arc welding. Arc welding is the most

basic of all welding types and is quite easy to master in a home
welding situation.
 Arc welding uses a single flux covered electrode applied directly to
the work. This acts as the filler rod to the joint.
 Stick welding is used in manufacturing, construction, and
repairs. And in many cases using specialized electrodes for specific
jobs.

GAS WELDING :-

 Not used as widely for general welding of mild steel. Consists of

mixing oxygen and acetylene gas to greate a flame capable of
melting steels.
 Mostly used today for maintenance work and gas metal cutting.
Also common for brazing softer metals such as copper and bronze.
 This method is also used for welding delicate aluminum parts such
as refrigeration pipes.

TIG WELDING :-

 Is comparable in a way to oxyacetylene gas welding where a

handheld filler rod is used as filler material at the base of the weld.
 This type of welding needs a lot more expertise and control from
the operator
 This welding process is used in manufacturing and industry for
carrying out high-quality work when a superior standard of finish
is needed.
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TYPES OF JOINTS
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 Like other aspects of drafting, there’s a set of symbols for welding to

simplify the communication between designer and builder (i.e. the
welder). The three weld symbols you see in the drawings above
represent a square, fillet and V-groove weld, respectively.

- -

 The welding symbol has an arrow, which points to the location on the

drawing where a weld is required. The arrow is attached to a leader line

that intersects with a horizontal reference line.
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 The weld symbol may also be placed above the reference line, rather
than below it. This placement is important.
 When the weld symbol hangs below the reference line, it indicates
that the weld must be performed on the "arrow side" of the joint.

15. Now, if the weld symbol appears on top of the reference line,
then the weld should be made on the opposite side of the joint where
the arrow points
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16. If the weld symbol appears on both sides of the reference line,
as shown below, it specifies that a weld must be performed on both
sides of the joint.

17. A flagpole indicates a field weld, which simply tells the welder
to perform the work on site, rather than in the shop.

- - - - - - -- -
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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCE

Why study Limits & Fits?

Exact size is impossible to achieve. Establish boundaries within which

deviation from perfect form is allowed but still the design intent is fulfilled.
Enable interchangeability of components during assembly

Limits:

The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within which the actual size
of a component lies are called Limits.

Tolerance: It is impossible to make anything to an exact size, therefore it is

essential to allow a definite tolerance or permissible variation on every
specified dimension.

Why Tolerances are specified?

Variations in properties of the material being machined introduce errors.

The production machines themselves may have some inherent
inaccuracies. It is impossible for an operator to make perfect settings.
While setting up the tools and workpiece on the machine, some errors are
likely to creep in.

Tolerances on a dimension may either be unilateral or bilateral.

Unilateral : When the two limit dimensions are only on one side of the
nominal size, (either above or below) the tolerances are said to be
unilateral.

Bilateral Tolerance: When the two limit dimensions are above and below
nominal size, (i.e. on either side of the nominal size) the tolerances are said
to be bilateral.
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Terminology of limit systems: Limits of size: The two extreme permissible

sizes of a component between which the actual size should lie including the
maximum and minimum sizes of the component.

Nominal size: It is the size of the component by which it is referred to as a

matter of convenience.

Basic size: It is the size of a part in relation to which all limits of variation
are determined.

Zero Line: It is the line w.r.t which the positions of tolerance zones are
shown.
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Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between a limit of size and the

corresponding basic size.

Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit

of size and the corresponding basic size. It is denoted by letters ‘ES’ for a
hole and ‘es’ for a shaft.

Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the minimum

limit of size and the corresponding basic size. It is denoted by letters ‘EI’ for
a hole and ‘ei’ for a shaft.

Fundamental Deviation: It is the deviation, either upper or lower

deviation, which is nearest to the zero line for either a hole or a shaft. It
fixes the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the zero line.

Allowance: It is the intentional difference between the hole dimensions

and shaft dimension for any type of fit. Size of tolerance: It is the difference
between the maximum and minimum limits of size.
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FIT
In engineering terms, the "fit" is the clearance between two mating parts,
and the size of this clearance determines whether the parts can move
independently from each other, or are then temporarily or even
permanently joined.

Hole: A feature engulfing a component.

Shaft: A feature being engulfed by a component.

A. Clearance fit:

In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is less than the
smallest hole diameter so that the shaft can rotate or slide according to the
purpose of the assembly.

B. Interference Fit:

It is defined as the fit established when a negative clearance exists between

the sizes of holes and the shaft.

Ex: Bearing bushes, Keys & key ways

C. Transition Fit:

In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole is greater than
the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft,
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such that a small positive or negative clearance exists between the shaft &
hole.

Ex: Coupling rings, Spigot in mating holes, etc.

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FORMING PROCESSES

Forming processes are particular manufacturing processes which make use

of suitable stresses (like compression, tension, shear or combined stresses)
which cause plastic deformation of the materials to produce required
shapes.

During forming processes no material is removed

Some of example of forming processes are:

 Forging
 Extrusion
 Rolling
 Sheet metal working

FORGING:- Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of

metal using localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with
a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die. Forging is often classified
according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging (a
type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot
working).

Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always
hot forged. Hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result
from cold forming, which would increase the difficulty of performing
secondary machining operations on the piece.
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Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional

profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section.
The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing
processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to
work materials that are brittle Drawing is a similar process, which uses
the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die

Rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed

through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make
the thickness uniform Rolling is classified according to the temperature
of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its
recrystallization temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling.
If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization
temperature, the process is known as cold rolling
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SHEET METAL

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat

pieces.

Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin sheets are considered

foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate
steel

In the US, the thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a

traditional, non-linear measure known as its gauge.

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such
as aluminum, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For
decorative uses, some important sheet metals include silver, gold, and
platinum

CUTTING OPERATIONS NON CUTTING OPERATIONS

PIERCING BENDING
BLANKING DRAWING
CUTTING OFF LANCING,BULGING
PARTING OFF LOUVERING,CURLING,HEAMING,
PERFORATING etc. FORMING etc

BLANKING : In this operation, cut out material or slug will be the

component.

PIERCING : Process of making opening on sheet metal is called piercing.

The cut out material will be waste.

CUTTING OFF : Material is going to cut in a single line, there won’t be any
waste.

PERFORATING : Making no. of holes of same diameter at a time.

BENDING: can be explained as shaping of material around straight line

axis.
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DRAWING : Process of making cup or vessel is called drawing.

BULGING: Rolling the edge of sheet metals.

COINING: Making depression and corresponding projection won’t be

there.

BENDING :

Bending can be explained as shaping of material around straight line axis.

NEUTRAL AXIS:- The line of zero stress is called neutral axis.

BEND ALLOWANCE:- Length of neutral axis in affected zone is called bend

allowance.

BEND ANGLE:- It is the angle between two perpendicular lines drawn from
flange to center of radius.
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NEUTRAL PLANE:- The plane in the material in between the outer & inner
layers experiences no stress. This is called neutral plane.

K factor - is a ratio between the distance from the neutral bend line to the
inside bend radius and the material thickness The K-Factor ( K ) depends
on the material
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TYPES OF BEND
1. V BENDING
2. U BENDING
3. WIPING

BENDING TOOL

DRAWING TOOL

Drawing is a process of axial elongation through application of axial force.

In sheet metal drawing a flat sheet is deformed into a deep cup

Drawing is also used for making rectangular boxes. Component made by

rectangular drawing are,

Engine oil pan, Gasoline tanks, Sinks.

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Redrawing– A drawing operation in which previously drawn vessel are

drawn deeper & reduced in their crosswise dimension.

Shallow draw– A drawn piece part which requires only one drawing
operation.

Die clearance:- The space for drawing is kept intentionally bigger by 7 to

15% the work sheet thickness. This additional gap over & above sheet
thickness is called die clearance.

HOLE FLANGING :-

Hole flanging or collar drawing is a process in which a collar is

formed on the sheet metal component

PURPOSE OF FLANGING: Many sheet metal assembly component

require threaded holes so that they can be fastened with other
element of assembly
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MATERIALS & ITS PROPERTIES :

Material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed

phases can be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications

The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors,

ceramics and polymers.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS :-

METAL NON METAL

FERROUS NON FERROUS POLYMER CYRAMIC

CAST IRON ALUMINIUM THERMOSETING THERMOPLASTIC GLASS
WROUGHT IRON COPPER EPOXIES ABS CEMENT
CARBON STEEL LEAD VUL.RUBBER NYLON CONCRETE
ZINC POLY RESIN PVC
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1 .Mechanical Properties: e.g. stiffness, strength, ductility, hardness,

toughness, etc.
2 .Physical Properties: e.g. density, electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity, etc.
3. Chemical Properties: e.g. corrosion resistance in various
environments.
4. Manufacturing Properties: e.g. formability, machinability, ease of
joining, etc.

18. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :-

The characteristics of material that describes the behavior under the action
of external load are referred as its mechanical properties.

Strength :

Ability of Strength is the property of a metal by which it resists external

force without breaking or yielding

Elasticity:

Whenever an external force is applied on a metal, it deforms. Elasticity is

the property by virtue of which a metal regains its original shape when the
external force applied on it is removed.

Plasticity:

Plasticity is the property by which a metal retains its deformation

permanently, when the external force applied on it is removed.

Examples: forming, forging, hammering

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Ductility:

Ductility is the property by which a metal can be drawn into thin wires. It is
determined by percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area of a
metal.

Toughness:

When a huge external force is applied on a metal, the metal will experience
fracture. Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist fracture.

Malleability:

It is the property by which a metal can be rolled into thin sheets. Highly
malleable metals (like Mild Steel) are extensively used in making sheet
metals.

Strength:

When external forces are applied on a metal, breaking (brittle metal) or

yielding (ductile metal) may occur. Strength is the property of a metal by
which it resists external force without breaking or yielding.

Stiffness:

When an external force is applied on a metal, it develops an internal

resistance. The internal resistance developed per unit area is called stress.
Stiffness is the ability of a metal to resist deformation under stress.
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 45

Creep:

When a metal is subjected to a constant load (below its yield point), at high
temperature, for a prolonged period of time, it undergoes a permanent
deformation. This tendency of the metal is called creep.

Resilience:

Resilience is the ability of a metal to absorb energy and resist soft and
impact load.

Hardness:

Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist permanent change of shape

caused by an external force.

19. STRESS STRAIN CURVE:-

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GEAR’S

A gear is a kind of machine element in which teeth are cut around

cylindrical or cone shaped surfaces with equal spacing. By meshing a
pair of these elements, they are used to transmit rotations and forces
from the driving shaft to the driven shaft.

There are many types of gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel
gears, worm gears, gear rack, etc. Even after choosing the general
type, it is important to consider factors such as: dimensions (module,
number of teeth, helix angle, face width, etc.)

20. SPUR GEARS

Spur gears are the most easily visualized common gears that transmit
motion between two parallel shafts. Spur gears are the most widely used
gears that can achieve high accuracy with relatively easy production
processes.
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21. HELICAL GEARS

Helical gears are one type of cylindrical gears with slanted tooth trace.
Compared to spur gears, they have the larger contact ratio and excel in
quietness and less vibration and able to transmit large force.

22. RACK & PINION :

Gear racks are utilized to convert rotating movement into linear motion.

Rack and pinions are used for lifting mechanisms (vertical movement),
horizontal movement On the other hand, they are also used in steering
systems to change the direction of cars.
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23. BEVEL GEAR

The standard definition of a Bevel Gear is a cone-shaped gear which

transmits power between 2 intersecting axels.

However, because of the fact that manufacture facilities for straight

bevel gears are becoming rare and the fact that straight bevel gears
teeth cannot be polished, making spiral bevel gears which can be
polished superior in terms of noise reduction, spiral bevel gears are
likely to become more common in the future.

24. WORM GEARS

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Are usually used when large speed reductions are needed As for the
materials for production, in general, worm is made of hard metal while the
worm gear is made from relatively soft metal such as aluminum bronze.
This is because the number of teeth on the worm gear is relatively high
compared to worm

25. INTERNAL GEAR

Internal gears have teeth cut on the inside of cylinders or cones and are
paired with external gears
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BOLTS Vs. SCREWS

The difference between a bolt and a screw is commonly misunderstood.

Bolts are for the assembly of two unthreaded components, with the aid
of a nut.

Screws in contrast are used in components which contain their own

thread, and the screw may even cut its own internal thread into them.

A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always
used in conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together
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BOLT TYPES:

ANCHOR BOLT –

Bolt designed to allow objects to be attached to concrete. The bolt head

is usually placed in concrete before it has cured, leaving the threaded
end exposed.

ARBOR BOLT -

Bolt with a washer permanently attached and

reversed threading. Designed for use in miter saw
and other tools to auto tighten during use to
prevent blade fall out.
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CARRIAGE BOLT - Bolt with a smooth rounded head and a square section to
prevent turning followed with a threaded section for a nut.

ELEVATOR BOLT - Bolt with a large flat head used in conveyor system setups.

HANGER BOLT –

Bolt that has no head, machine threaded body followed by a wood threaded
screw tip. Allow nuts to be attached to what is really a screw.
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HEX BOLT - Bolt with a hexagonal head and threaded body. Section
immediately under head may or may not be threaded.

J BOLT - Bolt shaped like the letter J. Used for tie downs. Only the non-
curved section is threaded for a nut to be attached.

LAG BOLT - Also known as lag screw. Not a true bolt. Hex bolt head with
thread screw tip for use in wood.
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 54

ROCK BOLT -

Used in tunnel construction to stabilize walls.

SHOULDER BOLT OR STRIPPER BOLT –

Bolt with a broad smooth shoulder and small threaded end used to create a
pivot or attachment point.
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 55

U-BOLT - Bolt shaped like the letter U where the two straight sections are
threaded. A straight metal plate with two bolt holes is used with nuts to
hold pipes or other round objects to the U-bolt

BOLT STANDERD
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 56

DRILLING

A drilling machine, called a drill press, is used to cut holes into or through
metal, wood, or other materials

Drilling machines use a drilling tool that has cutting edges at its point. This
cutting tool is held in the drill press by a chuck or Morse taper and is
rotated and fed into the work at variable speeds.

Drilling machines may be used to perform other operations.

COUNTERSINKING,

BORING,

COUNTERBORING,

REAMING, AND

TAPPING
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 57

What is the difference between a countersink and a counter bore

A countersink is a large chamfer at the edge of a round hole, to allow fixings

such as screws or rivets with sunk heads.

A counter bore is a round hole with sections at different diameters. This

allows captive head or other fixings with a square shoulder.
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 58

3D PRINTING

The term 3D printing covers a variety of processes in which material is

joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional
object,[1] with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or
powder grains being fused together), typically layer by layer.

Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a

scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional
computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is
usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing"
technology

The first methods for rapid prototyping became available in the late 1980s
and were used to produce models and prototype parts.
 4 DIAMENSIONS INFOTECH 59

As CNC is subtractive methods whereby the term additive manufacturing

can be used synonymously with 3D printing. One of the key advantages of
3D printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes or geometries,

The most commonly used 3D Printing process is a material extrusion

technique called fused deposition modeling (FDM)

In 3D Printing, a three-dimensional object is built from a computer-aided

design (CAD) model
Usually by successively adding material layer by layer, unlike the
conventional machining process