COURSE CODE: CRS 512

COURSE TITLE: Plant Nutrition

NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 Units
COURSE DURATION: Three hours per week

Course Lecturer: Dr.(Mrs) Ehizogie Joyce FALODUN B.Agric, M.Sc. PhD

Email: [email protected]
Office Location: Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria

Course Requirements
This is a compulsory course for all 500 level students in the Department of Crop
Science. Students should have at least 70% attendance to be able to write the final examination.

Reading List / References

1. Soil Fertility & Fertilizers (5th ed), S. L. Tisdale, W. L. Nelson, J. D. Beaton & J. L. Havlin,
Macmillan, New York.
2. Understanding Soil & Plant Nutrition (2009). Olusola O. Agbede ed.). Salman press & co.
Nig. Ltd, Keffi-Nasarawa State.
3. Soils and Soil Fertility (1993). Frederick R. Troeh & Louis M. Thompson. Oxford University
Press
4. Epstein. E. Mineral Nutrition of Plants: Principles and Perspectives. Wiley, New York. 421p.
5. Principles and Practices of Agronomy (2nd ed), P. Balasurbramaniyan, S.P Palaniappan
6.Basic Principles of Crop Physiology. S. Uduzei Remison
7. Fundamentals of Plant Physiology (2006) V.K. Jain
E6LECTURE NOTES
lll

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LECTURE NOTE

Plant Nutrition

Scope of Study

The soil as a plant nutrient medium, nutrient uptake and assimilation; Plant water relationship,

Nutrition and Plant growth.

Introduction

Plants use inorganic minerals for nutrition, whether grown in the field or in a container.

Complex interactions involving weathering of rock minerals, decaying organic matter, animals,

and microbes take place to form inorganic minerals in the soil. Roots absorb mineral nutrients as

ions in soil water. Many factors influence nutrient uptake for plants. Ions can be readily available

to roots or could be "tied up" by other elements or the soil itself. Soil too high in pH (alkaline) or

too low (acid) makes minerals unavailable to plants.

Soil Fertility and Nutrition

The term "fertility" refers to the inherent capacity of a soil to supply nutrients to plants in

adequate amounts and in suitable proportions. The term "nutrition" refers to the interrelated steps

by which a living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and replacement of tissue.

Previously, plant growth was thought of in terms of soil fertility or how much fertilizer should be

added to increase soil levels of mineral elements. Most fertilizers were formulated /to account for

deficiencies of mineral elements in the soil. The use of soilless medium and increased research in

nutrient cultures and hydroponics as well as advances in plant tissue analysis have led to a broader

understanding of plant nutrition. Plant nutrition is a term that takes into account the

interrelationships of mineral elements in the soil or soilless solution as well as their role in plant

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growth. This interrelationship involves a complex balance of mineral elements essential and

beneficial for optimum plant growth.

Essential and Other Mineral Nutrients

The fact that certain element is present in a plant does not itself signifies that the elements plays

and essential role in the life of the plant.

As a class you may be of benefit to one another you may not be essential to another. As humans,

H20 and air is essential to you.

Criteria for essentiality

Arnon (1954) has laid down criteria to distinguish the essential elements.

They are:

1. Plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in the absence of the

mineral element

2. The element is specific and cannot be replaced by another element and

3. The element must play a direct role in plant metabolism

These criteria are important guidelines for plant nutrition but exclude beneficial mineral

elements. Beneficial elements are those that can compensate for toxic effect of other elements or

may replace mineral nutrients in some other less specific function such as the maintenance of

osmotic pressure. The omission of beneficial nutrients in commercial production could mean that

plants are not being grown to their optimum genetic potential but are merely produced at a

subsistence level. This discussion of plant nutrition includes both the essential and beneficial

mineral elements.

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WHAT ARE THE MINERAL ELEMENTS?

There are 16 mineral elements essential for plant growth. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and

oxygen (O) are supplied by air and water. The six macronutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),

potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) are required by plants in large

amounts. The rest of the elements are required in trace amounts. (micronutrients). Essential trace

elements include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and

molybdenum (Mo). Beneficial mineral elements include silicon (Si) and cobalt (Co). Silicon (Si)

and cobalt (Co) have not been deemed essential for all plants but may be essential for some. The

distinction between beneficial and essential is often difficult in the case of some trace elements.

Cobalt for instance is essential for nitrogen fixation in legumes. It may also inhibit ethylene

formation (Samimy, 1978) and extend the life of cut roses (Venkatarayappa et al., 1980).

Silicon, deposited in cell walls, has been found to improve heat and drought tolerance and

increase resistance to insects and fungal infections. Silicon, acting as a beneficial element, can help

compensate for toxic levels of manganese, iron, phosphorus and aluminum as well as zinc

deficiency. A more holistic approach to plant nutrition would not be limited to nutrient essential

to survival but would include mineral elements at levels beneficial for optimum growth. With

developments in analytical chemistry and the ability of some elements to eliminate contaminants

in nutrient cultures, the list of essential elements may well increase in the future. The absorption

of mineral ions is dependent on a number of factors in addition to weather conditions. These

include the cation exchange capacity or CEC and the pH or relative amount of hydrogen (H+) or

hydroxyl ions (OH-) of the growing medium, and the total alkalinity of the irrigation water.

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CEC OR CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

The Cation Exchange Capacity refers to the ability of the growing medium to hold

exchangeable mineral elements within its structure. These cations include ammonium nitrogen,

potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper. Peat moss and mixtures

containing bark, sawdust and other organic materials all have some level of cation exchange

capacity.

pH

The term pH refers to the alkalinity' or acidity of a growing media water solution. This solution

consists of mineral elements dissolved in ionic form in water. The reaction of this solution whether

it is acid, neutral or alkaline will have a marked effect on the availability of mineral elements to

plant roots. When there is a greater amount of hydrogen H+ ions the solution will be acid (<7.0).

If there is more hydroxyl OH- ions the solution will be alkaline (>7.0). A balance of hydrogen to

hydroxyl ions yields a pH neutral soil (=7.0). The range for most crops is 5.5 to 6.2 or slightly

acidic. This creates the greatest average level for availability for all essential plant nutrients.

Extreme fluctuations of higher or lower pH can cause deficiency or toxicity of nutrients.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN HIGHER PLANTS

Concentrations and ratio of different element vary in different plant species and even in

population of the same genotypes growing under different condition. Nevertheless, an approximate

value can be given for each element, based on numerous analysis of many plant materials.

What is Critical concentration level? Is the concentration of an element in plant tissue below which

yield is reduced? Critical concentration level of an element depends on plant species.

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 Table below is a list of essential nutrients elements with their available form and relative

concentration for most of the higher plants.

Essential elements Available form Conc. in dry tissue

(micronutrient)

mg/kg Percentage (%)

Molybdenum (Mo) MoO24 0.1 0.00001

Nickel (Ni) Ni2+ - -

Copper (Cu) Cu+ 6 0.00016

Zinc (Zn) Zn2+ 20 0.0020

Manganese (Mn) Mn2+ 50 0.0050

Boron (B) H2BO3 20 0.0020

Iron (Fe) Fe3+ Fe2+ 100 0.010

Chlorine (Cl) Cl- 100 0.010

Major Nutrients

Sulphur SO 4 2- 1000 0.1

Phosphorous 2000 0.2

4- 2-
H2PO , HPO 4

Magnesium Mg 2+ 2000 0.2

Calcium Ca 2+ 5000 0.5

Potassium K+ 10000 1.0

Nitrogen 15,000 1.5

- +
NO 3 , NH 4

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 Oxygen 450,000 45
H2O, CO2, O2

Carbon 450,000 45
CO2

Hydrogen 60,000 6
H2O

Deficiencies and Tissues Analysis

If the concentration of an essential nutrient elements in plants tissue drops below a level necessary

for optimal growth, the plant is said to be deficient in that element.

Reason for deficiencies

A deficiency may develop if ……………

1. The concentration of the element in the soil is low or if

2. If the element is present in chemical forms that render it unavailable for absorption

3. Sometimes excessive concentration of some other elements may so reduce the rate

absorption of a nutrient that the plant becomes deficient in that nutrient.

Such and induced deficiency resulting from the antagonistic action of another element may

develop even when the nutrient is present at a concentration that would be more than adequate

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were if not for the presence of the antagnostic element at high concentration. Eg. In calcareous soil

Ca is more……………………….

When a plant tissue is deficient in an essential element for reaching changes in metabolism and

growth are brought about. First those metabolic process in which the element normally

participates are slowed down. The entire metabolic pattern becomes de-ranged and plants will

display abnormalities of growth, deficiency symptoms, or may not reproduce normally. Until

early in the present century, the only mineral deficiencies recognized were those of the

macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and chemical fertilization usually took

into account only these elements. Since that time, the importance and extent of other

macronutrient and especially micronutrient deficiencies have become dramatically apparent.

Deficiencies if sufficiently severe, will manifest themselves through the development of more

or less distinct symptoms. Familiarity with these symptoms aid farmers and agricultural

scientist in identifying nutrient deficiencies in the field. However, visible symptoms shall be

regarded as just one of the several kinds of evidence of deficiency of a given element. Several

factors continue to make uncertain the diagnoses of deficiency, based on symptoms only.

Some of these factors are:

a. Symptoms of a deficiency of a certain element may differ so greatly in different crops that

knowledge of the deficiency symptom in one species affords little aid in identifying the

same deficiency in another species.

b. Similar or identical symptoms may result from deficiencies of different elements for

example both Nitrogen and Sulphur deficiency cause a general chlorosis

c. Deficiencies occurring in the field may be severe enough to reduce yields and impair the

quality of the crop while the visible symptoms are still too slight to be readily spotted.

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 d. Multiple deficiencies- A plant may have symptoms of deficiencies of two or more elements

this making identification more difficult than when they occur singly (deficient , N, P, Mo,

Zn).

e. Conditions that are not deficiencies at all may stimulate symptoms which might be

mistaken for deficiency symptoms. Such stimulated deficiency symptoms may be caused

by many factors ranging from elemental toxicities to bacterial diseases and virus infections.

Because of these complexities visual diagnosis of nutrient deficiency is difficult and can

only in most cases be successfully done through experience.

ROLE OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are the most abundant elements in plants. Carbon and hydrogen

are absorbed in a combine form and oxygen is partly taken up in the molecular form. These three

elements are essential for all life form. By utilizing, C, H and O2 the plants synthesize

carbohydrates and sugars on which all life forms ultimately depend. They provide a key role in

providing energy required for the growth and metabolism of plants.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen plays a vital role in all living plant tissues and constitute about 1-4 % of the dry weight.

It is absorbed as nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) ions. Nitrogen is an integral part of

chlorophyll and enzymes essential for plant growth process. It plays an important role in plant

metabolism because it is an essential consistent of different types of metabolically active

compounds like amino acids and proteins. These are important not only as building blocks for

plant tissue but also in the cell nuclei and protoplasm controls heredity.

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Adequate supply of N promotes higher photosynthetic activities and vigorus vegetative growth

and as a result, the plants turn into dark green colour. A high N supply favours the conversion of

carbohydrate into protein which in turn, promotes the formation of protoplasm. Protoplasm, being

highly hydrated is conducive for the succulent plant growth.

The plants deficient in N become stunted and yellow in appearance. The loss of protein N from

chloroplast produce yellowing or chlorosis.

Fig. 1. N deficiency in barley. Top leaves are N deficient, bottom leaf is normal.

Under severe deficiency lower leaves are first affected and may turn brown and die since N is a

mobile nutrient. The symptoms appear last in the younger leaves because of high mobility of

nitrogen in the plant. When N becomes insufficient in the plant supply, the nitrogen already

absorbed into the plant moves and translocate to the younger leaves and stem parts from the older

leaves.

Most common deficiency symptoms of N are the accumulation of anthocyamin pigments in the

epidermal and sub-epidermal cells of the leaves and stems. Flowering and fruit setting are

adversely affected due to deficiency. Flower buds often turn pale and are shed prematurely. The

size and quality of fruits are poor.

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Excessive dose of N in relation to other nutrients such as P and K may delay the crop maturity,

produces succulency in plants and enhances the plant’s sensitivity to water. Abnormal cells

develop due to insufficiency of other element such as K, Ca , and Mg. Lack of Ca results in thin

cell wall rendering the plant susceptible to lodging and attack by pests and disease . In the case of

sugar crops, sugar content is reduced and impedes sugar crystallization. Luxury consumption of N

by plants implies that plants will continue to absorb N in amounts in excess of that requires for

optimum growth resulting in an inefficient and uneconomical use of fertilizer.

(A) N uptake curve

Concentration of elements in tissue

4- 4-

3- 3-

2- 2-
Max
Toxic
1- 1- Yield Range
Response Range

0- 0-

50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 300

Nutrient added (kg/ha) Nutrient added (kg/ha)

Excessive N-uptake as in Fig 1 [ A ] usually results in depressed yield as shown in fig 1 [B] .

Reaction of crops to excess levels of nitrogen varies with crop species . some crops such as grasses

and vegetables are not usually adversely affected by large applications of nitrogen whereas an

oversupply of nitrogen may affect the quality of grain and fruits of barley and apples.

Forms of nitrogen in soil.

Soil nitrogen exists in three main forms namely ;

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1 Mineral and gaseous forms

2 Ammonium nitrogen fixes in 2: 1 layer silicate clay

3 Organic nitrogen associated with soil organic matter

Inorganic Nitrogen in soil ;

Only a small amount of N in the soil is in available forms being useful to plants Ammonium

and Nitrate ion which accounts for about 1-5 % of total N while the remainder of the total N is in

the organic form [about 98.6%].

The available NH4+ and NO3 are supplied from aerobic decomposition of soil organic matter or

asses to the soil as chemical nitrogen fertilizers.

Organic Nitrogen

Organic N in soil constitute about 95 to 99 % of total N and it is distributed as follows;

1 Combine amino acids [ protein,peptices] ; 30-45%

2 Combine rexosamines [ ammino polysaccharides] ; 5-10%. Nucleic acid, nucleotides etc 1 – 2

% unidentified; 40-60%.

Soil Organic matter [ SOM] contains on the average about 5 % by wt.,but varies between 3-7%.

Only about 1-3% of the total N contains in SOM is released yearly by decomposition. The amount

of N in the soil could be estimated from organic matter content e.g

If organic matter is 2% and assuming weight of 1 hectare land area 15 cm depth is 2 x 10 kg

[a] Estimate the amount of N in the soil

[b] Amount of N released

Amount of N in soil = 5% x 2% x 2 x 10 kg

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 =0.05 x 0.02 x 2 x 10 kg

= 2000kg/ha

Amount of N release

= 2% x 2000kg

= 0.02 x 2000

= 40kg

[C] Assuming that onion yield of 2 t / ha needs about 100kg N during the growing season ;

therefore 60kg N deficiency has to be supplied as N - fertilizer.

Nitrogen Budget in soils [ N Gains and Losses]

Nitrogen budget also known as nitrogen cycle shows soil nitrogen changes, inputs and losses

during the course of a growing season of the plants. Gains include all supplies from commercial

fertilizers [organic and inorganic ], rainfall [ precipitation and atmosphere] fixation of gaseous N2

effected by micro organisms including the manufacture of ammonia [ NH3] in the laboratory

through chemical means .

Other sources of N into the soil include N-release in soil by weathering and the mineralization of

organic cpds. N loss from the available pool is mostly due to evaporation [volatilization], erosion,

leaching, denitrification [loss in gaseous form] crop removal, immobilisation by soil microbes (the

process in which nitrate and ammonium are taken up by soil organisms and therefore become

unavailable to crops. When the microorganisms die, the organic N contained in their cells is

converted by mineralization and nitrification to plant available nitrate) and the fixation of

ammonium

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[NH 4] into clay particles .

Means by which N is added to soil – plant system .

1. Rainwater ; Atmospheric nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, nitrates released from

the soil and plants and compounds from coal and petroleum in industrial areas are usually

added to the soil through rain. The supply of N through rainfall may be estimated to 5 -

25kg /ha/ year nitrogen in a readily available form. Thus assisting in maintaining soil

fertility.

2. Nitrogen Fixation:

The change of N 2 gas to plant utilization forms is known as Nitrogen fixation and is carried

out mainly by microorganisms and this is known as (Biological N fixation) or through

electric discharges (during lighting and thunder-storm) in which case the process is

(electric fixation) while chemical fixation occurs in the laboratory.

(a) Chemical N-Fixation

This process occurs in the laboratory whereby ammonia gas is formed from the elements hydrogen

and nitrogen. and requires high temperature and pressure while it consumes large qualities of

energy.

N 2 + 3H 2 ⟶ 2NH 3

Natural gas is the source of hydrogen and the N2 comes from the atmosphere. Several nitrogen

cpds and fertilizer materials are then derived synthetically from ammonia. Some of these materials

are nitrogen solutions urea ammonium nitrates, ammonium sulphates and ammonium phosphate .

(b) Electric N-Fixation

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Nitrogen in the atmosphere can be transformed into a plant-usable form, a process

called nitrogen fixation, by lightning. The process of lightning carries electrical energy that is

powerful enough to break the strong bonds of the nitrogen molecule in the atmosphere. Once

split, the nitrogen atoms quickly bond to oxygen in the atmosphere, forming nitrogen dioxide.

Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water, creating nitric acid, which forms nitrates. The nitrates fall

to the ground in raindrops and seep into the soil in a form that can be absorbed by plants.

(c)Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Biological nitrogen fixation is effected by micro organisms exclusively carried out by

prokaryotes such as soil bacteria or cyanobacteria. It involves conversion of atmospheric

nitrogen (N2) i.e (diatomic nitrogen) into ammonia (NH3) which ionizes to ammonium

(NH4) forms usable by the plants. Some groups of microbes live freely in the soil where

they are able to convert N2 into body tissue and when they die and decompose, the

combined nitrogen is released for plant use.

These groups of free living N-fixers are known as non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing

microorganisms. In the tropics Azotobacter and Bjeirinckia species are known to be free

living microbes that fix N2 under aerobic well aerated soils

Clostridium spp. are free living bacteria that fix N2 under anaerobic conditions in the soil.

Other living soil micro organism that fix nitrogen are blue-green algae and Azospirillum

in the rhizosphere of certain plant. The range of fixed N by these group of non-symbiotic

microbes is between 2-25kg/ha/year.

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 In symbiotic fixation, bacterial and actinomycetates effect the formation of roots nodules

(abnormal growth) in legume and then inhabit those nodules where they fix nitrogen. The

host plant supplies the bacteria with carbohydrate as source of energy, and the bacteria

supplies the plants with fixed nitrogen compounds. That is both the plant and the

microorganism have a mutually beneficial association known as symbiosis. Examples of

such are Rhizobium bacteria are R trifolic which inhabit clovers, R. Phaseoli which

associates with phaseolus vulgaris.

The mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation involves the reduction of nitrogen N2 to ammonia

which in turn is combined with organic acids to from protein. Nitrogenase which contains iron

and molybdenum is the site of N2 reduction. The fixed nitrogen may be used by the host plant or

released to companion crop through mineralization of incorporated crop residue The following

equation represents the process:

N2+16 ATP+8e− +8H + ⟶2NH3+16 ADP+16Pi+H2

Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in agriculture.

(3) Mineralization of Nitrogen

The release of ammonium-nitrogen from soil organic matter decomposition by heterotrophic soil

organisms through series of enzymatic digestion of complex protein compound is known as

mineralization of nitrogen.

(4) Nitrification of Ammonium

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 The mineralized ammonium ion has very short lifetime because it is rapidly oxidized to

nitrate anions by bacteria in a two step process called nitrification.

i. First the ammonium is transformed to nitrite by Nitrosomonas bacteria and then to

nitrate by Nitrobacter as shown below.

2NH4 +4O2 2NO3- + 4H+ + 2H2O + Energy

i. NH4+ +O2 NitrosomonasNO - + 4H+ + Energy

2

Nitrobacter
ii. 2NO2- +O2 2NO3- + Energy

Overall reaction

2NH4 +4O2 2NO3- + 4H+ + 2H2O + Energy

Nitrogen Fixation
Commercial Fertilizer
Non Symbiotic
Symbiotic

Plant Residue Manures

Available Soil Nitrogen

Wet and Dry Deposition
Soil Organic Matter

volatilization Atmosphere

Erosion Losses
Plant Removal Leaching Losses

Fig 2 Major gains and losses of available soil Nitrogen

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Factors Affecting Mineralization and Nitrification Processes

1. Temperature

There is a wide range of temperature (20 - 400C) for all microbial activities. Increasing

temperature stimulates microbial activities with optimum at about 250 or range of 200C -

300C. It has been confirmed that nitrification process is more sensitive to adverse

temperature conditions than the mineralization sequence. In the dry cropping season in

Nigeria, it has been reported that low numbers of autotrophic organisms were found at a

soil depth of 5cm because the temperature reached a daily maximum range between 380

and 400C. However, the prevalent temperatures of 200C -300C with annual mean of 250C

in Nigeria are favourable to most organism responsible for organics matter decomposition

and organic nitrogen mineralization.

2. Water

Nitrification is more easily inhibited by high or low moisture content. Nitrification is also

known to occur under wilting conditions but stops in water-logged soils since there is no

oxygen present again. Higher microbial activities and hence higher production of mineral

N at soil moisture content of 60% than 40% water holding capacity of some Nigerian

rainforest soils have been reported.

3. Oxygen Supply

Oxygen is absolutely essential. The absence of oxygen is associated with the

absence or immediate loss of oxidized form of nitrogen. All known heterotrophs with the

exception of Clostridium butyricum are aerobic. The optimum amount of oxygen for rapid

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 nitrate production in soil is similar to that found in air. Some microbes are still active under

low oxygen concentration. E.g. Nitrosomines and nitrobacter.

4. Soil pH

The pH is the most important factor influencing rates of organic matter

decomposition and hence rates of organic N, P and S mineralization in soils. Nitrification

has been known to stop in acid soils. Nitrosomonas and nitrobacter bacteria responsible for

the conversion of Ammonium to nitrate have optimum pH of 7-9 and 5-8.5 respectively.

However, activity may continue at pH less than 5.0 due to the presence of other species

apart from Nitrosomonas amd Nitrobacter. Nitrification is optimum in well aerated soils of

PH 6.7. Above PH 7.0, free ammonia in soils inhibits normal microbial oxidation of NO2

(Nitrite) to NO3 (Nitrate) so that NO2 may sometimes accumulate to levels toxic to plants.

5. Presence of other nutrients

High amount of ammonium suppresses activity of Nitrobacter leading to

accumulation of nitrite NO2. Both Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter do not have high

requirement for calcium but it is possible that aluminum is toxic to them stopping the

activity of both nitrosomonas and nitrobacter in acid soils.

6. Inhibitors

There are inhibitors which are toxic to the nitrifying bacteria and would temporarily

inhibit nitrification. There are natural inhibitors produced by plant roots that suppress

nitrification. Such inhibitors are chlorogenic acid and tannins farmings. In permanent

grassland it is almost impossible to find any nitrate (NO3) present in the soil. It is taught

that grasses may produce some inhibitor that stops production of NO3, another major

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 reason is that nitrate consumption of grasses is high therefore, any nitrate produced is easily

mopped up.

7. Carbon/nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio)

When the C/N ratio is high mineralized nitrogen in form of ammonium is incorporated into

the bodies of microorganisms involved in the decomposition. Nitrification is therefore very low

as a result of lack of substrate ammonium nitrogen. In general, C:N ratio of 20 – 25 : 1 seems

to be the critical point at which net mineralization to inorganic nitrogen and their nitrification

could occur. Above this ratio, nitrification will be low and below ratio of 20:1, it is likely that

nitrification rate or nitrate production will be high.

Losses of Nitrogen form soil plant system

1. Leaching losses of soil nitrogen

Unlike ammonium (NH4+) which is held on negatively charged soil colloids against

leaching forces, nitrate (NO3-) which is negatively charged is not absorbed into the soil

colloids but remains soluble in soil solution where it moves downwards freely with

percolating water away from the feeding zone of plant roots. This is called nitrate leaching

which is aggravated by heavy rainfalls especially in well drained coarse textured soils.

Losses of nitrogen through leaching is pronounced in humid areas soils devoid of actively

growing crops.

2. Ammonia volatilization

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 Nitrogen could be lost from soil plant system in form of ammonia (NH3) gas which

escapes when ammonium containing fertilizers or urea is applied to the soil surface under

warm and dry conditions. There is usually rapid hydrolysis of ammonium nitrogen or urea

to ammonia which is lost to the atmosphere especially on sandy soils and on alkaline of

calcareous soils.

NH4+ + OH- → NH3 + H2O

Gaseous

Ammonia volatilization losses from applied ammonium or urea fertilizers have been

estimated to range between 10-30%. The use of broadcast application method should be

forbidden rather it should be covered with soils or leached into the soil with irrigation

water. Losses of ammonia gas are greatest on

i. Calcareous soils

ii. When fertilizer is left on soil surface

iii. Under high temperature and in soils of low cation exchange capacities.

3. Nutrient removed by crops

Nitrogen is taken up by both plants and microorganisms the quantity of intake

depends on the crop species and the expected yields. High yielding cultivars have high

nutrients demands due to high yield potential. Nutrients removed by plants are usually

calculated in the basis of those plant parts which are generally harvested such as the grains,

tubers or roots.

4. Run-off losses of nitrogen

Most of the soils in the newly cleared rainforest and savannah areas of the humid

and sub humid tropics especially west Africa are exposed to the violence of the early rains

21
 which cause accelerated soil erosion and nutrient loss. Large amount of soil is removed to

lakes and rivers especially in hilly areas. Erosion losses of nitrogen are higher under fallow

conditions than under forest vegetation.

Runoff and erosion losses of nitrogen could be minimized on tropical farmlands by

adopting manual bush clearing or mechanical clearing with zero or minimum tillage.

Phosphorus Nutrition in plants

Phosphorus is the second most critical element influencing plant growth and production

throughout the world. Phosphorus is taken up by plants from soil solution as orthophosphate anions

H2PO4 or HPO4- depending on the pH of the soil.

The amount of P in plant tissue is about 0.1 to 0.4%. The uptake of H2PO4- is high at low pH

whereas the uptake of HPO42- is more at higher soil pH.

Phosphorus is an essential constituent of nucleic acid of phytin and phospholipids. It is a

constituent of the sugar phosphates and adenosine di and tri phosphate (ADP and ATP) which acts

as “energy currency” within plants i.e. (supplies energy for all the numerous metabolic processes.

Phosphorus is required for the synthesis of ATP which is important for both photosynthesis and

respiration. Phosphorus plays an important role in donation or transfer of the energy rich phosphate

molecules from ATP to energy requiring substances in the plants. This process is known as

phosphorylation. It is also a component of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) essential protein synthesis.

Phosphorus is involved in the metabolic processes of plants and activation of a number of enzymes

participating in the dark reactions in photosynthesis. Deficiency causes overall growth retardation

and the symptoms appear in the lower mobile nutrient leaves. Adequate supply of P is essential at

the early stage of crop growth when the limited root system is not yet capable of absorbing the P

reserves of the soil. Adequate supply of P at a latter stage cannot remedy the adverse effects of

22
deficiency at the critical earlier stage. Deficiency at the early phase of crop growth affects the

reproductive phase.

Functions of Phosphorus in plants

1. It is involved in Energy transfer reactions in various metabolic processes in plants.

2. Cell division and multiplication.

3. Formation of fat and albumin in animals

4. Involvement in the conversion of starch to sugars during cell respiration.

5. Flowering and fruiting, including seed formation.

6. Crop maturity in which phosphorus counteracts the effects of excess nitrogen application.

7. Strengthening of cereal straws, therefore preventing lodging.

8. Root development particularly fibrous and lateral roots.

9. Improvement of crop quality in forages and palatability of vegetables.

10. Increased resistance to diseases.

Plants containing adequate qualities of P are beneficial to animals and humans for growth

of bones and teeth which are mainly calcium phosphates.

Phosphorus deficiency and toxicity

Since P is a mobile element, deficiency symptoms first show up in older leaves of plants. Thus

deficiency symptoms may appear as

1. Stunted overall growth of whole plant compared to normal plants.

2. Dark red to purple discolouration of stead and at times dull green. Protein synthesis is

impaired, vegetative growth is depressed P deficient plants have limited root system and

thin stems.

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 3. There is deposition of starch in roots. Stem of annual plants have reddish green colour

because of formation of anthocyanins. Leaves are tinged with brownish colour and fall off

prematurely.

Phosphorus toxicity is not common, but when it occurs it leads to reduced growth

due to retardation of uptake and translocation of micro nutrients including Zinc, Iron and

Copper.

Figure 3 . P deficiency in corn. Leaves are purplish and tips are brown and necrotic.

Forms of phosphorus in soil

The major sources of phosphorus in soil are parent materials (the apatite group of primary

minerals), plants and animal residues and inorganic fertilizers.

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P contents vary considerably over a wide range and depends on the organic matter content, parent

material and degree of weathering.

A value of 120 to 1880 gg-1 (or 268.8 to 4211.2 kg/ha) has been quotes for Nigerian soils.

Inorganic phosphorus constitute 20-85% of total phosphorus in most soils and is usually

associated with calcium and magnesium or with the oxides and hydroxides of aluminum, iron and

manganese.

In Nigeria, organic P constitutes about 17 to 72% of the total P, there are three major groups

of organic phosphorus compounds identified in soils namely, inositol phosphate, phospholipids

and nucleic acids out of which inositol phosphate predominates.

START Phosphorus fixation

Phosphorus fixation is generally understood as the transformation of soluble forms of P into less

soluble ones after they react with the soil. In other words, P fixation is the locking up of P into

forms unavailable to the plant. Although this is a common occurance in soils, it becomes a major

management consideration in certain soils because of the large amount of fertilizer P needed to

meet crop requirements. Phosphorus fixation is most frequently a problem in acid soils high in

finely divided sesquioxides, less frequent a problem in calcareous soil. It can result in an

unfavourable case of a plant starving in a nutrient rich soil.

Question: Distinguish between N and P fixation?

Factors affecting solubility and fixation of phosphorus in soils

1. Soil pH

Phosphate retention or fixation in acid soils is due to reaction of orthophosphate

ions H3PO4- which is favoured in acid media having high content of Iron, aluminum,

25
 manganese and possibly silicate clays. The phosphate ion reacts with soluble iron,

manganese and aluminum ions (Fe2+, Al3+) to form insoluble phosphates. This fixation or

chemical immobilization of phosphate ions by Al, Fe and their hydrous oxides becomes

more pronounced at pH below 5.5.

H3PO4 + Fe3+ FePO4 + 3H+ at pH 4.5

H3PO4 + Al3+ AlPO4 + 3H+ at pH 5.2

The more acidic the soil, the greater the amount of phosphate fixed. Aluminum

phosphate is generally more soluble than iron phosphate.

In alkaline soil, at pH above 7.0, phosphate fixation occurs. Most of the phosphate

ions are probably precipitated as calcium phosphates and magnesium phosphates.

Therefore, the intermediate pH range of between 5.5, 7.0 represents the soil reaction in

which phosphate is most readily available to plants.

2. Mineralogy

The type and amount of clay in the soil constitute an important factor in the fixation

of applied or mineralized phosphorus. The 1:1 lattice clays such as kaolinite retain or fix

more phosphate ion than an equal amount of 2:1 lattice clays such as montmorillonites.

This is due to the fact that more hydroxyl groups are more exposed in 1:1 group than in 2:1

group of clay minerals.

The quantity of clay the soil contains is also important since the more heavily

textured soils are likely to fix more phosphate than loamy or sand. Banded placement

minimizes contact between soil and fertilizer phosphorus before taken up by roots.

Four major P management strategies are

26
 1. Lime acid soils to increase soil pH to between 6.5 and 7.

2. Apply small amounts of P fertilizer frequently rather than large amounts at one time.

3. Reduce P tie up by banding/injecting P fertilizer or liquid manure.

4. Place P fertilizers near crop row or in farmer where roots are most active.

3. The presence of hydrous oxides of Aluminum and Iron

Apart from the reaction of phosphate ions with soluble Fe, Al and Mn, H2PO4- also

forms complexes with the insoluble hydrous oxides of these elements such as gibbsite

(Al2O2.3H2O) these oxides are more prevalent in humid tropical soils where large amounts

of H2PO4- are usually fixed.

Al – OH + H2PO4- → Al – OH + OHOH
-

OH (soluble)
H2PO4-
(insoluble)

4. Presence of Organic matter

Decomposition of organic matter liberates phosphorus which participates in the

equilibrium reactions between free and absorbed P ions. The presence of organic matter

may also reduce P fixation by forming coatings around sesquioxides and hydrous oxides

of aluminium and iron thus preventing them from complexing with phosphate ions.

27
 Some organic compounds, organic acids and decompositing products may also

dissolve or displace fixed phosphate from compounds and thereafter release it to the soil

pool of available phosphorus.

5. Carbon dioxides (CO2)

The decomposition of organic matter by soil microbes is associated with increase

in CO production. The CO forms weak carbonic acid with water and increases the solubility

of P.

6. Root exudates and organic materials

In the rhizosphere soil organic materials usually enhance proliferation of soil

microorganisms which in turn increase mineralization of organic matter and the release of

inorganic phosphorus.

7. Phosphorus status of the soil

The degree of phosphorus saturation of the soil or amount previously fixed by the

soil also affects subsequent fixation of added phosphorus fertilizer. Repeated application

of doses of phosphorus fertilizer could satisfy the P fixation capacity of P fixing soils.

Further application of phosphorus will then go directly into solution where plants can take

up almost all the applied phosphorus.

Question: A farmer complains of lack of response of his maize to recommend rate of phosphorus

fertilizer what advice would you offer him?

Potassium

Potassium is absorbed as ionic (K+) form from soil solution by plant roots. Potassium

content in plant tissue usually ranges from 1 to 4% on dry weight basis. The most important

function of K is to stabilize various enzymes system. It plays an important role in osmotic

28
regulation and help in maintaining the plant turgor. Potassium is needed to regulate stomatal

opening and hence affects the rate of transpiration and uptake of water.

Potassium is important for the synthesis of high energy phosphate molecules (ATP), which

are required in both photosynthesis and respiration for the translocation of sugars.

Potassium is known to increase the resistance of plants to the stress of diseases caused by

microorganisms. Increases the strength of stems to prevent lodging, increases grain function in

cereal crops and also for tuber development in roots and tuber crops which respond highly to

generous approach of potassium fertilizers.

Most plants have luxury consumption for potassium i.e. if excess qualities of potassium

fertilizers are applied to a soil, the plant will absorb potassium in excess of that required for

optimum yields.

In most cases the uptake curve is linear implying direct relationship between soil quantities of

potassium and plant tissue potassium.

Deficiency symptoms of potassium in plants

Annually agricultural crops remove between 100-300 kg ha-1. Although the total amount

of potassium in soil may be several times larger than uptake, the potassium may not be present in

the soil in the available form to meet crop requirement. This is because amount available for crop

uptake depends on the concentration at the root surface and its replenishment. Potassium in its

29
form taken up by plant (K+), is a mobile element easily trans located to the younger parts of the

plants whenever there is a short fall in the amount taken up by the crop. Therefore symptoms first

manifest on the older plant parts. K deficiency does not immediately result in visible symptoms

(hidden hunger). Initially, there is only a reduction in growth rate, with chlorosis and necrosis

occurring in later stages (Mengel and Kirkby, 2001).

There is yellowing along the margin from leaf tips or apex of older leaves while veins remain green

and alive. Necrotic areas along leaf margins are characteristics of K-deficiency symptom,

browning of tips of leaves down to the base. Acute shortfall in K-supply leads to stunted growth,

poor root development and reduction in the production of fruits and grains. Some small grains,

especially barley, develop excessive numbers of tillers when K is deficient. Grain will be low in

protein and appear shriveled. In alfalfa, white spots will appear on leaf edges. Due to K’s role in

sugar accumulation, root crops (i.e. potatoes, sugar beets) develop small tubers.

Leaf Margin

Mid Rib
Yellowing form of leave

Leaf Stalk

30
Figure 4. K deficiency in corn. Older leaves are chlorotic and leaf edges are burned, but the

midrib remains green. (Bennett, 1993)

Excess potassium

Excess potassium has been found to induce the deficiency of magnesium (Mg) and cobalt

(Co). Excess application K-fertilizer generally leads to deficiency of other cations such as Mg-

deficiency in oil palm referred to as orange frond. This condition is called ion antagonism in plants.

Some K is passed back to the soil through the roots at the end of the growing season. Potassium

moves up the plant as salt by passive means in water solution through the xylem vessels and moves

down as organic K through the phloem.

Potassium fixation

31
 K+ can be lost in leaching waters and or entrapped between layers of hydrous mica

(illite),sinectite and vermiculite. The inter layers of these 2:1 expanding clay minerals

accommodates K+ ions to become fixed into non-exchangeable potassium.

In this form K+ becomes slowly available instead of the readily available K+ in exchange.

The entrapment of K+ in clay layers is referred to as potassium fixation.

Factors Affecting Availability and Fixation of Potassium in soils

1. Nature of soil colloids

In soil where 1:1 type clays such as kaolinite are dominant, K is lightly fixed i.e

very little K is fixed on such soils. On the other hand soils in which 2:1 type clays such as

vermiculite, montmorrilonite & fine grained mica (illlite) are dominant, K is readily fixed

in large amounts. The 2:1 clays have larger negative charge from isomorphous substitution

of Al3+ for Si4 in their silica tetrahedral layer thereby strongly binding the K+ ions.

2. Alternate wetting & drying

During wetting, the 2:1 expanding clay minerals increase their inter layer spaces

and K+ can easily move into the spaces. On drying, the expanded layer collapse to entrap

the K+ between the inter layer spaces; thereby preventing the release of the potassium.

3. Frequency of application

Frequent light applications of K are found to be superior to heavier ones. Frequent

light applications are recommended to avoid luxury consumption, leaching losses &

fixation of excess potassium.

4. Crop Removal

32
 Crop removal of K is higher than all other nutrients elements except nitrogen.

Annual losses by crop removal could be as high as 200 kg ha-1 of K especially in

leguminous crops such as soya beans and cowpea.

5. Presence of other nutrient elements

Potassium is supplied as cation K+ and is readily available to crops. However, there

is competition between NH4+ and K+ uptake and between Ca2+ and K+ as in calcareous soils

where uptake of K may be suppressed.

6. Influence of Lime

Application of Lime usually results in an increase in K-fixation and thus conserve against

leaching losses. High calcium levels in the soil solution also reduce potassium uptake by

the plant.

Potassium Fertilizers

i. The principal K-fertilizer is KCl called (Potassium Chloride) called muriate of potash

which is 60% K2O.

ii. Second in importance is sulphates of potash (potassium sulphates, K2SO4) which is

about 50% K2O. These two K-fertilizers are very solubles & sold in crystal forms.

iii. Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) which is 40% K2O

Sulphur

Sulphur is the next in importance after potassium as regards plant nutrition. Attention to sulphur,

has been inadequate because

i. Deficiency has been rare & restricted to experimental areas where it has been

discovered to be deficient.

33
ii. In deficient areas burning of sulphur rich coals and fuel oils has supplied enough S

elements to plant and soils.

iii. S containing fertilizers, such as super phosphate and ammonium sulphates were able to

serve as important S source.

More attention is now being paid to the study of S for some reasons such as:

i. Use of high analysis fertilizers and S-free fertilizers which has decreased S-content of

most fertilizers (NPK).

ii. Sulphur containing pesticides have been replaced by organic materials free of sulphur.

iii. Sulphur in the atmosphere as a result of burning wood, coal and oil fuel has also

reduced through efforts made to reduce air pollution.

iv. There is also greater removal of S in harvested crops over the last three decades for

example 3-5 t/ha of maize grains would remove more S than fields between 3t/ha.

Forms and functions of sulphur in plants

Sulphur is taken up by plants as the sulphate form, SO4-. Sulphur concentration in plant tissue

is about 0.05%. There is high requirement for S by some crops such as soyabean, cotton,

tobacco, legume (for manufacture of protein) cabbage mustard onion & pepper which has hot

taste due to S-containing compound such as glucosides.

The major functions of S could be summarized as follows:

i. It is an integral part of some of the essential amino acids viz, cysteine, cystine and

methionine

ii. It is also constitute of gluthathione , a compound that plays a part in plant respiration

and synthesis of essential oils.

34
 iii. The characteristics taste and smell of plants in mustard and onion family is the volatile

compound containing S.

iv. It is involved in carbohydrates metabolism of the crop plant.

v. It also increases oil content of oil producing plants such as groundnut, oil palm and

soyabean.

Question Distinguish between sulphur and N

ANS

S deficiency symptoms initially occur in younger leaves, causing them to turn light green to yellow

. In later growth, the entire plant may be pale green. There are no characteristic spots or stripes.

Deficiency symptoms of S occurs as a general yellowing of entire plants and this characteristics

yellowing may be difficult to distinguish from severe nitrogen deficiency plants are usually small

and spindy, nodulation of the roots of legumes is reduced. Absence of sulphur may also delay

maturity of fruits and seeds and reduce quantity of protein in crops.

Excess has been found to lead to accumulation of (nitrate) in plants and also the reduction in the

absorption and utilization of molybdenum, by plants.

Soil sulphur

Soil sulphur occurs in both organic and inorganic forms. About 50-70% of the total S in

top soil is in organic matter implying high S in soils with high organic matter content. Total S

content in soils is about 0.005 to 0.1% depending on the soil type. Most S in soils comes from

parent materials, the S-containing minerals such as FeS, CuS, NiS could be oxidized by

microorganisms to form water soluble sulphates.

FeS + 2O2S – oxidizing bacteria Fe3+ + SO4-

35
 There are few S-deficient soils in the world. In normal agricultural soils, S is added in many

ways.

1. Weathering of minerals (FeS)

2. Rainfall dissolves the sulphur oxides SO2 evolved during the burning of wood, coal, fuel,

oil or from range and forest fires. Rainwater combines with sulphur oxide to form sulphuric

acid making the soil to be acidic. Natural gas has high level of SO2 which is usually

dissolved in rain water as follows:

SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 → H2SO4

This is referred to as Acid Rainfall which is produced in large amounts especially in oil prospecting

areas causing acidification of lakes and rivers.

Sulphur and Nitrogen: Comparison and Contrast

i. They are both important components of the atmosphere.

ii. Both N and S are present in organic matter and released to the soil during

decomposition and mineralization process.

iii. The important reactions of both are microbial. The rate at which the microbial reactions

occur is dependent upon the same environmental factors as affect nitrogen

mineralization including aeration, temperature, moisture and soil reactions.

iv. Plant use their inorganic forms NO3-, NH4+ and SO4-

v. The conditions necessary for reduction of SO4- are essentially identical with those of

NO3-.

Differences

1. Plants have relatively low S-requirements.

36
 2. Quantity of S in soil is lower than N

3. They have different ultimate source atmosphere for N, rocks for S.

4. Sulphate is prone to less leaching losses than NO3-.

5. N is a mobile nutrient element while S is immobile

Calcium

Calcium is taken up as divalent cation Ca2+ by plants. Plant Ca varies between 0.1 and

0.5% whilst the critical concentration of Ca in plants is around 0.20 %. Generally dicotyledonous

plants, especially legumes, require more Ca than monocotyledons. Potatoes and cereals do not

require high amount of Ca.

Functions of Ca in plants

1. Calcium is involved in cell elongation and the development of meristematic tissue.

2. It favours the function of mitochondria by increasing its protein content. Ca is related to

protein synthesis.

3. Calcium together with other cations (Mg, Na and K) is important in maintaining ionic

balance in plant cells.

4. Calcium is carried in xylem vessels to growing point and to the cell walls where it is

immobilized in the function of middle lamella (usually ff in leaves).

5. Calcium is present as calcium pectate in cell wall.

Deficiency Symptoms of Ca

1. Most deficiency symptoms of Ca therefore appear in new vegetative growth such as tie-

back of growing tips deficiency symptoms, is common in acid soils, soils low in organic

matter & sandy soils.

37
 2. Young leaves of new plants are affected first often distorted, small and abnormally dark

green.

3. Leaves may be cup-shaped and crinkled and the terminal is deteriorate with some

breakdown of petioles.

4. Merismatic tissues such as root hairs fail to develop, root growth is impaired; rotting of

roots occurs.

5. Dessication of growing points (terminal buds) of plants under severe deficiency.

6. Stem structure weakened with poor germination

7. Excess Ca could occur in calcareous soils where it is found to depress uptake of other

nutrient elements especially Mg, Mn and Boron.

Major Sources of Ca

1. Primary minerals such as apatite (Ca10(PO4)X2, amphiboles, pyroxene, dolomite, calcium

- feldspar and calcite all form primary sources of Ca in most soils.

2. Secondary minerals such as CaCO3, CaSO4 and Ca phosphate. The peculiarity of Ca is that

it can be the dominant element in some soils, for example, CaCO3 can be up to 20 – 30%

in certain soils.

3. Seawater also contains Ca, Na, K and Mg.

4. Rainwater supplies little Ca.

5. Farmyard manure & organic manure contains a lot of Ca.

6. Lime is the most important source of Ca and it is added to acid soils to increase the pH

Lime contains CaCO3 (calcite), Ca(OH)2 and CaO but the most important is CaCO3 and

dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3.

Loss of Calcium

38
 1. Leaching losses – Some Ca salts are soluble and dissolve to release Ca2+ which is leached.

As the Ca2+ is removed pH tends to reduce.

Ca2+ + SO2 + H2O → CaSO4 + 2H+

2. Addition of N-fertilizer either as ammonium (NH4+) or Nitrate (NO3-) could result in loss

of Ca.

Ca + NO3 → Ca(NO3)2

Leached

3. Rainfall can lead to loss of Ca in the soil in the sense that carbon dioxide, CO2 in rain forms

Ca(HCO3)2 in soil which can be leached leading to decreased pH

Correction of Ca – Deficiency by liming and fertilization.

Calcite CaCO3 (liming material) 40% Ca

Gypsum CaSO4 22% Ca

Ordinary Superphosphate 40% Ca

CaPO4 + CaSO2

Triple superphosphate Ca (N2PO4)2 contains 14% Ca as CaPO4

Forms and Functions of Magnesium in Plants

Magnesium is absorbed by plant roots as divalent cation, Mg2+ and the concentration in tissue is

between 0.1 – 0.4 % similar to the range of phosphorus, calcium and sulphur in plant tissues.

Functions

1. Mg is a constituent of chlorophyll accounting for about 2.7% of chlorophyll molecule.

Hence, it is indispensible for photosynthesis in plants.

39
 2. It is required to activate a number of other enzymatic systems in plant tissue such as

carbohydrate metabolism, citric acid cycle in cell respiration, oil synthesis in oil palm,

groundnut, sunflower and soya bean.

3. Mg is a co-factor, an enzyme activator, in reactions associated with ATP formation

(phosphorus metabolism) phosphorylation reaction and subsequent transfer of phosphate.

4. It is an essential constituent of polyribosomes, the key organelle concerned in protein

synthesis.

Deficiency Symptoms

1. Interveinal chlorosis of older leaves in which the veins remain green but the interveinal

areas turn yellow.

2. leaf margins become yellow or reddish-purple while the midrib remains green and the

leaves may remain small or brittle. Crops such as jute, sugar beet and potato are the most

sensitive to Mg deficiency.

Uptake of Mg is inhibited by high rates of K+ and NH4+. This is called ion antagonism.

Materials used to correct Mg deficiency

1. Dolomite (Ca, Mg)2 (CO3)2 contains 13% Mg

2. Epsom salt (Magnesium sulphate) MgSO4.7H2O/MgO – 55% Mg

Question : State other sources of Magnesium

Micronutrients

These are essential elements which are required in very small amount (less than 100mg/kg

of dry matter). They are Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, Ni, Cl and Mo. They are also known as trace elements.

40
Micronutrient originated from weathering of primary minerals where they occur as impurities

mixed macronutrient cation. The reason these elements are present in most minerals is that their

ionic charge is almost equal to those of the crystal cavity of the minerals.

Table 2

Major and minor constituents element of primary mineral

Minerals Major constituents Minor constituents

Olivine Si, Mg, Fe Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Co

Augite/Hormoblende Si, Mg, Fe, Al, Ca Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Co

Biotite Si, Mg, Fe, Al, K Zn, Cu, Mn, Co.

Tourmaline Si , Ca, Mg, Fe, Bo (Bo)

Apatite Ca, P, Fe. F

Orthoclase Si, K, Al Cu.

Micronutrient are only added when it is certain that there is deficiency of the nutrient. The soil

contents of micronutrient are generally regarded as sufficient. When deficiency occurs,

micronutrients are applied as sprays to the crops. Soil Factors Affecting Deficiency or Toxicity Of

Micronutrients

41
 i. The micronutrients may be deficient in the soil formed from parent materials in which they

are absent.

ii. pH : Metabolic micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn) are soluble under acid conditions or

solutions but Mo is more soluble at high pH.

iii. They rarely act independently; the presence of one affects the uptake of another. For

example, excess Mn suppresses the uptake of Fe, in other words they have negative

relationship.

iv. Intensive culture tends to increase the demand for micronutrients. If soil cannot supply

demand by crops, deficiency may occur.

Iron

Iron is taken up by plants in its ferric (Fe3+) or ferrous (Fe2+) forms. Soil content of iron is

between (4-5%). Iron is lost by leaching and is held in the lower portions of the soil

structure. Under conditions of high pH (alkaline) iron is rendered unavailable to plants.

When soils are alkaline, iron may be abundant but unavailable. Applications of an acid

nutrient formula containing iron chelates, held in soluble form, should correct the problem.

Functions.

1. It is important in N- fixation and activating of enzymes

2. It is important for the formation of chlorophyll even though, it is not part of chlorophyll.

It is a constituent of haemoprotein in the root nodules of leguminous plants Fe and Mn may have

to be present together for the functioning of certain co-enzymes.

Deficiency symptom

42
Since its deficiency lead to failure of chlorophyll synthesis, the same “chlorosis” is used to describe

Fe – deficiency symptom.

It causes chlorosis (whitening) of new leaves since it is immobile. The whitening is preceded by

interveinal chlorosis especially in citrus.

(Figure 5). Progression of Fe deficiency in wheat leaves. Top leaf normal; middle leaves

showing interveinal chlorosis with prominent green veins; and bottom leaf entirely chlorotic.

(Grundon, 1987)

Correction

Spraying ferrous sulphate (Fe So4) 0.5 % solution.

Question outline the factors affecting Fe availability in soil solution.

43
Chlorine

Chlorine is present in soils in adequate unit. It is absorbed as the chloride ion Cl-. It is added to the

soil in animal manure, chloride fertilizers, rainfall and irrigated waters. Chloride ions are extremely

mobile in soils and usually found in soluble forms and is lost by leaching.

Functions

Chlorine is involved in osmosis (movement of water or solutes in cells), the ionic balance

necessary for plants to take up mineral elements and in photosynthesis.

Deficiencies

1. Water stress related disorders like frond breakage and stem bleeding in coconut is a result

of chloride deficiency.

2. It makes leaves to be chloride and necrotic in some area and may exhibit leaf bronzing

Yellowing and/or orange mottling of older leaves drying up of outer edges and tips of leaflets,

reduced growth rate; reduced number of nuts set and reduced nut-size are signs of chlorine

deficiencies especially in palms. Other deficiency symptoms include wilting, stubby roots and

Odors in some plants may be decreased.

Manganese

Forms and functions of Manganese in plants

44
Manganese is taken up by plants as the Mn2+and Mn- chelate through the leaves, as it is usually

applied as foliar spray to correct deficiency. Some crops have high tolerance for Manganese such

as citrus, rice, pineapple and coniferous trees. Plant with less than 10 micro gram g-1 Mn tends to

be deficient.

Functions

1. Activation of enzymes especially respiratory enzymes.

2. It is necessary for the evolution of O2 during photosynthesis

3. It is also involved in the assimilation of CO2 during photosynthesis

4. It is involved in the formation of riboflavin, ascorbic acid and carotene.

Deficiency

Since Manganese is immobile in plants, deficiency symptom manifest first in younger parts as

interveinal chlorosis which may be confused with those of sulphur, iron and manganese. These

may be wrinkling (crinkling) of leaves certain generally wide terminologies are often used to

describe manganese deficiency symptom such as

1. “Gray speck” of oats connoting some brawn spots on the leaves.

2. Speckled yellow of sugar beet

3. Marsh spots of peas which describe occurrence of yellow brown coloration spots in the

middle of peas seeds, when split.

45
In general manganese deficiency has been found to be prevalent in sands, organic soils, high pH

calcareous soils and soils used for continuous cultivation of fruits and vegetables. Manganese

toxicity occurs in acid soils which could be ameliorated by liming.

Boron

It is required in small amount similar to manganese but with differences among plants. Amount in

tissue is about 2-75 micro gram g-1. Boron it taken up as boric acid, H3BO3 or as simple organic

compounds.

Functions of Boron

Boron is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity, calcium uptake and may aid in the

translocation of sugars. Boron affects at least 16 functions in plants. These functions include

flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cell division, water relationships and the movement of

hormones. Boron must be available throughout the life of the plant. It is not translocated and is

easily leached from soils.

Deficiencies kill terminal buds leaving a rosette effect on the plant. Leaves are thick, curled and

brittle. Fruits, tubers and roots are discolored, cracked and flecked with brown spots. Crops with

high Boron requirement are tomatoes , sunflower, cabbage , sugar beet and alfafa while maize,

cowpea, soya beans and most grasses have low Boron requirement.

Molybdenum

It is absorbed by plants as molybdate ion MoO42- in the soil solution. Deficiency symptoms in

plants begins to set in at conc less than 2.0 micro gram g-1. Molybednum is usually deficient in

46
high acidic soil while other micronutrients are usually deficient in alkaline soils. Soils high in

metal oxides (sesquioxides) have low molybdenum availability.

Functions

Molybdenum is a structural component of the enzyme that reduces nitrates to ammonia. Root

nodule (nitrogen fixing) bacteria also require it.

Deficiency Symptoms

1. Malformation of the plant referred to as “whip tail” of cauliflower, where by the leaves are

thin, brittle and stunted. Yellow leaf spot of cashew is associated with Mo, deficiency.

2. The synthesis of proteins is blocked and plant growth ceases.

3. Chlorotic interveinal motting of the older leaves.

4. Inhibition of flower formation. Seeds may not form completely, and nitrogen deficiency may

occur if plants are lacking molybdenum.

Zinc, Zn

Forms and functions of Zinc in plants.

2+
Zinc is absorbed by plant as the divalent cation, Zn only, since it is not affected by oxidation-

reduction reaction in soil-plant system.

Functions

1. It is involved in the bio-synthesis of indole acetic acid (1AA).

2. It is involved in auxin production which encourages stem elongation.

47
3. Zinc is associated with the enzyme which participates in carbonic anhydrase and several

dehydrogenases of respiration and nitrogen metabolism.

4. It plays a role in protein synthesis.

5. It assists the utilization of phosphorus and nitrogen in plants.

Deficiency

1. It lead to low production of auxin which in turn results in shortened internodes and bushy

leaves often referred to as rosette type growth.

2. Leaves are small, stiff and brittle and falls off prematurely. It is a little mobile in plants and

deficiency symptom (interveinal chlorosis) appears on both younger and older leaves. Mostly

appearing on the 2nd or 3rd fully mature leaves from the top of plants.

4. In maize, from light yellow stripping to a broad band of white or yellow tissue with reddish

purple veins between the midrib and edges of the leaf occurring mainly in the lower half of the

leaf.

5. In Wheat, a longitudinal band of white or yellow leaf tissue, followed by interveinal chloric

mottling and white to brown necrotic lesions in the middle of the leaf blade and eventual collapse

of the affected leaves near the middle.

6. In rice, after 15-20days of transplanting, small scattered light yellow spots appear on the

older leaves which later enlarge, coalesce and turn deep brown; the entire leaf becomes rust-brown

in colour and dies out within a month.

48
7. In citrus, irregular interveinal chlorosis, terminal leaves became small and narrowed (little-

leaf); fruit – bud formation is severely or sincerely reduced.

Correction

Application of ZnSo4 as foliar spray especially on trees and ornamentals at the rate of 10-20kg Zn

ha -1. Crops susceptible to Zinc deficiency are beans, citrus, corn, grapes, onion, rice and soyabean.

Copper

Copper is taken up by plant as the cupric (Cu 2+) and less as cuprous (Cu+) ions. Cu level in plant

is 10 ug g-1 with a range of 1 to 75 ug g-1. Deficiency level in plant less than 3.0 ug g-1.

Functions

1. Copper is concentrated in roots of plants and plays a part in nitrogen metabolism. It is a

component of several enzymes and may be part of the enzyme systems that use

carbohydrates and proteins.

2. Deficiencies cause die back of the shoot tips, and terminal leaves develop brown spots.

Copper is bound tightly in organic matter and may be deficient in highly organic soils.

3. It is not readily lost from soil but may often be unavailable. Too much copper can cause

toxicity.

Factors affecting copper availability

Availability of copper to plants is affected by

49
 1. Presence of abundance of organic matter may result in copper immobilization. Organic

substances tend to hold Cu in solution and make it unavailable to plants; hence organic soils are

usually Cu deficient.

2. Fairly trained acid sandy soils are Cu deficient due to the washing away of soluble Cu. It

is observed that sandy soils have low total Cu content.

3. pH increases lead to decrease in Cu 2+

4. Presence of other metallic ions such as iron and aluminum may compete with Cu ion in

solution during plant absorption may cause copper deficiency.

5. Peat Bog: Newly reclaimed organic soils may accumulate organic matter which forms

chelate with Cu. The peat in peat soils hold Cu tightly for the plants to absorb.

6. In Nigeria especially Benue state, Cu-deficiency usually occurs on citrus grown on sandy

soils derived from acidic rocks.

Question : Give reasons for increased interest in micro nutrients

deficiency

Plant Nutrient Deficiency Terminology

Burning: severe localized yellowing; scorched appearance.

Chlorosis: general yellowing of the plant tissue; lack of chlorophyll.

Generalized: symptoms not limited to one area of a plant, but rather spread over the entire

plant.

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 Immobile nutrient: not able to be moved from one part of the plant to another.

Interveinal Chlorosis: yellowing in between leaf veins, yet veins remain green.

Localized: symptoms limited to one leaf or one section of the leaf or plant.

Mobile nutrient: able to be moved from one plant part to another.

Mottling: spotted, irregular, inconsistent pattern.

Necrosis: death of plant tissue; tissue browns and dies.

Stunting: decreased growth; shorter height of the affected plants.

Water in the soil – plant system

Importance and Uses of water to plants.

Water is the most important need in farming. It is vital to growers because of the several functions

it serves in plant growth:

1. Plant cells are largely made up of water. Plant tissue is 50% to 90% water.

2. When plant cells are full of water, the plant is stiff (turgid) or semi-rigid because of water

pressure in plant tissue. This keeps stems upright and leaves expanded to receive sunlight.

3. Photosynthesis uses water as a building block in the manufacture of carbohydrates.

4. Transpirational or evaporation of water from the leaf helps cool the plant.

5. Plant nutrients are dissolved in soil water and moves towards the roots through the water.

Water is thus important in making nutrients available to plants.

6. Water carries materials such as nutrients and carbohydrates throughout the plant.

Effect of water stress:

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 Water stress is caused by shortage of water in plant tissue. Stress can occur even at moisture

levels that do not cause wilting. Part of the reason for such stress is that as the soil dries up it

became increasingly difficult for the plant, guard cells begin to close the stomata, slowing down

the exchange of oxygen and CO2. As a result of the reduced exchange of the two gases,

photosynthesis slows down; and with less photosynthesis, plant growth is inhibited.

As the soil dries further, or if the soil is hot and dry, the plant becomes even more deficient in

water. The plant begins to lose water faster than it can be absorbed and the plant temporarily wilts.

At this temporary wilting point, the plant will recover when conditions improve. Wetter soils,

cooler temperatures, a more humid atmosphere, shade or less wind can help the plant to recover.

Although, plant recovers, episodes of water stress can reduce plant growth and crop yield.

With further drying, the permanent wilting point is reached. Now the plant will not recover even

if conditions improve.

Plant suffering from water stress is small and sparse with small, poorly coloured leaves. Old leaves

often turn yellow and drop off. Some plants show specific symptoms of water stress e.g. the leaves

of corn plants curl when they need water.

Seed germination is very sensitive to water stress, the emerging seedling is easily injured by dry

soils.

Soil-water Relationship

When water is added to a dry soil either by rainfall or irrigation, it is distributed around the soil

particle where it is held by the forces of adhesion and cohesion. When all pores are filled with

water, therefore is said to be saturated.

Adhesion is the attraction of water molecules towards soil particles. Cohesion is the attraction of

water molecules towards each other. Moisture enters plant roots by the process of osmosis, which

52
may be roughly defined as the movement of a liquid through a semi-permeable membrane caused

by unequal concentration on the two sides.

There are three main classes of soil water.

1. Hygroscopic water: Water is held tightly to the surface of soil particles by absorption

forces. The tension with which water is held in soil surface is from 31 to 10,000

atmospheres.

2. Capillary water: Water is held by forces of surface tension as continuous film around soil

particles and in capillary spaces. Capillary water is held between tension of 1/3 and 31

atmosphere.

3. Gravitational water: Water moves freely in response to gravitational force and drains out

of the soil. This state of water will appear when the soil is saturated.

Movement of water in the soil

Movement of water from the surface into the soil is called infiltration. The rate of infiltration into

a soil is an extremely important factor in soil moisture. Maximum rate at which water can enter

the soil under specific conditions is called Infiltration rate. The infiltration rate usually decreases

with time following irrigation. The actual rate at which water is entering the soil at any given time

is termed as infiltration velocity.

Factors affecting Infiltration: the major factors that affect infiltration of water into soil are the

1. Initial water content

2. Surface permeability

3. Internal characteristics of the soil (such as pore space)

4. Degree of swelling of soil colloids

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 5. Organic matter

6. Duration of rainfall

7. Temperature of the soil and water

As the initial water content increases the initial infiltration rate is reduced, but the effect is less

pronounced with increasing time. Infiltration rate decreases due to some impediments such surface

crust, clay pan and hard pan; surface compaction caused by farm implements and also by the

porosity of the soil.

Infiltration rates are generally lower in soils of heavy texture than in soils of light texture. Addition

of organic residues often improves the surface permeability and increases infiltration rate

substantially. The infiltration rate is high in the tropics due to viscosity of warm water.

Soil Moisture Determination

1. Gravimetric Method

It is the most commonly used method of soil moisture measurement wherein loss

of moisture is determined. Weight of wet samples and oven dried samples are recorded.

This gives the weight of moisture in the soil and expressed as a percentage in dry soil.

Procedure

Moisture content (%) = Ww – Wd x 100

Wd 1

Ww = Weight of moist sample

Wd = Weight of oven dry sample

Example: A fresh soil sample weighs 100g and after oven drying, it weighs 80g. calculate the

moisture content of the soil.

Moisture content (%) = Ww – Wd x 100

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 Wd 1

= 100 – 80 x 100

80

= 25%

2. Volumetric basis

It is convenient to express the soil moisture on volumetric basis by multiplying the

soil moisture content with bulk density core sampler.

Volumetric moisture percentage (PV) = Ww – Wd x 100

Pw x Vt 1

Where

Ww= wt of wet soil sample (g)

Wd = dry wt of soil sample (g)

Pw = density of water (g/cc)

Vt = volume of soil including in the core pores (cc)

Example: soil sample is drawn with a core sampler having the dimension of 2.0 cm radius and

15cm height. The fresh and oven dry weight of the soil are 591.8 and 539.6g respectively. Calculate

the moisture percentage on volume basis.

Volume of core = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

= 22 x (2.0)2 x 15

= 188.6cm3

Pv = Ww – Wd x 100

Pw x Vt 1

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 = 591.8 – 539.6 x 100

1 x 188.6

= 27.7%

Exercise

A fresh soil sample weighs 100g and after oven drying at a temperature of 105C for about 15 hours

it attained 85g, it later attained a constant dry weight of 82g after taken back to the oven for another

20 hours. Calculate the % moisture content of the soil.

Other methods of soil moisture determination include the use of Tensiometer, electrical resistance

method, neutron probe methods, probe.

Soil Moisture Constants

The status of soil mass or charges occurring in the soil mass after the irrigation or rainfall

is called the soil moisture constant. The moisture constants are:

1. Water holding capacity or saturation

2. Field capacity

3. Permanent wilting point

4. Available soil moisture

5. Moisture equivalent

Field capacity and permanent wilting point are commonly used soil moisture constants. These

represent the upper and lower limit of available soil moisture respectively.

1. Water holding capacity (WHC): It is the moisture content of the soil when all the pores are

filled with water. This condition is also called saturation point. The water is held without

any force or tension at this condition.

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 2. Field capacity (FC): Field capacity is the moisture content of the soil attained after drainage

of gravitational water. The moisture contact at this point is relatively stable. This situation

usually exists for two or three days after rain or field capacity.

3. Permanent wilting point (PWP): Permanent wilting point or wilting coefficient is the

moisture content at which the plants can no longer get enough moisture to meet the

transportation requirement and remain wilted even if water is added to the soil. Wilting and

dropping of leaves are the most common symptoms at this level.

4. Available soil moisture (ASM): Moisture that lies between field capacity and wilting point

(permanent wilting point) is called available soil moisture.

5. Moisture equivalent: It is defined as the amount of water retained by a sample of initially

saturated soil after being centrifuged for 1000 times that of gravitational force for a period

of time; usually half an hour.

Nutrient uptake by plants roots

Plant roots perform double functions of anchoring the plants firmly to the soil and as organs

for nutrients and water absorption. A nutrient element that is to be absorbed into the plant must be

in a soluble form and must be located at the root surface, or within the area of the soil immediately

surrounding the root hair.

Movement of ions from soil to root surfaces

Three mechanisms are recognized

Root interception (contact absorption):

Root interception occurs as the plant roots grow through the soil mass encountering ions in soil

57
solution and adsorbed ions on soil surfaces. There is a direct contact of the root with the nutrient

and result in a direct exchange between the root and the soil. Nutrient absorption through this

mechanism is termed contact feeding, however, insignificant as most of the plant nutrients occur

in the soil solutions.

Mass flow

Mass flow occurs as nutrient ions are transported in the flow of water to the root surface that

results from transpirational water uptake by the plant. Mass flow prevails for nutrients that are

present in relatively high concentration such as Ca and Mg. Movement of nutrient by mass flow

is reduced at low temperature and low soil moisture content.

Diffusion

Nutrient ions diffuse toward the roots when ion concentration at the root surfaces decrease as

plant absorb nutrient, creating a nutrient concentration gradient. Diffusion is a continual process

in the soil where by nutrients move from an area of higher concentration to a lower conc. around

the root surface. Diffusion functions to alleviate the nutrient depletion that has occurred in the

zone next to the root. Most P and K move to the root by diffusion. Factors that affect the rate of

diffusion of ions to the root surface are the nature of the plant root system (tap or fibrous), soil

type (clay, loam or sand etc) and the difference between the conc. of nutrient at the root surface

and bulk soil.

Question Explain the factors that affect the rate of diffusion of ions

Movement of ions into the root system

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The movement of nutrient ions from root surface into the root can be described by two processes:

Passive movement/transport

Active movement/transport

Question

Explain the Passive and Active movement or transport of ions

The Rhizosphere

The portion of the soil which is usually about 2mm away from the root surface is termed

the rhizosphere. The rhizospheric soil has both biological and chemical properties different from

the bulk soil, because of the activities of the roots. The soil in the rhizosphere differs from the rest

of the soil in the following ways:

1. Soil acidity may be higher or lower in the rhizosphere than the bulk soil. When plants take

up cationic elements such as K+, Ca++, Mg++, or NH+4 from the soil solution, hydrogen ions,

H+ are released from the roots to balance the charge in the soil solution thus increasing the

acidity.

Uptake of anions (NO3, NO2, SO4) makes the roots to exude bicarbonates in replacement

thus lowering the acidity (increased pH level).

2. Due to uptake of dissolved nutrients by roots from this soil zone, nutrient concentration

becomes low causing a form of concentration gradient between the rhizosphere and the

other soil volume. Nutrients then move from bulk soil to the rhizosphere by diffusion.

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 3. There is higher concentration of energy-rich materials in the rhizosphere. These organic

compounds include root exudates such as organic acids, sugars, amino acids and phenolic

compounds and these are useful for the growth of microorganisms.

4. The high concentration of root exudates and other high molecular mucilages secreted by

root cap cells give rise to higher concentration of microorganism in the rhizosphere than

the bulk soil.

5. The respiration of roots and microbes results in high concentration of carbon dioxide

(CO2).

6. The pH of the area surrounding the root is also lower owing to the formation of carbonic

acid.

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3H+ + HCO3-

7. Fungi usually have beneficial association with plant roots to form mycorrhizae. These

mycorrhizae accelerate the growth of certain trees species such as pinus resimosa and pinus

carribean plant roots. The fungal hyphae grow out into the soil to about 15cm from the root

surface to scavenge for nutrients thus increasing the effective feeding zone of the roots.

Fungi are also important because they excrete enzymes which dissolve nutrients in mineral

soils.

Question How is the rhizospheric soil different from the bulk soil

Growth and Development

Growth is the self-multiplication of living material, the protoplasm itself. Growth is an increase

in size (volume or length) due to cell divisions and subsequent enlargement, Crop growth is a

complex process whereby different organs such as leaves, roots, stems, flower, fruits and grains

60
develop, grow and die in overlapping sequences. It is an increase in dry weight of bulk of an

organism associated with development.

In most organisms, growth involves cell division, expansion, differentiation and morphogenesis.

Increase in height and dry weight is the most obvious manifestation of growth. Development is

defined as an ordered change or progress, often towards a higher, more ordered or more complex

state. Development may take place with growth and growth may take place with development

these are often quite integrated, morphological and chemical differentiation takes place during

development.

These processes of cells involve synthesis of many organic compounds like protein, cellulose and

nucleic acids and requiring physical forces that cause cell enlargement. Growth is a permanent

change in size and increase in weight either of the plant as a whole or of some organ or tissue.

The growth may be grouped into two types in higher plants:

1. Limited and

2. Unlimited type.

In the limited type (e.g. annual plants), the plant grows up to a predetermined size and stops

growing any further. On the other hand, woody perennials exhibits a pattern of unlimited growth

where the plant adds to its mass by growth every growing season of the year. Growth could be

genetic or influenced by environment.

Growth Curve

Under favourable conditions, there is characteristics course of increase in the plant growth. If a

graph is drawn (growth rate vs. time), it results in a sigmoidal or S shaped curve. There are three

well-marked regions in a standard growth curve.

1. The initial slow growing phase called the log phase.

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 2. A rapid growing phase called log phase; the growth is in logarithmic phase.

3. The third phase is the period of declining growth and the organism maintains the size it has

already achieved. This is called steady state phase.

l------------------------------------steady state phase--------------

growth

rate log phase

---------------------------------------------------

Time

The major environment factors affecting the growth development and life of plants are as follows

1. Sunlight

2. Availability of oxygen/CO2

3. Adequate supply of soil moisture

4. Favourable temperature

5. Favourable soil reaction (acidity & alkalinity)

6. Absence of toxic substance

7. Favourable root environment

8. Adequate supply of plant nutrients

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i. Sunlight: It is very necessary for the supply of radiant energy needed for photosynthesis

where there is inadequate sunlight the process of photosynthesis will be disturbed and thus

the overall growth and yield of the crop will be affected.

6CO2 + 12H2O Sunlight C6H12O + 6H2O + 6O2 +

chlorophyll

ii. Availability of Oxygen and CO2

Lenticels are openings in plant roots that permit gas exchange. Oxygen diffuses into the

root cells and is used for respiration whereas the CO2 diffuses into the soil. Respiration

releases energy that the plant needs for synthesis and translocation of organic compounds.

In water logged soils Oxygen is usually deficient. Aerobic microorganisms, bacteria

actinomycetes and fungi utilize oxygen from the soil and are primarily responsible for the

conversion of nutrients in organic matter into soluble forms (mineralization) that plant can

use. In anaerobic situation activities of important soil microorganisms will be greatly

retarded.

iii. Adequate supply of moisture

Water and oxygen are inversely related as regards utilization in soils. Roots need

oxygen for their respiration process in order to obtain energy for the extraction of nutrients

and water from the soil.

It has been estimated that about 500gm of water is needed to produce 1g of dry

plant material. About 5% of this water becomes an integral part of the plant. Atmospheric

conditions such as relative humidity and temperature determine how much of water is

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 available for plant use. Water is needed for photosynthesis turgidity, evapotranspiration,

nutrient uptake in aqueous medium, translocation of food, chemical reactions in plants as

well as leaching of anions and cations from the soil-plant system.

Inadequate availability of water therefore leads to non-completion of vegetative and

reproductive stages of crops. Moisture equally affects the activities of soil microorganisms.

Iv Favourable temperature

The optimum temperature for plant growth ranges from between 15oC to 400C. Microbial

activity in soil accelerates as temperature rises to a maximum of 400C. Increase in

temperature from 0 – 10 to 20 etc. Increases microbial activity up to a maximum, however,

extremely high temperatures could inhibit their activities. Soil temperature where it is far

from optimum could be modified through mulching, shading and appropriate tillage

operations. Temperature is important because it affects the process of photosynthesis,

respiration, cell wall permeability, absorption of water and nutrients transpiration and

enzyme activity.

iv. Favourable soil reaction (soil acidity and alkalinity)

Most of the soil microorganisms that influences organic matter decomposition and

nutrient availability grows best at pH 6.5 – 7 which is the pH of microbial cytoplasm.

Bacteria and actinomycetes are usually less tolerant of acid soil activities than are fungi.

Most crops do well at pH 6.5 – 7, extreme acidity and alkalinity affects nutrients

availability uptake by plants. At low pH for instance, Mn, Al could be present in excess

and thus become toxic to plant growth and development. At a very high pH there may be

excess preponderance of Ca++ and Na+ both which affect nutrient availability and

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 maintenance of suitable soil structure. High and low pH is detrimental to plant growth and

development.

v. Favourable Root Environment

The Rhizosphere (root environment) must be favourable for plant growth and

development. The root environment must have enough pore space in which roots can

function. Oxygen must be available for root respiration. There must be absence of

frangipans and it should provide enough anchorage to hold plants deep. There must also be

absence of toxic substances which affects the normal growth of the plant (under low pH

we have toxic levels of Al3+, Mn++ and Fe2+, below PH of 5.2 there is preponderance of

Al3+ and Mn2+. Plants differs in their tolerance to availability of Mn2+ and Al3+ most often

it affects plants adversely.

vi. Availability of plant nutrients

Sources of plant nutrients

Plant nutrients are essentially supplied through manures and fertilizers. Manures

are organic in nature and apply in large quantities. They are also called organics or organic

manure. They are of animal or plant origin and contains more than one nutrient element.

Nutrient content in the organic manure is low. Fertilizers are inorganic or

synthetic and the nutrient content is higher than in manures. Fertilizers are available for a

particular nutrient or combination of nutrients.

Organic Manures

These are the valuable by-products of farming and allied industries derived from plant and

animal sources. Organic manure is broadly classified as bulky organic manures and concentrated

organic manures. Bulky organic manures are applied in large quantities and contain low amount

65
of plant nutrients e.g. farmyard manure, compost etc. Concentrated organic manure contain higher

percentage of major plant nutrients e.g. various oil cakes and waste products of animal origin like

dried blood, bone meal, fish manure etc.

Farmyard Manure (FYM)

This manure is produced in the farm chiefly with animal excreta. It is also called stable

manure, barn manure, dungs and cattle manure. The manure consist of a mixture of cow dung,

liquid excreta or urine, the beef dry material used in the stable and any remnants of straw and plant

stalks fed to cattle. On the average well rotten farmyard manure contains 0.5%N, 0.2% P 2O5 and

0.5% K2O.

Compost

Decompose plant residue farm wastes are known as farm compost. The waste materials

that are available in urban areas can be made into compost called urban compost. The nutrient

content of compost is 1.01%N, 0.5% P2O5 and 0.8 – 0.9% K2O. Application of partially or fully

decomposed materials quicken the nutrient release to the crops.

Sheep and goat manure

The droppings of sheep and goat provide valuable manure. Penning of sheep and goat in

the fallow field is the common practice in some parts of the world including Nigeria. It has been

estimated that 1000 sheep for a night will add about 2t of droppings. The manure contains 3% N,

1% P2O5 and 2% K2O.

Poultry Manure

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 The excretion of birds contains both liquid and solid parts and hence there is no urine loss.

The decomposition rate of the poultry manure is very quick. The manure should not be exposed to

sun since there is 50%N loss within a month. The fresh droppings contains 75% moisture, 1.5%N

1.2% P2O5 and 0.5% K2O.

Sewage and Sludge

Sewage has two components, the solid portion called sludge and the liquid part called

sewage water. The sludge is collected separately dried and used as manure. The sludge on an

average contains 1.5 – 3.5%N, 0.8 – 4% P2O5 and 0.3 – 0.6% K2O.

Once the solid portion or sludge is removed, sewage water is known as treated effluent.

This can be used for irrigation. Sometimes it is important to dilute the effluent with water in the

ratio of 1:1 because of its concentration. It has been reported that irrigation with sewage effluent

may result in improved soil structure and water holding capacity by decreasing the bulk density

and hydraulic conductivity. Though there are many beneficial effects of sewage effluent, it may

also contain harmful bacteria. The municipal sewage may contain high amount of heavy metals.

Green manuring

This is a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant material

for improving the physical conditions of the soil or for adding nutrients. Any crop or plant

(generally leguminous) grown and ploughed into the soil is called green manure. A leguminous

crop producing 10 – 25t of green matter per ha will add about 60 to 90kg N. Common shrubs and

trees useful for this purpose are glyricidia, neem (Azadirachta indica), crotalaria juncea, sesbania

aculeate, calatropis gigantean etc.

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Biofertilizers
This includes selective microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and algae which are capable of fixing
atmospheric N or convert insoluble phosphate in the soil into forms available to plants.
Biofertilizers are cost effective eco-friendly and renewable sources of plant nutrients to
supplement chemical fertilizers. Biofertilizer also play a vital role in maintaining long term soil
fertility & sustainability

Groups of biofertilizers

Nitrogen fixing organisms are either free living or having symbiotic association with plants. They
directly or indirectly contribute N nutrient to crop plants.

Free living

This group includes numerous species of blue green algae and certain bacteria such as
Azotobacter.

Symbiotic association

The bacteria, Rhizobium, live symbiotically on the roots of legumes. Azolla, a water fern, fixes
atmospheric N in symbiotic association with blue-green algae (BGA) in rice ecosystem.

Associative symbiotic

One of the species of Azospirillium A lipoferum has a associative symbiosis with higher plant
systems.

Based on the type of micro organisms, the biofertilizer can be classified as follows:
1. Bacterial biofertilizers e.g Rhizobium, Azospirillui, Azotobacter, Phosphobacteria.
2. Fungal biofertilizers e.g Mycorrhiza
3. Algae biofertilizers e.g Blue green algae (BGA) and Azolla
4. Actinomycetes biofertilizer e.g Frankia
Biofertilizers are mostly cultured and multiplied in the laboratory. Bluegreen algae and azolla can
be mass multiplied in the field.

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