DNA

that DNA stands for DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID and RNA stands for RIBONUCLEIC
ACID. This is because DNA lacks an OXYGEN that RNA has.
They are mainly found in the NUCLEUS of the cells and their tasks are to produce a genetic
code to express certain traits, such as eye colour, blood type and whether or not a disease is
present, such as haemophilia.
The DNA has the shape of a DOUBLE HELIX.
Each chain of this helix is made of NUCLEOTIDES, which each have organic BASES that are
connected by HYDROGEN bonds.
There are FOUR DNA bases, named ADENINE, CYTOSINE, THYMINE and GUANINE.
Respectively, these are represented as the letters A, C, T and G.

CAPE DNA
1. Compare the structure of RNA and DNA; Draw a nucleotide using shapes; recognize
(not draw) the structural formulae of nucleotides, ribose, deoxyribose, pyrimidines,
purines; nature of hydrogen bonds.
- RNA and DNA share a basic nucleotide structure but differ in the type of pentose sugar
and certain nitrogenous bases, leading to functional distinctions between the two types of
nucleic acids.
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2. Explain the importance of hydrogen bonds and base pairing in DNA replication;
Recognition of the significance of 5’ and 3’; semiconservative replication; genetic
code.
- hydrogen bonds and base pairing ensure accurate DNA replication, the 5' to 3' orientation
directs the synthesis of new DNA strands, semiconservative replication maintains genetic
fidelity, and the genetic code dictates the information stored in DNA.

3. Describe the roles of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis; Different types of RNA
(tRNA, rRNA and mRNA) and their respective roles. Initiation, transcription,
translation, termination.
- DNA serves as the genetic blueprint, while RNA carries out protein synthesis; different
RNA types (mRNA carries genetic info, tRNA brings amino acids, rRNA forms
 ribosomes) coordinate in initiation, transcription (RNA synthesis), translation (protein
assembly), and termination of the process.

4. Explain the relationship between the sequence of nucleotides and the amino acid
sequence in a polypeptide.
- The sequence of nucleotides in mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide during protein synthesis.

5. Explain the relationship between the structure of DNA, protein structure and the
phenotype of an organism.
- The structure of DNA encodes the sequence of amino acids in proteins, which ultimately
determines the phenotype of an organism.

Cell Division and Variation

1. Describe the relationship among DNA, chromatin, and chromosomes.

- DNA is packaged into chromatin, which condenses to form chromosomes during cell
division.
2. Describe with the aid of diagrams, the stages of mitotic cell division.
- Mitotic cell division involves:
- Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.
- Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
- Telophase: Chromatids decondense, nuclear envelope reforms.

3. explain the importance of DNA replication for maintaining genetic stability.

- DNA replication ensures accurate transmission of genetic information to daughter cells,
maintaining genetic stability and preventing mutations.
4. Discuss the role and importance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual reproduction.
- Role: Facilitates growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction.
 - Importance: Ensures cells divide accurately, maintaining genetic integrity and
providing identical copies for growth and repair.
5. Describe with the aid of diagrams, the processes involved in meiotic cell division.
- Involves two successive divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
- Diagrams show chromosomes pairing, crossing over, and segregation, resulting in
haploid daughter cells.
6. Discuss how meiosis contributes to heritable variation.
- Independent assortment: Random arrangement of chromosomes during metaphase
I.
- Crossing over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes.
- Random fertilization: Fusion of gametes with diverse genetic combinations.
7. Explain why sexually produced organisms vary in characteristics.
- Sexually produced organisms vary due to genetic recombination during
reproduction.
8. Describe gene and chromosome mutations.
- Gene mutations alter individual genes, while chromosome mutations affect entire
chromosome structures.
9. Discuss the implications of changes in DNA
- Changes in DNA can lead to genetic disorders, evolution, and variations in traits.
10. Nucleotide sequence for cell structure and function in sickle cell anaemia.
- In sickle cell anemia, a mutation in the gene encoding hemoglobin results in a
change from adenine-thymine-guanine (ATG) to adenine-thymine-thymine (ATT)
sequence, leading to abnormal hemoglobin formation.
11. Explain how mutation brings about genetic variation.
- Mutation introduces changes in DNA sequences, altering the genetic code. This
creates genetic variation by generating new alleles, which can lead to different
traits in organisms.

12. Explain why heritable variation is important to selection.

 - Heritable variation is crucial for selection because it provides the raw material for
evolution. It allows organisms to adapt to changing environments by selecting for
advantageous traits and driving the process of natural selection.

Patterns of Inheritance

1. Use genetic diagrams to solve problems involving monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
2. Analyze the results of a genetic cross by applying the Chi-square test
3. Determine whether the difference between the observed and expected ratio is significant
using the results of the Chi-square test.

Aspects of Genetic Engineering

1. Outline the principles of restriction enzyme use to “cut” sections of DNA and ligase
enzyme to “paste” DNA together.
a) Specific Recognition: Each restriction enzyme recognizes a specific DNA sequence,
typically four to eight base pairs long.
b) Cutting: When a restriction enzyme finds its target sequence, it cuts the DNA at
specific points within or adjacent to the recognition sequence, generating either blunt
ends or sticky ends.
c) Sticky Ends vs. Blunt Ends: Sticky ends have single-stranded overhangs
complementary to each other, while blunt ends have no overhangs.
d) Ligase Enzyme: Ligase enzyme is used to join DNA fragments together by catalyzing
the formation of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides, sealing the
DNA backbone.
e) Complementary Base Pairing: When sticky ends are present, they can anneal with
complementary sticky ends from other DNA fragments, facilitating the ligation
process.
2. Explain the basic steps involved in recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology.
a) Isolation of DNA fragments containing the desired gene.
b) Cutting the DNA using restriction enzymes.
 c) Inserting the gene into a vector (e.g., plasmid or virus).
d) Introducing the vector into host cells.
e) Culturing the host cells to produce copies of the gene.

3. Discuss the successes and challenges of gene therapy in modern medicine.

- Successes: Treating genetic disorders, cancer, and some viral infections.
- Challenges: Immune responses, off-target effects, and ethical concerns about germline
editing.
4. Discuss the implications of the use of genetically modified organisms on humans and the
environment.
- Benefit humans by enhancing crop yields, nutritional content, and disease resistance.
- Pose potential risks to the environment, such as unintended gene flow and disruption of
ecosystems.
- Raise concerns about food safety, biodiversity loss, and long-term effects on human
health and ecosystems.
- Require careful regulation and monitoring to balance benefits and risks.

Natural Selection
1. Explain how environmental factors act as forces of natural selection.
- Environmental factors act as forces of natural selection by influencing which traits are
advantageous for survival and reproduction in a given habitat, leading to the selection of
individuals with better-suited traits over time.

2. Explain how natural selection may be an agent of constancy or an agent of change.

- Natural selection can act as both an agent of constancy by favoring traits that help
organisms maintain their current form and function, or as an agent of change by
promoting adaptations that lead to new traits and species over time.

3. Discuss natural selection as a mechanism of evolution.

- Natural selection, a central mechanism of evolution in Darwin's theory, explains how
species with advantageous traits that aid in survival and reproduction are more likely to
pass on their genes to future generations, shaping the characteristics of populations over
time.
 4. Discuss the biological species concept of natural selection.
- The biological species concept suggests that natural selection acts on individuals within
populations, favoring traits that enhance survival and reproduction. Over time, these
favorable traits become more common in the population, leading to evolutionary change.

5. Explain the process of speciation.

- Speciation occurs when populations of a species become reproductively isolated from
each other, preventing gene flow. This isolation can result from geographic barriers,
ecological differences, or behavioral changes.
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Natural selection
Adaptation refers to the traits that enhance survival and reproduction success of an organism
Evolution is the gradual change or genetic change in organisms that result in phenotypic change
Natural selection is the inherited characteristics that certain organisms have that give them an
advantage in survival skills and reproduction than other organisms that don’t have.
Biological evolution refers to the change in genetic composition of a population over time.
Types of selection
1. Directional
- This occurs when individuals at one extreme of a trait contributes more offspring to the
next generation.
2. Disruptive
- This occurs when both of extremes of a trait are favored simultaneously
3. Stabilizing
- This occurs when individuals at one extreme of a trait contributes fewer offspring to the
next generation than those individuals with average.

Isolating Mechanisms

1. Reproductive- Prevents different species from interbreeding due to differences in

reproductive structures or behaviors.
 2. Geographic- Separates populations of species by physical barriers like mountains or
rivers.
3. Behavioral- Occurs when differences in mating rituals or behaviors prevent interbreeding
between populations.
4. Temporal- Prevents interbreeding between species due to differences in mating times or
seasons.

Types of speciation (the formation of new species)

1. Paratactic
- Original species takes over most of the older species then forms a new niche. The two
species/ niche (new and adjacent niche) can interbreed with each other however they
don’t.
- Example: Grass growing in areas contaminated with heavy metals, not reproductively
isolated, reduce gene flow.

2. Allopatric(alios=other)
- Original species are broken by geographical barrier then further on produces new species.
- Example: The formation of the Grand Canyon that cause the separation between the
Kaibab and Albert squirrels (new species that don’t interbreed)

3. Sympatric(sym=together)
- The original species are isolated from the older species inside the same circles.
- Example: Hawthorn flies and apple flies genetically isolated while in the same.

4. Peripatic(peri=periphery)
- Original species bud off and forms new niche however the old niche is isolated meaning
they cannot interbreed.
- Example: Mainland vs Island flies; the mainland flies only interbreed with mainland flies
as for the Island flies due to them being reproductively isolated.