TIMOTHY SAMARA

Design
A VISUAL
COMMUNICATION
MANUAL
Elements
Understanding
the rules and knowing
when to break them

TH IRD ED ITIO N

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 1 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 1 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 1
 © 2020 Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
Text © Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
Images © 2020 Credited Contributors

First published in 2020 by Rockport Publishers,

an imprint of The Quarto Group,
100 Cummings Center, Suite 265-D, Beverly, MA 01915, USA.
T (978) 282-9590 F (978) 283-2742 QuartoKnows.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
without written permission of the copyright owners. All images in this
book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the
artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher,
or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the
contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that
credits accurately comply with information supplied. We apologize for any
inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing
information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.

Rockport Publishers titles are also available at discount for retail,

wholesale, promotional, and bulk purchase. For details, contact the
Special Sales Manager by email at [email protected] or by mail
at The Quarto Group, Attn: Special Sales Manager, 100 Cummings Center,
Suite 265-D, Beverly, MA 01915, USA.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-1-63159-872-2

Digital edition published in 2020

eISBN: 978-1-63159-873-9

Originally found under the following Library of Congress

Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Samara, Timothy.
Design elements : a graphic style manual :
understanding the rules and knowing when to
break them / Timothy Samara.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-261-2 (flexibind)
ISBN-10: 1-59253-261-6 (flexibind)
1. Graphic design (Typography) 2. Layout
(Printing) I. Title.
Z246 .S225
686.2’2—dc22
2006019038
CIP

Design: Timothy Samara

Page Layout: Timothy Samara

Contents

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 2 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 2 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 2
 6 What Is Graphic Design?

8 Twenty Rules for

Making Good Design

18
FORM AND SPACE
20 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE
34 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM
48 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
302 Causin’ Some Trouble: 70 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
Breaking Every Rule in
This Book

314 Index (By Subject) 84

COLOR FUNDAMENTALS
86 THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
318 Directory of Contributors
92 CHROMATIC INTERACTION
108 COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS
320 About the Author 118 WHEN COLOR MEANS SOMETHING
and Acknowledgments
126 COLOR IN THE REAL WORLD

132
CHOOSING AND USING TYPE
134 STRUCTURE AND OPTICS
140 ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE
150 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING
164 TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO
174 TYPE AS INFORMATION

194
THE WORLD OF IMAGERY
196 THE NATURE OF IMAGES
206 MEDIA AND METHODS
220 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT
234 NARRATIVE MASSAGE

242
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
244 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE
256 WORKING WITH GRIDS
268 INTUITIVE ARRANGEMENT
274 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM
294 THE WORKING PROCESS

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 3 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 3 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 3
 What Is Graphic Design?
A graphic designer is a communicator: someone who creation historically had been commissioned by patrons,
takes ideas and gives them visual form so that others can it wasn’t until the 1830s that the mystique of the bohemian
understand them. The designer uses imagery, symbols, painter as “expresser of self ” arose and, consequently, a
type, color, and materials (whether printed or on screen) marked distinction between fine and commercial art.
to represent the ideas that must be conveyed; and to Designers encouraged this distinction for philosophical,
organize them into a unified experience that is intended as well as strategic, reasons, especially as they began to
to evoke a particular response. seek recognition for design as a profession that could add
—— tremendous value to corporate endeavors.
While more or less confined to the creation of typefaces ——
and books from the Middle Ages until the Industrial Revolu- In the fifty-odd years since, the graphic designer has been
tion of the late 1700s and early 1800s, design expanded touted as everything from visual strategist to cultural
into advertising, periodicals, signage, posters, pamphlets, arbiter (and, since the late 1970s, as an author as well),
and ephemera with the appearance of a new consumer shaping not only the corporate bottom line through clever
marketplace. The term “graphic design” itself appeared visual manipulation of a brand-hungry public, but also the
more recently (attributed to WA Dwiggins, an American larger visual language of the contemporary environment.
illustrator and book designer, in 1922, to describe his All these functions are important to graphic design…but,
particular activities). The formal study of design didn’t lest we forget the simplicity of the designer’s true nature,
come about until the 1920s, and the term entered into let us return to what a graphic designer does. A graphic
wide usage only after World War II. designer assimilates verbal concepts and gives them form.
——
In contrast to other disciplines in the visual arts, graphic
design’s purpose is typically defined by a client—it’s a
service paid for by a company or other organization—
rather than from within the designer. Although artistic

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 4 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 4 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 4
 Graphic design is a complex combination of words and
pictures, numbers and charts, photographs and illustrations…
A popular art and a practical art, an applied art and an ancient
art. Simply put, it is the art of visualizing ideas… But it is
also an idiomatic language, a language of cues and puns and
symbols and allusions, of cultural references and perceptual
inferences that challenge both the intellect and the eye.
JESSICA HELFAND / Designer, writer, theorist / Cofounder, DesignObserver.com

This “form-giving” is a discipline that integrates an But graphic design is greater than just the various aspects
enormous amount of knowledge and skill with intuition, that comprise it. Together, they establish a totality of
creatively applied in different ways as the designer con- tangible, and often intangible, experiences. A designer is
fronts the variables of each new project. responsible for the intellectual and emotional vitality
—— of the experience he or she visits upon the audience, and
A designer must understand semiotics—the processes and his or her task is to elevate it above the banality of literal
relationships inherent in perception and interpretation transmission or the confusing self-indulgent egoism of
of meaning through visual and verbal material. He or she mere eye candy. And yet, beauty is a function, after all,
must have expertise in the flow of information—instruc- of any relevant visual message. Just as prose can be dull
tional strategies, data representation, legibility, usability, or straightforward or well edited and lyrical, so too can
cognitive ordering, and hierarchic problem solving— a utilitarian object be designed to be more than just simply
extending into typography, the mechanics of alphabet what it is. “If function is important to the intellect,”
design, and reading. Designing requires analytical and writes respected Swiss designer Willi Kunz, in his book,
technical mastery of image making—how shapes, colors, Typography: Macro- and Micro-Aesthetics, “then form is
and textures work to depict ideas, achieve aesthetic cohe- important to the emotions…Our day-to-day life is enriched
sion and dynamism, and signify higher-order concepts or degraded by our environment.”
while evoking a strong emotional response. Further, a ——
designer must be more than casually familiar with psychol- The focus of this book is on these formal, or visual, aspects
ogy and history, both with respect to cultural narratives, of graphic design and, implicitly, their relevance for the
symbolism, and ritualized experiences, as well as to more messages to be created using them. It’s a kind of user
commercial, consumer-based impulses and responses (what manual for creating what is understood to be strong design
is often referred to as “marketing”). Last, but certainly not and empowering readers to effectively—and skillfully—
least, a designer must have great facility with (and often, harness their creativity to meet the various challenges that
in-depth, specialized knowledge of ) multiple technologies designers encounter every day.
needed to implement the designed solution: printing media
and techniques, film and video, digital coding, industrial
processes, architectural fabrication, and so on.

Images, left to right

FOR THE PEOPLE / TASMANIA
LABORATÓRIO SECRETO / BRAZIL
CLASSMATE STUDIO / HUNGARY
B&B STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM

5 DE S I GN E L E M E N T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 5 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 5 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 5
 Rules can be broken—
but never ignored.

DAVID JURY/ TYPOGRAPHER/ From his book About Face: Reviving

the Rules of Typography RotoVision, London, 1996.

TWENTY RULES FOR

MAKING GOOD DESIGN

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 6 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 6 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 6
 When people talk about “good” or “bad” results by breaking them out of ignorance.
design, they’re referring to notions of In addition, rules help frame communal
quality they’ve picked up from education discussion about interpreting and evaluat-
and experience; and just as often, from the ing creative work so there’s at least some
experience of thousands of designers and consensus about where to start. If every-
critics before them. Some of these notions thing is “good,” then nothing really can be.
are aesthetic (“asymmetry is more beautiful Relativism is great, but after a point, it just
than symmetry,” for example) and some- gets in the way of honest judgment and
times strictly functional (“don’t reverse a celebrates mediocrity.
serif typeface from a solid background if it’s ——
less than 10 points in size, because it’ll fill By no means should any rule, including
in”). Both kinds of observation are helpful those that follow, be taken as cosmic law.
for avoiding pitfalls and striving to achieve Unconvinced? Then simply turn to page
design solutions that aren’t hampered by 302, where breaking every rule in this book
irritating difficulties. is advocated wholeheartedly. But these
—— rules are a starting point: an excellent list
Every time one attempts to cite rules gov- of issues to consider, especially if you’re
erning what constitutes quality, however, only just starting out as a designer. (Even
people are bound to get their underwear in seasoned professionals can do with a little
a knot: “That’s so limiting!” To those refresher now and then.) In the end, you
people, I’ll say this: get over it. Rules are will decide how and when to apply the
guidelines, based on accumulated experi- rules, or not…But you’ll also understand
ence from many sources. They always come the likely results of either course of action.
with exceptions and can be broken at any
time, but not without consequences. The con-
sequence of breaking one rule might mean
reinforcing another; in the right context,
it might even mean true innovation—in
which such a discovery, oddly enough, will
establish yet another rule. This is how cre-
ativity works. It’s important to know which
rules have come to be considered important
(and why) so as to avoid really unfortunate

7 DE S I GN E L E M E N T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 7 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 7 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 7
 01
HAVE A CONCEPT
If there’s no message, no story, A
no idea, no narrative, or no useful p
experience to be had, it’s not in
graphic design. It doesn’t matter s
how amazing the thing is to look g
at; without a clear message, it’s an b
empty, although beautiful, shell. d
That’s about as complicated as this d
rule can get. Let’s move on. ti
c
u
s
s

By printing the text to appear as though it’s on built with gigantic, interlocking puzzle pieces that
the back of the poster (left) but folded forward, the were fundamental to their philosophies and how
designer transforms the literal into a metaphor they constructed their home in the 1950s.
for the architectural and gestural qualities of the SULKI+MIN / SOUTH KOREA 
dance it promotes. An exhibition about designers PEOPLEDESIGN / UNITED STATES 
and architects Ray and Charles Eames (right) is

02
COMMUNICATE—
DON’T DECORATE
Oooh…neat! But what exactly is it? M
Form carries meaning, no matter how to
simple or abstract, and form that’s not th
right for a given message junks it up in
and confuses. It’s great to experiment p
with images and effects, but any- in
thing that doesn’t contribute to the c
composition or meaning is simply eye m
candy that no longer qualifies as de- it
sign. Know what each visual element th
does and why, or choose another with
purpose.

The notion of “blooming” underpins a publica-

tion of graduating students’ design work; unique
abstract ink washes create the sense of unfurling
flower petals without being literal.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

8 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 8 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 8 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 8
 03 What viewers might initially
perceive as random graphic lines
immediately transform into
prison bars because of the presence
BE UNIVERSAL of the butterfly: it’s a powerful,
A very large audience, not a few commonly understood symbol for
transformation and freedom. Even
people who are “in the know,” must before viewers have a chance to
interpret what you mean with those see the word “prison” in the text at
shapes, colors, and images. Sure, you the bottom of this poster, they will
get it, and other designers will get it, have processed this pictorial infor-
but ultimately it’s the public who must mation and used it as a context to
do so. Speak to the world at large; arrive at the intended meaning of
draw upon humanity’s shared narra- the lines.
tives of form and metaphor and make LSD SPACE / SPAIN

connections, not boundaries. If you’re

unsure whether your ideas make
sense, show them to someone on the
street and find out.

04
SPEAK WITH ONE
VISUAL VOICE
Make sure all the elements “talk”
to each other. Good design assumes
the visual language of a piece—its
internal logic—is resolved so that its
parts all reinforce each other, not only
in shape or weight or placement, but
conceptually as well. When one ele-
ment seems out of place or unrelated,
it disconnects from the totality and
the message is weakened.

In this set of exhibition collateral, a specific visual Stroke contrast and graphic details in the serif type
language of silhouetted images—all similarly geo- unify with the imagery’s ornate internal details,
metric in their shapes, monochromatically colored, while contrasting with its planar quality.
and transparent—responds to the type’s symmetri- GOLDEN COSMOS / GERMANY
cal axis with a rhythmic left-to-right positioning.

9 T W E N T Y R U L E S F OR M A K I N G G OOD D E SI G N

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 9 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 9 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 9
 05
LEARN TO LIVE
WITH LESS
This is a riff on the “less is more” the- F
ory, not so much an aesthetic dogma im
now as it is a bit of common sense: the Exquisite, decisive control of the s
more stuff jammed into a given space, minimal elements, alignments, a
the harder it is to see what needs to be and the spaces around and to
seen. There’s a big difference between between them creates a dynamic, w
almost architectural space that
“complicated” and “complex.” True c
is active and three-dimensional,
power lies in creativity applied to very which is all you really need for
th
little—without sacrificing a rich expe- a brochure for a contemporary e
rience. Adding more than needed architecture firm. in
is just “gilding the lily.” LSD SPACE / SPAIN b

06
CREATE SPACE—
DON’T FILL IT
Negative (or "white") space is critical A
to good design. It calls attention to e
content and gives the eyes a resting c
place. Negative space is just as much il
a shape in a layout as any other thing. s
Carve it out and relate it to other ele- c
ments. A lack of negative space over- s
whelms an audience, and the result o
is an oppressive presentation that no a
one will want to deal with. d
th
th

From within a confined space enclosed by the visual angles

created by headline and body text, hands stretch outward to
release a symbolic butterfly; the image’s message is restated
subtly by the compositional space with which it interacts.
LOEWY / UNITED KINGDOM

10 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 10 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 10 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 10
 07
GIVE ’EM THE
There’s no way to avoid looking at the
giant red hand in this poster before
focusing on anything else—despite a
fair amount of dramatic, supporting
ONE-TWO PUNCH visual activity (the fireworks and the
Focus viewers’ attention on one dynamically rotated type elements).
As explosive and rhythmic as these
important thing first—a big shape, a latter forms are, their visual presence
startling image or type treatment, or pales in comparison to the overall
a daring color—and then lead them size, boldness, and color contrast the
to the less important items in a logical designer has applied to the hand so
way. This is establishing a “hierar- that it’s the thing that first draws the
chy”—the order in which you want viewer in—and shows them where to
them to look at the material—and it is start looking.
essential for access and understand- PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

ing. Without it, you’ve already lost the

battle.

08
BEWARE OF
SYMMETRY
As in nature, symmetry can be quite
effective, but approach it with extreme
caution. Symmetrical layouts eas-
ily become static and flat, and they
severely limit flexibility in arranging
content that doesn’t quite fit the
symmetrical mold. Symmetry also is
often perceived as traditional (not
always relevant) and may suggest the
designer is lazy and uninventive—as
though the format has directed how
the material will be arranged.

While the designers of this book, which organizes text through the use of extreme scale contrast, transpar-
and headings relative to both the vertical and horizon- ency, and rotation of text elements.
tal center axes of the pages, retained the appropriate STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES
gravitas needed for its academic subject, they nonethe-
less also counteracted its potentially static quality

11 T W E N T Y R U L E S F OR M A K I N G G OOD D E SI G N

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 11 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 11 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 11
 09
FIGHT THE
FLATNESS
People make a weird assumption C
about two-dimensional visual stuff, a
and that is: it’s flat (go figure)! a
Layouts that fail to impart a sense p
of depth or movement—because a
everything is the same size, weight, s
color, and perceived distance from a
everything else—are dull and life- th
less. “Without contrast,” Paul Rand d
once said, “you’re dead.” Fool the re
viewer into seeing deep space by ex- d
ploiting changes in size and transpar- s
ency. Create differences in density and c
openness by clustering some elements a
and pushing others apart. Apply color b
to forms such that some appear to th
advance, while others recede. Engage in
viewers by convincing them the flat Decisively applied contrasts (in size, texture, tonal punches backwards in space like a window or “hole” b
surface they’re seeing is really a win- range, shape, and color) create optical pushing and in the white surface. Type and graphical dots appear a
pulling between image and type elements in this web to occupy a generally middle distance, but changes
dow into a bigger dimensional world.
page—not only across the surface, but in the per- in their colors and gray values further vary percep-
ceived deep, illusory three-dimensional space they tion of their individual spatial locations.
appear to occupy. The large size and stark dark/light TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES
contrast of the hammer image cause it to advance;
the interior scene, because of its naturalistic depth,

10
PICK COLORS
ON PURPOSE
Don’t just grab some colors from out T
of the air. Know what the colors th
will do when you combine them and, h
more important, what they might u
mean to the audience. Color carries li
an abundance of psychological and o
emotional meaning that can vary th
tremendously between cultural groups s
and even individuals. Color affects o
visual hierarchy, the legibility of type, fi
and how people make connections C
between disparate items (sometimes a
called “color coding”), so choose o
wisely. Never assume that a certain d
color is right for a particular job tr
because of convention either. Blue for M
financial services, for example, is the a
standout color cliché of the past fifty The poster, above, incorporates a symbolic combina-
years. Choose the right colors, not tion of yellow-orange and black (warning), covered
those that are expected. by a rising field of blue to suggest flooding of locales.
The olive oil packaging at right evokes the product’s
Italian origins with references to that country’s green,
red, and white flag.
STEREOTYPE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
BRUKETA & ZINIC / CROATIA 

12 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 12 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 12 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 12
 11
LESS COLOR
IS MORE
Color is very exciting but, much like
a circus, too many things happening
at once with hue, value, and intensity
prevents viewers from recognizing
a memorable color idea. Stick to a
simple palette of two or three hues
and create rich relationships among
their attributes as the’re applied to
different elements—by varying their
relative intensities and lightness or
darkness. Find that you need a little
something extra? The unexpected
contrast of an accent color, sparingly
applied, will do the trick. A lot can
be accomplished even by exploiting
the tonal range of black alone; and us-
ing a single dramatic color, rather than
black, is a sure way of making Despite incorporating full-color photographic simple color statement. The designer adds color
a big impact. images, the designer of this brochure spread contrast with a very small volume of yellow
carefully limited the color palette primarily to (violet’s complement) and the warm tones of
a set of closely related, cool greens, blues, and the hand. It’s just enough to prevent the cool
violets. These analogous hues offer apprecia- colors from seeming monotonous without
blly interesting variation in temperature and impairing their immediate color impression.
value while, at the same time, result in a clear, TIEN-MIN LIAO / UNITED STATES

12
MASTER THE DARK
The use of color in this poster is only
about value: shades and tints of a single
hue. In one way of thinking, this poster is
essentiallystill black and white, as there
AND THE LIGHT is no true color relationship to be found—
Tonal value is one of the most (if not for there to be a color relationship, more
the most) powerful tools designers than one hue must be present. Still, the
dramatic-ally luminous and dimensional
have at their disposal. Make sure to qualities of the typographic forms, height-
use a dramatic range of dark and ened through the use of light and dark, is
light; doing so enhances the illusion optically compelling.
of deep space. Furthermore, don’t kill ARIANCE SPANIER DESIGN / GERMANY
the dark/light contrast by evenly
spreading out the tonal range all
over the place. Distribute tone like
firecrackers and the rising Sun:
Concentrate areas of extreme dark
and light; create bright explosions
of luminosity and undercurrents of
darkness. Counter these with subtler
transitions between related values.
Make distinctions in value noticeable
and clear.

13 T W E N T Y R U L E S F OR M A K I N G G OOD D E SI G N

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 13 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 13 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 13
 13
FRIENDLY TYPE IS
GOOD TYPE
It should go without saying that type A
that can’t be read has no purpose, fa
but, unfortunately, it bears repeating. s
Yes, typography should be expressive, s
visually inventive, and conceptu- s
ally resonant. It must still transmit it
information. Choose typefaces that m
aid legibility, watch out for weird color a
contrasts, set text in a size that your re
grandmother can read, and you should e
be good to go. h

Well-drawn, neutral typefaces that distinguish

navigational levels from content through clear size,
weight, and organizational relationships guarantee
ease of use for visitors to this website.
ATIPUS / SPAIN

14
USE TWO FONTS,
MAXIMUM
OK, maybe three. Choose typefaces B
for specific purposes; you’ll often find is
there are only two or three kinds of y
text in a project. Because a change in s
typeface usually signals a change in c
function—restrain yourself! A single v
type family with a variety of weights te
and italics can be enough; a second s
is nice for contrast, but don’t overdo c
it. Too many typefaces are distracting o
and self-conscious and might confuse u
or tire the viewer. m
m

Even the use of a single typeface family—here, a sans serif with a

variety of weights—is enough to create dynamic textural vital-
ity. The strategy boils down to decisive choices for the sizes of text
elements and the combination of weights to maximize contrasts
of dark and light, while ensuring overall stylistic unity.
CONOR & DAVID / IRELAND

14 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 14 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 14 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 14
 15
TREAT TYPE AS
The title type in this poster promoting
an orchestral performance becomes
one with the imagery—weaving into
and out of the instrument forms; the
YOU WOULD IMAGE letters’ dot-like serifs and bowls in
A great deal of typography often echoing their roundness, while their
bold straight-strokes and geometric
fails in this regard: it’s either blandly
edges contrast the delicate edges of the
separated from images or insensitively flower’s petals. At a secondary level,
slapped across them, under the as- the text material that delivers more
sumption that this alone will integrate concrete information restates the
it as part of a layout. Type is visual variety of tones, textures, and irregu-
material—made up of lines and dots lar back-and-forth movement of the
and shapes and textures—that must flower’s shapes; but it also adheres to a
relate compositionally to everything strong vertical axis that relates to the
center of the brass horn up above...
else included in the design, no matter which, incidentally, is standing in for
how different they seem to be. the O of “Bartok.”
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

16
AVOID REDUNDANT
Rather than represent the subject of
this exhibition poster—photography
of birds—by showing the exhibi-
tion’s work or by depicting the subject
REDUNDANCIES literally, the designer instead chose
a more conceptual approach. Given
Be conscious of how much information
that the subject was explicit in both
is conveyed by a project’s text. When the exhibition’s title and subtitle, the
you introduce imagery, you need not designer was free to develop a visual
show the same information. Instead, idea that leapt beyond the expected
consider what the text isn’t telling the and introduced a deeper, more con-
viewer and show that (and, conversely, ceptual message. The type forms, cut
text should tell what the images don’t from paper and scanned, create not
show). The image and text, working in only a photographic dimensionality,
but a visual association with legs,
concert, should not only complete each
wings, feathers, tree branches, and
other but contribute to a new, deeper wires—the environment that birds
understanding. In closing the gaps and and people share.
making such leaps, the viewer becomes LESLEY MOORE / NETHERLANDS
more intensely engaged.

15 T W E N T Y R U L E S F OR M A K I N G G OOD D E SI G N

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 15 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 15 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 15
 17
CREATE IMAGES—
DON’T SCAVENGE
Make what you need, and make it the P
best you can—or pay someone to do w
it for you and art-direct them. And re- d
member: Not every idea benefits from tr
a full-color photographic depiction. a
Very often, a more original, and mean- c
ingful solution is no further away than m
a couple of dots and lines, a simple, im
funky icon, or (gasp!) an abstract th
pattern or a scribble. Your options are y
limitless; consider them all. Try not li
to rely on what already exists, even
though it might be cheaper or easier.
Inventing images from scratch—in
whatever medium—will help better
differentiate your client’s message
and connect powerfully with the audi- You don’t need to draw like da Vinci to make great images;
ence. Plus, you can say, quite proudly, and you don't need to accept the crappy image the client
that you did it all yourself. stuck you with. Experiment! You can reinvent even the
most tired found photo with software and create a new
kind of visual experience that no one’s ever seen.
FOR THE PEOPLE / TASMANIA 
FIASCO DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM 
MUTABOR / GERMANY 

18
LOOK TO HISTORY—
DON’T REPEAT IT
It’s important to explore past P
approaches and aesthetics and a
to understand one’s own work e
in context. More useful is the lo
realization that another designer m
faced a similar problem—and F
solved it. Go ahead, be inspired! th
But, to slavishly reproduce a a
particular period style because to
it’s cool hovers between plagiarism a
and laziness—not cool. Learn th
from the work of others, but do m
your own work. th
lo
This cover for a reissued version of a signi-
b
ficant art-movement text represents the
energy and irreverence of the period and its c
style without mimicking it; the same is true in
for the poster at right, the style of which o
refers to design gestures of a particular time th
(relevant to its subject) but reinterprets is
them with a contemporary sensibility.
MAREK OKON / CANADA 
C+G PARTNERS / UNITED STATES 

16 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 16 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 16 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 16
 19
IGNORE FASHION.
In the covers of these literary clas-
sics—part of a series—carefully
crafted illustrative icons are arranged
in symmetrical, wallpaper-like
SERIOUSLY patterns and adorned with simple,
People in the present respond to small-scale serif type—graphic ges-
tures that aren’t in vogue (at the time
what looks cool and “now.” Many of this edition). And yet, this visual
designers get significant attention for language seems somehow modern
trendy work. Forget that. If you design while being appropriate to the subject
around meaning, not current stylistic matters and contexts of the books.
conceits, your projects will resonate By focusing on authentic messages
more deeply, not get dated, and have and delivering them with sound,
impact far longer. Nobody looks at well-formed type style and images,
the designer ensures an exquisitely
the Pantheon, designed almost 2,000
timeless quality that transcends the
years ago, and says, “Ewww, that’s fads of the moment.
like, so first century.”
CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH /
UNITED KINGDOM

s;

20
DO IT ON PURPOSE,
Dramatic spatial layering, tremen-
dous scale contrasts, and continually
changing tempo impart this motion
sequence with an almost hectic qual-
OR NOT AT ALL ity that belies the rigorous control
underpinning the visual relationships
Place visual material with confidence,
holding it all together. Enormous
and make clear decisions using your objects swing toward each other as
eyes—don’t measure. Make things though about to collide, yet gracefully
look the way you intend. Form ele- slide by one another within a hair's
ments often play tricks on the eyes. breadth; rhythmically moving text
For instance, a circle and a square of elements lock similarly moving,
the same mathematical size will not nonpictorial forms into elegantly
appear so. Which is bigger? Do they structured alignment relationships.
touch or not? Which is darker? If you TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

align two items by measuring and

they don’t look like they do, it doesn’t
matter that they’re really lined up. All
the viewer will see is two items that
look like they should have aligned—
but don’t. Decisiveness makes for a
convincing impression; ambiguity or
insecurity in the composition does the
opposite. Convincing the audience
that what you’re showing them is true
is the most important goal of all.

17 T W E N T Y R U L E S F OR M A K I N G G OOD D E SI G N

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 17 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 17 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 17
 There is no longer agreement anywhere
about art itself, and under these circumstances
we must go back to the beginning, to concern
ourselves with dots and lines and circles
and the rest of it.

ARMIN HOFFMANN / Graphic designer and former director,

Basel School of Design: 1946–1986

FORM AND
SPACE

18

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 18 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 18 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 18
 IN THIS CHAPTER:

20
DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE
Graphic designers work with type, of course, but more fundamentally, they
convey ideas by using shapes and pictures as “words,” arranging them into
visual “sentences”—an optical language as rich as that which writers create.
This section introduces the vocabulary and principles of visual expression.

34
ATTRIBUTES OF FORM
Say hello to dots, lines, and planes; and see, individually, how these basic
elements underpin other complex forms—patterns, images (pictorial and
abstract), and even type. These are the designer’s tool kit, so to speak, with
which he or she will build every dynamic, meaningful visual experience.

48
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Understanding the fundamental qualities of visual forms is one thing, but
what do you do with them—and how? This section outlines different ways
of arranging elements, how they affect each other, and how they interact
to create visual structures and perceptions of movement and rhythm.

70
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
Last—but by no means least—you’ll explore how more complicated rela-
tionships between form syntax and behavioral grammar enhance viewers’
experience: adding contrast for visual interest; creating balance and unity;
and organizing a visual language’s elements in an understandable totality.

19 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S F OR M A N D S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 19 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 19 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 19
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

First Things First Exchanging ideas through speaking and Like writing, a “visual language” relies on prior knowledge.
writing is familiar. Language works by naming ideas with Sometimes, it literally shows things we have seen. At others,
sounds (words), ordered in ways we’ve somehow agreed will it abstractly refers to experience by association (its visual
mean something. Design certainly involves writing (as type), qualities are like something else). And like writers, designers
but how it looks communicates as much as what it says: the know that the right visual “words” identify relevant ideas;
type’s font and the words’ arrangement into shapes them- the right “grammar” (behavioral relationships) tells how to
selves convey ideas. That means purely visual material also think about them in that context. Unlike writers, who draw
works like written language. Images, even just shapes, “name” from the same vocabulary and grammar for every subject,
ideas; and we “read” their visual qualities and arrangement, designers invent a unique, specific, visual language for each
their ordering, to understand “what to know” about them. subject they’ll try to communicate in a given project.

The visual language of this billboard

promoting a trombone festival refers
to that instrument’s parts: the line
element in the type describes its
shape and the way it’s used by slid-
ing, while the dot represents its bell.
More abstractly, the dots—their
sizes and arrangements—call to
mind musical structure and a sense
of sound (louder or more quiet) and
rhythm, or tempo.
ORDER / UNITED STATES

Th
sh
th
re
in
du
be
or
tr
A
is
ce
id
a
ti
in
fe
As part of this event’s visual language, photographic form Simple, linear depictions of food and toys integrate literal w
“r
provides description and context, as well as a sense of the and conceptual messages with the playful barrage of graph- no
experience of sailing in open water through a hazy, gray, ical patterns—whose continually shifting arrangement st
lack of contrast; color (also part of the language) plays a adds to the casual, childlike quality of this branding for a
role in helping associate the graphic shapes with nautical fast-food restaurant. Applied across not only packaging,
mapping, flags, and livery. seen here, but in advertising and interiors, the language
MUCHO / SPAIN creates continuity for viewers as they encounter it at differ-
ent times and in different contexts.
INFINITO / PERU

20

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 20 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 20 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 20
 Syntax and Grammar A language comprises two aspects. Forms don’t just exist independently. They do things with
s, The first is its parts: its words or syntax. In a visual language, each other, exhibiting particular behaviors, or grammar:
the syntax is form, the stuff people see that identifies ideas clustering or dispersing, rising or falling, moving in parallel
s or subjects: photos, drawings, geometric shapes, type, and or divergent directions. This is the other aspect of a language
physical materials. No kind of form is necessarily better at that is crucial to understanding it. It’s the relationships
communicating a subject than any other, but the choice of between forms that tell us what and how to think about
a particular form—and its visual qualities—is critical for them meaningfully: which are more important; in what
conveying a specific idea. Many kinds of form can commu- order they should be appreciated; how they relate concep-
h nicate the same subject, and the reverse is also true: Many tually. On a purely visual level, the grammar of elements’
ideas or subjects can be represented by the same form. behavior helps unify the experience throughout a project.

rd
ers

-
l.

e
d

The brain interprets the anything physical we’ve and grammar allow for the
shapes we see by matching actually seen) will tell us construction of meaning.
them to ones we already plenty, simply because they The more specific the syntax
recognize from experience: share qualities with things and grammar are, the more
in short, if it looks like a that do exist. We do a lot of recognizable and, so, the
duck, we understand it to comparing, too; the differ- easier it is for us to make
be a duck…or a cloud, ences between two or more some kind of sense out of
or a coat button, or train forms in our field of vision the visual language—even
tracks, or whatever else. helps us understand what though there’s no particular
Although more information each might be, or mean, in story we need to know.
is theoretically better for relation to the other. And, as you look at each
certainty, we’re so good at — form language, consider
identifying forms that only Without any context (which how many different ideas or
a bare minimum of informa- is critical for knowing what stories you could imagine
tion is necessary—and that or how to think about the about each one. Inventive use of a die-cut in this poster creates a surprising,
information can be very dif- forms we see), our brains
ferent, or abstracted, from will try to construct meaning inventive message about structure and organic design.
what that thing looks like in based on the available in- The spiraling strip that carries green type becomes a plant
“real life.” Even completely formation. The forms shown tendril and a structural object in support of the poster’s
nonpictorial forms (visual above show a range of quali-
stuff that doesn’t look like ties whose specific syntax
message. The dimensional spiral, along with its shadows,
shares a linear quality with the printed type but contrasts
its horizontal and diagonal flatness.
STUDIO WORKS / UNITED STATES

21 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 21 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 21 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 21
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

Setting the Stage Forms do what they do somewhere, and and proportions; they act in concert with form as part of the
that “somewhere” is space. This term describes physical visual language’s grammar. Weirdly, when space is made
dimensionality; in design it also refers to two-dimensional to interact dynamically with form, we perceive it three-
things like printed pages or computer screens: “composi- dimensionally; designers use that perception to encourage
tional space,” where forms will be “composed” or “layed viewers to disengage from the real world. A composition
out.” Forms and their behaviors are clearly very important, that appears to defy its real two-dimensionality is far more
but space itself does a lot of important things. It allows interesting than one that appears flat. Don’t think of space
viewers to separate and appreciate forms; it moves their as an empty void to fill up: Seeing and understanding space
eyes through a layout; and it provides places to pause while as a thing—not just as a passive backdrop—is a really dif-
looking. Spaces that surround forms have their own shapes ficult concept to grasp, but it’s absolutely critical.

The vertical format of the annual report

(left) intensifies the human element as
A small format enhances
well as the vertical movement of flowers
the presence, or apparent upward; the sense of growth is expressed
mass, of an element; a viscerally by the upward thrust of the
larger format decreases format. In contrast, the square format
the presence of an element
with the same physical size. of this CD case (above) emphasizes the
modular arrangement of geometric
shapes to reflect the work of its subject—
architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
COBRA / NORWAY 
THOMAS CSANO / CANADA 

D
qu
The shape of a space produces overall visual
effects that will have a profound impact on the p
perception of form interaction within it. A square on
format is neutral in emphasis—no side exerts any fo
more influence than any other. A vertical format im
is confrontational, creating an upward and a
downward thrust. A horizontal format produces k
a calmer, lateral movement that is relatively inert Each element in this web page carves the background n
compared to that of a vertical format. se
into shifting horizontal spaces of varied depth and
contributes to a rhythmic lateral movement. m
YOUJIN CHOI / UNITED STATES

22 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 22 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 22 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 22
 More often than not, a project’s for- but smartphone display areas vary
e mat is predetermined by a client, but by brand—and demand attention to
designers still must be familiar with the size of elements, especially type.
the format options that are available Cylindrical packaging, like the coffee
for each kind of project—and able to cup at lower right, nearly always
assess the potential and limitations force material toward their centers
that each offers. Many print formats, so that it remains prominent and
like that of the envelope just below, doesn't “fall away” around the sides;
are standard; still, it helps to be and in this instance, the designer
e aware that its flap is usable space. must account for what happens
Most electronic devices, like TVs when the sleeve is added.
or smartphones, constrain space TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
within particular proportions: mo- JOHN LIKENS / UNITED STATES 
tion graphics (below, middle) tend DIANO & CO. / SLOVENIA 
toward a 1980 × 1080 pixel format,
ANAGRAMA / MEXICO 

Designers carefully consider the perceptual but may also be conceived of as individual
quality of a project's physical area and spaces. The sides of the packaging just above
proportion—its format—for its influence permit the designer to create a more expan-
on a visual language (whether it unfolds, sive experience by continuing imagery from
for instance, or has more than one side). It's one side of the box to another.
important to keep in mind that the same HELMO / FRANCE 
kinds of graphic forms can occupy a space in JELENA DROBAC / SERBIA 
numerous ways, as can be seen in the poster ANDREW GORKOVENKO / RUSSIA 
series at top. The pages of a book (above,
middle) comprise a whole,

23 FO R M A N D SPA C E DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 23 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 23 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 23
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

The Nature of Space The space of a composition, defined its amplitude, or its relative perceived depth. The issue of
by its format, is clearly finite (although a screen interface spread closely relates to the physical dimensions of a chosen
implies spaces beyond the screen’s confines). Perceptual format, and can be acknowledged as either a field or a singu-
space, on the other hand, has to do with the sensation of larity. Space perceived as a field appears to extend outward
dimensionality. This illusory experience is a cognitive beyond the edges of the format that captures it, part of a
invention triggered by optical stimuli (forms) in a composi- continuum. The perceptual space of a singularity exists
tion—an “otherworld” that appears to exist simultaneously independently and is cognitively finite, a self-contained
with the outer world, but only while looking at it through environment distinct from the space around it. The quality
the “window” of the format. There are two aspects that of such a space is reflexive, meaning that its illusory depth
attend perceptual space: its spread, or apparent extent; and continually refers inward, rather than outward.

A B A B
A space in which form Conversely, a space in which Singularities and fields alike (substantially darker than Space also tends to appear
elements are completely form elements appear to can appear to be very deep pure white), the space will flatter when forms are
contained within it typically enter and leave, or “bleed” or very compressed. A huge also seem deeper. Condi- positioned at some distance
appears to end at its for- the edges of its format, number of variables can tions that are the opposite from each other, as opposed
mat’s boundaries: the space suggests an extended envi- affect a space’s amplitude, of these tend to compress, to overlapping one another.
becomes a distinct unit of ronment—of which we’re but it’s possible to boil or flatten out, the illusory
experience, a singular- seeing a given part through down all the possibilities depth of a space: Similari- T
ity, that we’ll perceive as a a “window” (B). Our brains to some basic generalities: ties of size among forms, as ra
kind of sum total (A). This understand this expansive, The greater the differences well as strong contrast in
perception tends to be even environmental quality of among forms’ sizes, relative value (lightness/darkness) be
stronger when forms overlap space as a field. lightness or darkness, and between forms and their se
or cluster. proximity, the deeper the surroundings, most often th
space will appear (A); if the contributes to perception ba
space itself is dark in value of shallow space (B).
v
th
li
v
fl
These three book covers each capture si
the conditions of spread and amplitude is
in different ways. In the cover to the bl
immediate right, the space is a singular- co
ity, and its amplitude is quite shallow; th
the cover in the middle shows space as a
a field, and one that is very deep. The sp
cover at far right, however, creates a ri
space that is somewhat ambiguous: The ca
title and the figure are very dark against p
the overall lightness of the background, PO
and so elicit a sense of singularity; but FU
the graphic lines, as well as the figure, TO
bleed the edges of the format, creating O
qualities that render the space more
field-like.
YOUJIN CHOI / UNITED STATES 
LABORATORIO SECRETO / BRAZIL 
CARDON WEBB / UNITED STATES 

24 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 24 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 24 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 24
 The aspect of amplitude is refreshingly tangible: a space space that is more intellectual than experiential. Perceptu-
n either appears deep or shallow. Space perceived as deep ally shallow or flat space suggests the mechanical, artificial,
corresponds to our physical perception of it in the natural or analytical. The geometric or organic quality of forms (see
world; it’s more empirical or “real.” Even highly reductive pages 40 and 41) sometimes affects the quality of the space
or planar material may encourage a perception of stagger- in which they appear, as does the way they’re arranged (we’ll
ingly deep space, most often as a result of extreme changes look at this in greater depth beginning on page 25). Perhaps
in scale (especially typography, where line and limited color the most important relationship between form and space—
are dominant). Progressions of value (relative lightness/ the one that establishes a space’s spread and amplitude,
darkness), also suggest deep amplitude. Still, layouts may among other aspects—is that between what’s perceived as
present space to be perceived as shallow, or even flat—a positive versus negative, which is up next!

e
d
.

The projects shown here also show a

range of spatial qualities that tend to
be ambiguous. The web page, above,
seems like a singularity at first, but
the progression from darkness in the
background to increasingly lighter
value elements in the foreground makes
the space seem very deep, and almost
like a field. The layout above, right, is
very definitely a field, but the logo that
floats in the center asserts a quality of
singularity. The poster just to the right
is generally a field, given how elements
bleed the format; but different kinds of
contrast between the dark elements and
the giant title, versus the background,
alternately deepens and compresses the
space. In the animation sequence at far
right, space is depicted as an empiri-
cally deep field, but strong isometric
perspective flattens it out.
POULIN+MORRIS / UNITED STATES 
FUMAN / NEW ZEALAND 
TOORMIX / SPAIN 
ONLAB / GERMANY 

25 FO R M A N D SPA C E DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 25 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 25 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 25
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

Positive and Negative Form is a positive element, a thing, identity or text’s content. It is one of the most important A
often characterized as a figure. Space is considered nega- aspects of design because it affects so many others, from t
c
tive (not in a bad way, just as the absence, or opposite, of general emotional response to informational hierarchy. The t
form). Space is the ground in which forms act as figures. figure/ground relationship must be understandable to the N
This figure/ground relationship is complementary and viewer and perceived as generating a logic, and feeling, that s
mutually dependent: it’s impossible to alter one and not is appropriate to the intended message: extremely active, a
p
the other. The confrontation between figure and ground perhaps, versus calm and restrained. The number of figures s
defines every aspect of visual activity a viewer will perceive; (forms), their sizes (relative to that of the ground), and the p
establishing that relationship is the first step in creating an intricacy of alternation between positive and negative all r
overarching message before a viewer registers any form’s affect the overall impression. w
B

A positive (black) form on As a black (positive) form Comparison of an active

a negative (white) ground, becomes larger within a figure/ ground relationship
and the reverse, retains negative (white) field, the (top) with an inactive figure/
its identity as positive if leftover negative spaces be- ground relationship (bot-
there is no other form or come smaller and eventually tom) hints at the potential
spatial break to define it might appear to be positive for meaning to be perceived
as anything else. Note also (white forms) in the context even in such a fundamentally
how the white form on the of a black field. simple, abstract environ-
black background appears ment. Compare these pairs
larger than its same-sized of simple, opposing ideas
black counterpart on the between the two examples:
white field. loud/quiet; aggressive/
passive; nervous/sedate;
complex/simple; energetic/
weak; and living/dead.

A dark-value element within a

light-value space is typically appreci-
ated as a positive form—as are the
photograph, the logo, and text on this
web page's left-hand side. But, the
white rectangle on the right-hand side
(which crosses a boundary between a
light-value field and a dark-value one)
is also a positive element; both fields
“under” it are negative. Within the
white rectangle, type elements are also
positive, appearing to sit on top of the
white rectangle. These conditions don’t
rise to the level of figure and ground
reversing (appearing to change places),
but they create a dynamic sense of
space nonetheless.
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE

26 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 26 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 26 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 26
 All of the elements (images and
typography) that span the front
cover, spine, and back cover of
e this book jacket are positive.
Note how alternation between
t smaller and larger forms, as well
as between forms of differing
proportion, squeezes the negative
s spaces into distinct shapes and
proportions that sometimes cor-
respnd to—and at others, contrast
with—those of the positive.
BLOK DESIGN / CANADA

e/

Applying color changes to the

d
ly intersections of larger forms on the
brochure cover at far left creates the
perception that they are transpar-
:
ent; viewers will perceive a “middle
ground,” a somewhat ambiguous
layering, but will remain aware of
/ the basic distinction between red and
orange figures and blue field. Simi-
larly, white type elements in the bro-
chure at near left sometimes appear
on top of the dancer, and sometimes
behind th dancer—but together, both
the dancer and the type are positive
figures against a gray field.
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN 
SURFACE / GERMANY 

All of the form elements in the logos

at left, and on the front side of the
business card at right, are purely
positive elements—and exploit con-
trasts in mass, linearity, and spatial
interval to produce optical sensa-
tions of movement and dimensional-
ity. The reverse side of the business
card at far right, however, presents a
complicated, layered space in which
elements appear to transparently
shift from near to far, and even to
change place—a condition called
“figure/ground reversal” that we’ll
discuss on the following page spread.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
NAROSKA DESIGN / GERMANY 
APELOIG DESIGN / FRANCE 
RESEARCH STUDIOS /
UNITED KINGDOM 
UMBRELLA DESIGN / INDIA 

27 FO R M A N D SPA C E DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 27 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 27 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 27
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

When Space Gets Complicated Sometimes, the figure/ spaces between them as they get closer together, you’re
ground relationship can become quite complex, to the ex- looking at a classic example of figure/ground reversal in ac-
tent that what appears positive one minute appears negative tion. Further, figure/ground reversal can create an apparent
the next: what is called figure/ground reversal. This rich vi- reversal of foreground and background by overlapping two
sual experience is extremely engaging; the brain gets to play forms of different sizes, for example, or allowing a negative
a little game, and, as a result, the viewer is enticed to stay element to cross in front of a positive element unexpectedly;
within the composition a little longer and investigate other changes among forms’ relative opacity, or relative value
aspects to see what other fun he or she can find. If you can (lightness or darkness), will add to the ambiguity of a space,
recall one of artist M.C. Escher’s drawings—in which white sometimes creating an optical “middle distance,” or middle
birds, flying in a pattern, reveal black birds made up of the ground (discussed further on page 64).

The first three logos shown here,

left to right, embed a (white) posi-
tive form within another, causing
that form to become a negative
space for the white one. In the
fourth logo (nearest left), the small
figures toward the bottom appear
to be in the foreground because one
of them connects to the negative
space outside the mark, and the
logo for an avionics company; designed by John Jensen; professor Lisa Fontaine; Iowa State University symbol for beloved king. Designer: Sunyoung Park; Professor: Lisa Fontaine; Iowa State University line contours around these figures
are heavier than those of the larger,
crowned figure.
JOHN JENSEN / UNITED STATES 
FROST DESIGN / AUSTRALIA 
PETTIS DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
The flurry of birds in this poster
SUNYOUNG PARK / UNITED STATES 
(near left) transitions from being
positive elements against a dark
ground to the opposite; groups of
typographic elements perform the
same trick. The graphic forms on
the coffee packaging at far left also
do double-duty: The solid window
shapes are positive elements, but
those containing the left side of the
dot (which depicts the Moon) act
as negative fields; the Moon appears
to cross from behind a positive form
that is made of the surrounding
negative blue-gray field.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. /
UNITED STATES 
MOLTOBUREAU / GERMANY 
T
a
a
gr
fo
to
ty
to
oc
w
a
bu
bo
es
M
M

28 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 28 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 28 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 28
 Darker and lighter fields of color are used
interchangeably for light and shadow to
define a three-dimensional space.
t
LSD SPACE / SPAIN

e
y;

,
e

The figure/ground relationship in the poster After viewers immediately recognize that this
above is exceptionally ambiguous: The flower poster’s title—reversed white from the stepped,
appears to be a figure, filling a neutral, white red block—is a positive element in the fore-
ground; but then it’s interrupted by angular ground, all bets are off: Each grouping of images,
forms that appear to be both on top of it and textures, and abstract graphic forms occupies its
to punch through it, revealing a layer of bold own overall position in spatial depth, and the
typography within—which then also appears elements within each trade identities as either
to be on the surface. Similar optical weirdness figure or ground, and some (like the red element
occurs in the logo at right: The uniform line toward the middle right, with the speech bubble)
weight shared by the squares and the type act as both positive and negative in relation to
appear as flat elements on the page’s surface; different elements around them.
but the animal form appears to be inside the ATELIER 480 / CANADA
box, as though it’s a window—and then to
escape that space.
MANUAL / UNITED STATES 
MAKEBARDO / NEW ZEALAND 

29 FO R M A N D SPA C E DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 29 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 29 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 29
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

Visual Logic A visual language manipulates optical vari- and reliability. And for that to happen, it must reveal solid
ables that are fundamental to seeing; their reason for being logic: a methodically interconnected reasoning for its parts
is to convey ideas (content, or meaning). The content is the and relationships that is purposeful, and not left to chance.
motivation, but it’s the qualities of a visual language that People are inherently suspicious. Clear, accessible logic helps
help achieve that goal. First, it has to be be optically engag- them trust a questionable message in two ways: its crafting
ing and enjoyable to look at so that people will, indeed, look. implies that someone has taken time to meet their needs
Second, the visual language must help people see what (which suggests empathy and respect for their time and
they’re supposed to see in an orderly fashion. The language intelligence); and it works to diminish their presumed urge
must further convince them that the content is not only to refute the message’s validity. It answers every question,
relevant, but also believable: it must speak with authority “why” and “how,” as sensibly, and specifically as possible.

It
n
a
p
The basis of this brand system is a simple logic that relates sp
the four individual letters of the client company’s name u
to the exterior edges of whatever format in which they p
appear—whether on the letterhead or business card (above, li
left), the billboard (above, right), or the website (right). se
Conceptually, this logic causes the company name to enclose H
a variety of interior spaces (the client rents apartments
in a development); visually, the logic can flex to relate to
different formats and interact with different volumes,
and kinds, of content to unify various communications.
SIMPLE / AUSTRALIA

30 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 30 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 30 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 30
 Appropriateness Viewers will project meaning onto any Corroboration All the forms chosen and every relation-
s visual form they see, no matter how simple or abstract. ship in which they participate should reinforce, restate,
e. Designers know that culture and context build a treasure or riff on each other. That doesn’t mean they should all be
s trove of associations from which viewers draw to help them of the same kind—contrast of some kind (see pp. 76–79)
interpret forms. It stands to reason, then, that any form in is a must, to keep things interesting. Rather, it means that
a designed communication had better intuitively associate aspects of the language must share some qualities so that,
with the topic at hand. If one’s goal is to convey a feeling despite appreciable variations, they still clearly reinforce
of safety, for example, dangerously sharp-looking shapes each other. They’re like puzzle pieces: all different, yet each
and chaotic, invasive interactions among them are highly contributing a relevant part of the big picture. Any element
unlikely to make logical sense. that isn’t doing so has to be reconsidered.

In both of these projects, overall layout

and specific compositional moments cor-
roborate each other: The square-based,
modular grid structure that organizes
material in the website above derives
from the logo’s basic geometric structure.
In the cookbook cover to the left, the row
It’s not only the fact of the cocktail icon, gar-
of utensil handles at the top restates the
nished with its telltale umbrella, that conveys
regular rhythm of aligned letters in the
an understanding appropriate to the party this
red title; the darker spoon that drops out
poster promotes; more importantly, it’s the
of that row repeats a similar condition
specific, striped visual language the designer has
created by the descender of the title’s
used to describe that object, as well as the title’s
lowercase F form at a larger scale.
playful combination of font styles—bolder,
lighter, ball serifed, inlined, sans serif, and PISCATELLO DESIGN CENTRE /

serif—jostling each other around the format. UNITED STATES 

SANG ZHANG / UNITED STATES 
HUNGRY STUDIO (SK) / SLOVAKIA

31 FO R M A N D SPA C E DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 31 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 31 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 31
 DEFINING VISUAL LANGUAGE

Decisiveness This is a fancy term for clarity, which has to Making the visual aspects of a layout decisive, or clear, is
do with whether forms and their behaviors are readily iden- important because the credibility of the message being
tifiable, specific, and indisputable. Each form and behavior conveyed depends on the sense of confidence a viewer feels
can be called decisive if it is clearly one thing, not another: when looking at it. A sense of compositional weakness
In comparing two forms, for example, if one can quickly results from the appreciation of indecisive moments. And,
appreciate that they are the same size, or clearly different although a viewer won’t consciously recognize what exactly
in size, their size relationship is decisive; similarly, if a is causing it, the lack of clarity will evoke a nagging sense of
group of forms is intended to appear aligned on one side uneasiness, that something is “slightly off.” It should come
(and there’s no argument that they are or aren’t), then their as no surprise that creating uneasiness in a viewer is not a
compositional relationship is also decisive. great platform on which to build a persuasive message.

A
m
is
un
or
ra
“fi
Sh
fo
it
un
or

The circle, square, and triangle in the diagonal sides of the triangle, similarly, Vertical lines appear to be lighter Forms that are mathemati- The semicircle at left is precisely
grouping above are mathematically the pull the eyes away from the form’s in weight than horizontal ones that cally centered within a larger half the width and mass of the
same height (check the guide lines). vertices; even though its sides are equi- are mathematically the same thick- form (as is the white square full circle in the middle, but it
You’ll notice, however, that the square lateral in measure, the triangle also ness (the illusion results from our within the black square, top appears slightly condensed. In
appears larger than both the circle and appears somewhat narrower in width association of horizontal things left) will appear lower than the example at right, a little bit
the triangle. Rectangular forms appear than does the square. In the grouping with the force of gravity). In the center. In the second example, more of the original circle has
larger than other kinds because all closer to the bottom of the page, the lower example, the weight of the the white square has been been revealed, resulting in a
their sides are clearly defined. Circular characteristics of the circle and triangle vertical line has been adjusted so raised very slightly so that it semicircle that appears to be
forms appear to contract because have been adjusted to appear the same it appears the same as that of the will appear centered. an actual semicircle.
the eye can’t fix on a specific location size as the square. horizontal line.
anywhere on its continuous curve. The

A negative, or reversed,
form (the white circle)
looks larger than the same
positive form (the black
circle), even though they are
mathematically equivalent
in size (top). In the lower
example, the black circle
has been slightly enlarged
so both appear to be the
same size.

C
b
fi
When two equivalent forms p
are positioned directly a
above and below each d
other, the upper one will
appear larger and heavier of
A diagonal stroke that crosses another than the one below it (top). lo
will appear broken, or discontinuous, as In the lower example, the of
shown in the example at top. To correct top circle has been slighlty
for this illusion, the crossing stroke reduced so that both will
be
must be actually broken, and its right- appear to be the same size. H
hand side shifted slightly downward
(lower example).

32 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 32 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 32 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 32
 Refinement and Resolution Getting from an initial ous layout as it might one that is quietly, and methodically
visual thought to a fully developed, clearly logical language ordered. It’s not a term of value so much as an indicator of
requires iteration: making, evaluating, and reworking to whether the visual language has reached its end point, a
make it somehow better: refinining. It’s a quirky term that state of rightness or harmony that no longer seems to want
can be a little confusing. Here, it means making forms and for anything. That state is resolution. One must not mistake
y their behaviors more decisively like themselves, or editing it for “perfection” (totally impossible to achieve). It’s more
f out what’s inappropriate and exaggerating the qualities like a sense that nothing is broken and, so, doesn’t need any
of what is. It’s not merely “cleaning up.” The quality of fixing—in essence, that any questions the logic poses to the
refinement can apply to rough or aggressive forms, elegant viewer are going to be answered. What one needs to know in
or clean ones; it may just as easily describe a complex, vigor- order to get there is what the next two sections are about.

An image’s degree of refine- ments refine its inherent

ment refers to how much it characteristics so that they
is like itself, how clear and are more pronounced.
undisturbed by distracting An overlay of the original
or conflicting elements— (gray) and refined forms
rather than how “clean” or provides comparison of
“finished” it might appear. these alterations.
Shown to the right, first, is a
form that is not yet refined;
its internal relationships are
unclear, somewhat awkward
or unresolved. Slight adjust-

ly

n
t
The delicate diagonal line, the medium-weight
type at the right, and the bold, deconstructed
geometric numeral—all of radically different
shape and size—seem somehow uniformly
distributed top to bottom and left to right around
the vertical and horizontal axes of this bottle. The
designer has optically adjusted the sizes, weights,
and positions of all the elements to achieve the
appearance of this balance.
DESIGNERS UNITED / GREECE

Careful refinements in the relative sizes of the massive Look carefully at the small geometric and
black letterform and the equally massive lighting typographic elements on this magazine cover:
fixture—along with careful attention to the view- Note how they travel at angles in response to
point at which the light was photographed and its axes within the photograph, as well as how
angle of rotation within the format—yield two their left and right edges correspond in vertical
decisive compositional moments: the curvilinear edge or horizontal alignment with each other, clearly
of the light tracks the contour of the big letter, and the overlap, or point to other elements.
lower arc of its form dramatically “kisses” the corner STUDIO NEWWORK / UNITED STATES
of the big letter’s slab serif; the result is visual unity
between the two, and a moment of equisite tension.
HUNGRY STUDIO (SK) / SLOVAKIA

33 FO R M A N D SPA C E DE F I N I N G V I S U A L L A N GU A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 33 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 33 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 33
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM

The Dot There are several kinds of basic form, and we of all other forms. Every shape or mass with a recognizable
perceive each as doing something different, as having its center (a square, a trapezoid, a triangle, a blob) is a dot, no
own kind of identity. The perception of these differences matter how big it is. True, such a shape’s outer contour will
and how they affect the form’s interaction with space interact with the space around it more dramatically if it
and other forms around it, of differing identities, is what does become bigger (and therefore, becoming a plane, as de-
constitutes their perceived meaning. The most basic type scribed on page 36), but it will still remain essentially a dot.
of form is the dot. The identity of a dot is that of a point of Recognizing this essential quality of the dot form, regard-
focused attention; it simultaneously contracts inward and less of what other characteristics it takes on incidentally in
radiates outward. As seemingly simple as it might appear, specific occurrences, is crucial to understanding its visual
however, a dot is complex, the fundamental building block effect in space and its relationship to adjacent forms.

A
ce
on
on
B
it
di
an
The graphic dot, the pho-
tograph of crumpled paper,
and the red graphic sign
above are all dots.

Dots assert their identities Dot-like forms are easy to recognize when they’re treated as dots for the purpose of judging size change, A
everywhere; it’s hard to not literally circular objects, as in the photograph at top proximity, tension, and negative spaces between as though in
find them. A negative dot, it
for instance, is created in left and the business cards at top right. A graphic form, they were flat, black, abstract dots. Note how the type’s co
reverse from the conver- however, doesn’t have to be circular to be a dot. Barring linear quality contrasts with the dots on the pages. re
gence of other forms (top). a few elements that are clearly lines, many of the dots KRISTIN TEIG (PHOTO)+ CATRINE KELTY (STYLING) /
he
Clustering dots of different on the gatefold pages of the brochure above are some- w
sizes creates a more varied UNITED STATES  re
contour, but overall the thing other than circular. However, they’re still PARÁMETRO / MEXICO 
cluster retains its identity
C+G PARTNERS / UNITED STATES 
as a dot (bottom).

34

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 34 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 34 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 34
 The Line Stringing a bunch of dots side by side creates the ment and direction; a line is inherently dynamic, rather
next basic kind of form, the line. Its essential character is than static. A line is usually characterized by its thickness,
one of movement, direction, and connection; it may unite, or weight. Changing its weight, relative to its length, has
or separate, distinct areas within a given space. This con- a much greater impact on its identity as a line than does
- nection may be invisible, defined by the pulling effect on changing the size of a dot. As a line’s weight increases, it
space between two dots, or it may take on visible form as a gradually becomes perceived as a plane surface or mass;
concrete object aking which the eye travels back and forth. to maintain the line’s identity, it must be proportionally
The line might appear to start somewhere and continue lengthened. Lines may be solid or broken; they may move
indefinitely or it might travel a finite distance. Unlike a dot, along one path or track, or change direction; they may be
therefore, the quality of a line (linearity) is one of move- angled or curvilinear.

HOME

ABOUT

FEATURED

EVENTS

HOURS

MAP

VISIT

DONATE

A thin, single line has no Two heavy lines that are

center and no mass, expressing very close together create a
only direction and an effect third, negative line between
on the space surrounding it. them. The optical effect
Breaking the line increases of the negative white line is
its surface activity without that of a positive element
distracting from its movement on top of a single black ele-
and direction. ment, even if the negative
line joins open spaces at
either end.

A line may be light or heavy A line traveling around a Just as with dot-like forms, many kinds of visual ics, and text columns in the web page at top are all
in weight, of course; but fixed, invisible point at element can be identified as lines—so long as their lines. In the magazine spread just above, there are five
its identity as a line will be an unchanging distance
compromised if its weight, becomes a circle. Note that length is far greater than their width. They may lines (of varying weight and color), represented by
relative to its length, is too a circle is a line, not a dot. be purely graphical; images of individual objects; the typography—and one horizontal line embedded in
heavy—at which point, it If the line’s weight is in- linear elements within a full-frame environment; the full-page image, directly to the left of the red line
will register as a plane (a creased dramatically, a dot or typography, which is perceived as literal lines. of type on the right-hand page (do you see it?).
rectangle), as does the appears in the center of the
circle, and eventually the All of these possibilities appear in the two projects TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
form is perceived as a white above: The trees, navigation, supporting graph- NAROSKA DESIGN / GERMANY 
(negative) dot on top of a
larger, positive dot.

35 FO R M A N D SPA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 35 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 35 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 35
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM

The Plane A plane is just a big dot whose outer contour— of shape or another and, subsequently, what meaning that
the sense of its shape—becomes an important attribute: for shape might have: we’ll recognize it as a square or triangle
example, that it may be angular rather than round. Viewers or something else. The more complicated, or differentated,
will perceive this change at the point where a form enlarges a plane’s contour, the more active the shape will appear,
within a given space so that it begins to affect the shapes and the less it will radiate and focus in the way a dot, with a
of the negative space around it. As a result, the character- simple, undifferentiated contour, does. This happens even
istics of its area, proportion, outer contour, and its surface more dramatically when a plane’s contour punches inward,
become more definitive than its dot-like qualities. All such or becomes concave, allowing surrounding negative space
shapes appear first as flat surfaces; their external contours to “pierce” the continuity of its dimensional surface.
must be defined by the mind to identify it as being one kind

As a dot increases in
size, its outer contour
becomes noticeable,
and visually more
important than its
dot-like focal power—
at which point, it
becomes a plane.

A plane with a complex

contour remains a dot if
it’s surrounded by a huge
volume of space. In the
example at far left, the
form’s angular shape
is unimportant; in the
second example, its
shape is the only impor-
tant thing about it.

The various content areas of the website at top can be considered

as a set of flat, rectangular surfaces in space. Color and textural
changes help establish foreground and background positions
Line, mass, and texture communicate before words between them but, interestingly, all join seamlessly into the
or a recognizable image. On this invitation for a cal- base white field of the page. In contrast, the planes in the site
ligraphy exhibit, the sense of pen gesture, flowing of immediately above (which contain images) very clearly establish
marks, and the desertlike environment of high-contrast themselves as objects floating at various levels against the dark
shadow and texture are all evident in a highly abstract background field.
composition. MADE IN SPACE, INC. / UNITED STATES 

VCU / QATAR FIASCO DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM 

36 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 36 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 36 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 36
 Mass and Volume Two-dimensional dots (if they’re big A plane whose area is uniform throughout, without any
enough) and planes appear to us as having a kind of weight, internal activity (like a texture, for instance), will typically
as opposed to space (which we read as light or empty). This register as a flat surface. Once areas within a plane are dif-
quality is called visual mass. Lines, in contrast (and yes, this ferentiated, a viewer will start to perceive dimensionality,
is splitting hairs, so to speak), are said to have no mass be- or volume. This quality will be especially pronounced if
cause of the continual eye movement they create along their the differences are textures or gradations in light and dark
, strokes; the term weight is about their thickness, relative that resemble the play of light across an object, as we would
to their length. Meanwhile, a planar form will generally be observe in the natural environment. While apparently flat
perceived to have greater mass, or “feel heavier,” the larger forms are more likely to appear “inside” a format’s space,
it is, and the more it contrasts its surrounding space. volumetric forms dramatically “lift” from the surface.

Curvilinear forms generally exhibit Planar forms without internal

less mass than do rectilinear ones differentiation appear flat
whose contours are parallel with and contained within an open
the sides of a rectangular format space, but heavy. Volumetric
(far left); rotating or skewing that forms appear to float dimen-
rectangular form will reverse that sionally off a surface, but also
relationship (near left). appear lighter in mass.

Lines don’t usually appear to have

mass because of their optical
movement (especially if they’re
thin, as at far left). The much
heavier line (near left) does ex-
press some mass, but it still feels
lighter than the square, despite
being physically larger.

Most often, the relative size of

forms determines how heavy
(how much mass) we perceive
them to have. Here, the smaller
plane at far left appears lighter
(less massive) than does the
larger one to its right.

The relative mass of the forms

shown above appears to change,
however, when they’re of similar
size: the complex contour of
the near form lightens its visual
weight because the surrounding
negative space interrupts its
contour.

The plane that holds the photograph, as well as the darker blue
one that acts as a shadow cast by the former, appear to be of
A plane whose mass is lightened different mass. The darker blue one appears heavier because it’s
by a consistent pattern seems continuous and because it’s similar in hue and value to the sur-
more active but appears flatter rounding field. The photographic plane appears lighter because its
than does a solid plane—which
appears to advance because of mass is broken by complex visual activity.
its perceived greater weight (far CLASSMATE STUDIO / HUNGARY
left). Overlapping the solid plane
with the textured plane creates
an ambiguous tension between
foreground and background. A
plane whose texture emulates the
effect of light and shade appears
to have volume (near left).

37 FO R M A N D SPA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 37 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 37 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 37
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM

Contour and Axis You’ve probably noticed that contour, a That directional motion along a form’s contour is consid-
term used on previous pages, was left undefined. Most read- ered to extend beyond where the form ends, creating an
ers are probably familiar with its meaning, which is the implied, invisible line that influences surrounding space—
perceived outer edge of a two-dimensional form (even if what is called an axis (plural: axes). A line simply is an axis,
it appears volumetric). Sometimes, the simpler “outline” but every other form has at least two internal axes, along
is used instead; another alternative is silhouette. The only with any that its contours define: one that describes its
important things to know about contours are the simpler vertical dimension, splitting it in half from left to right; and
they are, the faster a form can be interpreted; a form may one that does the opposite. A form’s vertical and horizontal
have contours inside it, as well as outside; and, each seg- axes establish its perceived orientation in space; and all axes
ment of a contour creates a specific directional motion. are useful for defining behavioral relationships.

The larger a form becomes

within a field, the more any
internal axes it may contain
will become appreciable,
even if the overall form is
relatively simple—as is that
of the artichoke shown here.
When it’s very small, its
primary vertical axis is domi-
nant over its horizontal axis
because its stem creates a
deviation against its contour
that calls attention to it.
In the enlarged image, the
vertical axis becomes sec-
ondary to the diagonal axes
created by the outstretched The outer contour of this logo’s
leaves along the contour— primary symbol form is more
which also becomes more or less triangular and expresses
appreciable. the axes we’d intuitively expect
would emanate from its three
sides (even though the sides
themselves are irregular and
organic in quality). The form’s
interior surface deformation
creates an additional set of axes,
extending from the form’s center
outward through its vertices.
THINK MOTO GMBH / GERMANY

B
co
V
h
il
ov
co

Major axes created by the form ele-

ments in both of these projects (a styled
photograph for a cookbook, far left, and
a book cover, near left) are diagrammed
by lines outside each image. The pho-
tograph, which contains a far greater
complexity of form elements, generates
an expected multitude of axes; despite
the apparent simplicity of material in
the book cover, however, the axes to be
found are also apparently complex.
KRISTIN TEIG (PHOTO)+ CATRINE KELTY
(STYLING) / UNITED STATES 
PODPUNKT / POLAND 

38 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 38 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 38 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 38
 Aggregates There are, of course, many forms that are more It helps a designer make the first, major decisions about
complicated than being simply dot-like or planar. Although a composition. The form identities of the internal compo-
it’s super helpful to identify a form’s overall identity in the nents becomes helpful when considering more specific
simplest way possible, it’s hard to ignore that a lot of forms aspects of the visual language: whether the forms share
are made up of several base forms joined together. Being particular elements that can be recognized among them
able to recognize the form syntax at both levels is useful for to clarify the visual language; and whether these internal
d different purposes. Seeing the aggregate identity of a form, form identities can help corroborate the visual language’s
as a totality made of its combined, individual parts, helps syntax throughout the space.
s a designer consider its contours and axes—as well as its size
and position—relative to other forms within a given space.

The compositional organization of elements in the poster

below depends most on the overall diagonal axis of the
Arabic script form—an aggregate of multiple axes (and
differentiated contours) that individually move the eye
from part to part, establishing relationships with the axes
of the simpler forms at top and bottom, as well as with the
secondary type elements.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

s,
er

Both of the illustrations seen here to form a single cluster. On the other
comprise groups of individual forms. hand, the looser, less concise grouping
Viewers will perceive the vertical and of components in the aggregate to
horizontal axes of the grouping in the the right results in appreciation of a
illustration to the left as dominant greater number of axes as potentially
over the individual axes of the internal dominant or important.
components because they overlap MEDIA INVIA (DIEGO MORALES) / BRAZIL

In this logo for a custom home builder, the

ed initial B of the client’s name intertwines with
nd simplified leaf forms to create an aggregate
ed with multiple, complex axes. Confining the
internal configuration within a simple diamond
shape tames that dynamism by dominating
es it with the diamond’s primary axes, creating
e a meaningful tension between decorative
n creativity and crafted control.
e TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

39 FO R M A N D SPA C E FOR M A N D S PA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 39 4/6/20 9:56 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 39 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 39
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM

Geometric Form As they do with all kinds of form, our clearly occurs in nature, that quality is usually hidden by
brains try to establish meaning by identifying a shape’s more irregular aspects and, so, our expectation of geom-
outer contour. There are two general categories of shape, etry is that it’s something artificial, contrived, engineered,
each with its own formal and communicative characteris- rational, or synthetic—human-made, to be specific. The
tics that have an immediate effect on messaging: geometric weird exception is the circle or dot, most often associated
form and organic form. A shape is considered geometric with natural forms and processes: Earth, Sun, Moon, cell,
in nature if the segments of its contour are regular in cycles. Lines, too, may sometimes take on an organic qual-
measure (if its external measurements are mathematically ity, depending on their specific qualities (being curvilinear,
similar in multiple directions) and, very generally, if it for example, ore irregular or meandering, like a river or a
appears angular or hardedged. Although geometricity worm or a plant’s tendril).

The poster at left presents viewers with So

literally geometric forms: a set of colored or
fo
cubes, all with hard edges and faces that do
are easy to distinguish as geometric. It’s m
important to note—as is the case with co
many kinds of form identity—that such ch
ti
geometric qualities are also inherent in
forms that are much more complex and,
often, not even images of physical things.
Case in point: the elements in the book
There are three essential spread layout above. The inset photo-
types of geometric form: graphs are clearly rectangles, and the
circle, polygon, and line. For objects they depict are geometric, planar
polygons, the simplest are
the square and the triangle, forms; but the justified block of text on
having four sides and three the left-hand page is also a geometric
sides, respectively. The form (a rectangle). Further, the black line
square is the most stable
and presents the most mass; across the center is a geometric line, and
the triangle is the least the negative spaces surrounding the inset
stable polygon and induces photographs are also rectangles of differ-
a great deal of optical move- ent proportions. And, let’s not overlook
ment around its contour.
The circle is nearly as stable the letters of the word “pleasures”: loosely
as the square although its spaced and no longer interpreted as a
continuous curve hints at textural line, each letter also becomes
rotation; its curvy quality
is completely opposite to
more or less a vertical rectangle.
that of the square. Lines CHENG DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
that are straight, stepped, STUDIO INTERNATIONAL / CROATIA 
or configured as angles are
also geometric.

40 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 40 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 40 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 40
 Organic Form Forms that are irregular, complex, and means reinforcing these irregular aspects in a form, despite
highly differentiated are considered organic—this is what any geometric underpinning. Nature presents itself in
our brains tell us after millennia of seeing organic forms all terms of variation on essential structure, so a shape might
around us in nature. As noted, geometry exists in nature, appear organic if its outer contour is varied along a simple
but its presence is subtle and generally overshadowed by logic—many changing varieties of curve, for example.
our perception of overall irregularity. The structure of most Irregularity in measurement or interval between compo-
branching plants, for example, is triangular; in the context nent parts similarly conveys an organic identity. Nature is
of the whole plant, whose branches may grow at different unrefined, unstudied, textural, and complicated. Forms
rates and at irregular intervals, this intrinsic geometry is that exhibit these traits likewise are organic.
obscured. Conveying a quality of organicism, therefore,

Although drawn digitally, the

fluid, irregularly waving back-
ground forms in this web page
are very organic, providing a
clear contrast with the geomet-
ric, rectangular insets.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

Calculate

Soft, textured forms appear Variation is an inherent

organic compared to similar aspect of organic form in
forms with hard edges, as nature. All these essentially
do forms that are gestural, similar shapes (bottom)
mostly curvilinear, or whose are varied slightly relative to
contours are constantly each other; as a result,
changing in rhythm, direc- they express an organic
tion, and proportion (top). quality, despite their overall
structural similarity.

s.

The shapes shown here—

one, with a relatively simple
contour (left), and the other,
e with a highly differentiated
contour (below)—are
organic, but to lesser and
t greater degrees. The shape
- at left has a simpler, less
differentiated contour and,
y so, is relatively more dot-
like and geometric than its
counterpart, whose contour
is very complex, with highly
irregular curves and incur-
sions of negative space.
Typically geometric forms like the dots (in the
brochure spread above) and lines (in the logo to the
left) can rapidly become organic in quality simply
by virtue of the medium used to render them—
which, in these two instances, happens to be paint.
VOICE / AUSTRALIA 
STRESSDESIGN / UNITED STATES 

41 FO R M A N D SPA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 41 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 41 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 41
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM

Texture The quality of surface activity helps in differ- in specific alignments—are also textural, but only if they
entiating forms from each other, just as the identifiable are relatively random, meaning that they’re not running
contours of form itself does. The term texture applies to parallel, or that they appear with varying intervals between,
surfaces having irregular activity without apparent repeti- or in random, crisscrossing directions. The identifying
tion. The sizes of the elements creating surface activity characteristic of surface activity (texture or otherwise) is
might change; the distance between the components might that it usually fills an area from edge to edge; it is perceived
change; the relative number of components might change as an overall, continuous field, instead of as a discrete,
from one part of the surface to another. Because of this self-contained object. Introducing a textural element into
inherent randomness, texture generally is perceived as the background areas of layouts is a quick way of helping
organic or natural. Clusters and overlaps of lines—dots to activate negative space without adding other forms.

Visual activity on a plane Upon closer inspection, the

surface is categorized irregular texture around the
as a texture if it appears
random or if it changes in numeral is revealed to be a
quality from one location to flock of hummingbirds. Oddly
another. While most often enough, their apparently random
organic in source (top), such placement is carefully studied to
textures may also be created
from dot-based or linear control the change in density.
form (bottom). STUDIO WORKS / UNITED STATES

The more regular a texture’s

density is within a given
area, the more two dimen-
sional it will appear—and
the less organic or natural.
Conversely, strong contrast
in density increases the tex-
ture’s dimensional quality as
well as its inherent organic
quality. An evenly continu- The image in the web page below combines extremely organic, appearing on the tops of the
ous transition from lighter textural surface activity of different kinds (the major earth chunks; and more geometric (even
to darker value will often be
perceived as the play of light cracked and flaking surface of earth and the pattern-like) created by the large, somewhat
across a volume. networked lines that span the format). Further, grid-like cracks themselves.
by presenting the photograph at that particular FIASCO DESIGN / SPAIN
scale, creates two different qualities of texture:

42 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 42 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 42 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 42
 Pattern Surface activity in which the internal components large, they will act as a grouping of foreground elements,
are arranged on a recognizable structure or in repeated in- competing for attention with other kinds of material in the
, tervals—for example, a grid of dots—is a very specific kind space. This is especially true of a pattern (in contrast to a
of texture called a pattern. The existence of a planned struc- texture) because of the geometric quality of its base forms
ture within patterns means they are understood to be some- and the appreciably regular (and often noticeably separated)
thing that is not organic: they are something synthetic, intervals between them. Just like textures, patterns may be
mechanical, mathematical, or mass produced. The scale of used across the full field of a format’s area—not only within
pattern, relative to the format, will establish different quali- planar forms—and, even if extremely subtle, will help
ties. A pattern made up of very small elements will pres- activate vast areas of negative space.
ent itself as a field or background. If the elements are very

Visual activity on a plane

surface should be catego-
rized as pattern if it exhibits
some repeated, consistent
relationship, such as a grid
structure, between its com-
ponent elements. At top is
a simple, linear herringbone
pattern, while at bottom, a
photographic image shows
a complex grid pattern.

Increasing the density of a Patterns are a ubiquitous visual language cover above, left, immediately evokes the Art
pattern’s components creates throughout history and appear in numerous Déco movement of the 1920s and 30s, the setting
a change in darkness or value. contexts—in addition to creating dramatically of the novel it wraps. The wave pattern on the
Changes in pattern density
may be stepped, as in the
eye-catching optical flicker, that means they can book cover above, right (in addition to water)
example at top, or continuous, also represent distinct, complex narratives. The calls to mind the prows of Greek sailing ships and
as in the example below it. waving line pattern in the web page at top, for a the surface marking of Greek armor.
While the continous transition marina, evokes both the surface of water and the
from lighter to darker values MUCHO / SPAIN 
in the bottom example is idea of nautical flags. The pattern of radiating CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH / UNITED KINGDOM 
smooth and less geometric in lines within repeating triangle motifs on the book
appearance, the pattern still
retains its mechanical quality
in contrast to texture.

Warping the proportions of a

dot grid creates a dramatically
three-dimensional pattern. This
quality refers to the activity of
the client, a medical imaging
and networking organization.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN

43 FO R M A N D SPA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 43 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 43 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 43
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM

The Physical Surface Printed projects, packaging, and like wood and stone, bring strong textural forms to bear
other dimensional communications (like kiosks, wayfind- in dimensional projects. Glass, plastics, and other indus-
ing signs, trade show booths, and so on) offer an exciting trial materials—textiles, laminates and metals—provide
opportunity to work with surface activity in a physical way. hundreds of options for customization beyond stylistic
In printing, one may easily factor the surface qualities of patterns their manufacturers might create: punching,
various paper stocks into the overall visual language. A extruding, sandblasting, and etching. And then, too, there
designer may also consider the potential of folding, cut- are hardware embellishments, like grommets, clips, snaps,
ting, shortsheeting, embossing, perforating, stitching, and appliqués, and wires. As with any form language, designers
tearing for exaggerated surface effects. Special printing must consider more than a material’s visual qualities alone
techniques offer further possibilities. Natural materials, to account for any meaningful associations it might suggest.

Paper stocks are either coated (having a smooth,

matte or glossy surface); or uncoated (having
a more fibrous, tactile surface). Combining the
two kinds in the same project, as in the book at
left, foregrounds their different feels as another
message in the visual language. Pressing into,
or debossing, the surface of a fibrous, “toothy”
stock smooths the debossed areas, as in the busi-
ness card above, right. Some papers have flecks
of other materials embedded within them for
added surface activity (and, in the case of the
business card below, right, can suggest other
kinds of material, like salty pretzels).
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM 
TRIBORO DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

Translucent paper stocks offer beautiful

possibilities for layered and textural
experiences, as seen in the packaging,
poster, and annual report (left to right).
PARÁMETRO / MEXICO 
MADE IN SPACE, INC. / UNITED STATES 
PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

44 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 44 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 44 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 44
 Metallic inks and paper stocks introduce surface activity
through reflection and refraction. Both are used in the
report at left (silver ink printed on the uncoated green
envelope, and matte inks printed on the glossy silver
cover). Below, a detail of a brochure page shows the effect
of printing a silver ink on an uncoated surface for a more
subtle surface sparkle.
METAKLINIKA / SERBIA 
MUCHO / SPAIN 

t.

Stamped foils, which are available in numerous

colors and finishes (metallic or pearlescent, for
example) are used to dramatic effect on the series
of club invitations at upper left. The black invita-
tion card above and the business card at left both
show the elegant effect of glossy varnishes.
FORM / UNITED KINGDOM 
THERE / AUSTRALIA 
MUCHO / SPAIN 

45 FO R M A N D SPA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 45 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 45 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 45
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORM
Embossing, in which the surface of the paper is raised
(the opposite of debossing) also highlights the surface of
the paper with a more tactile quality. In the restaurant
compliments card (immediately below), it subtly captures
the organic movement of the plant image. In the photog-
rapher's business card lower on the page, the embossed
rectangle alludes to the film-case back of a camera. It pairs
with stickers—which add a different level of raised tactil-
ity—on the brochure cover at the bottom of the page.
GRETEL / UNITED STATES 
FUMAN / NEW ZEALAND 
MUTABOR / GERMANY 

Transparent and translucent plastics,

like acetate or lucite (called “perspex” in
the UK) are available both uncolored and
colored; and they may be printed with a
variety of techniques and ink types. The
acetate jacket above is screenprinted with
a matte ink to focus the material’s reflec-
tive quality in the unprinted areas. The
business card at left, for a glass museum,
is a thin-gauge lucite, printed both sides
with semitransparent areas to create a
kind of animation of the logo’s letters as T
the card is tilted at different angles. te
INFINITO / PERU  to
STUDIO MARVIL / CROATIA  h
a
LU

46 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 46 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 46 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 46
es

rs
-

Complex die-cuts reveal folded flaps, printed with

different ink colors, in a promotional greeting card for
an accounting firm (above left); and create a surprising
pop-up image in the book spread above, right.
C+G PARTNERS / UNITED STATES 
VOICE / AUSTRALIA 

These extravagantly dimensional pieces from an archi-

tecture firm’s stationery system (a compliments card at Elastic bands activate the surface of
top, and business cards, below) result from scoring their a fashion designer’s media kit folder
heavy-weight paper stocks and folding them. The scores (while also forming an abstract W);
are highlighted with a metallic ink. a leather-bound box contrasts texture
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE and subdued, neutral color with
smooth, vibrantly colored ribbons.
VON K BRAND DESIGN STUDIO / AUSTRIA 
ROYCROFT DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

47 FO R M A N D SPA C E AT T R I BU T E S OF F OR M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 47 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 47 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 47
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Breaking Into It Space is neutral, undefined, and inactive At every step, he or she faces a cascading set of results
until a designer breaks it with form. No matter how simple from each decision that will convey messages before viewers
it might be, that form defines the space and gives it meaning can begin to register the actual content: Calm? Intimate?
the instant it appears. And doing so opens a huge can of Expansive? Active? Claustrophobic? Anxious? Energetic? E
a
worms: The resulting breach of emptiness creates new space It’s nearly overwhelming to think about. The best advice is in
around the form; each form a designer adds decreases the to not think about it: just do it, and see what the results are; se
literal amount of available space and forces it into distinct change something and compare the differences; and repeat. th
shapes around the positive material. Each time a designer Seeing and analyzing how space changes after each new d
T
changes even one aspect of any form, whether size, position, decision, using the intended forms or material, is the only p
orientation, or color, it changes all the conditions in play. way to figure out how space will best integrate with it. a
bo
TI

As soon as a form enters Without changing the Changing any aspect of a

a given space, the space form—except for a minor form in space—its relative
is changed and structure repositioning—the vol- size, its shape, its orienta-
appears—simple as this umes, shapes, and qualities tion to horizontal or verti-
might be. There are now two inherent in the spaces sur- cal—or adding an additional
spaces created by the form’s rounding the form are made form, creates differenti-
location in the center of the different from each other. ated spaces with new, more
format—each similar in complex relationships to
quality, shape, and volume. each other.

Form elements break the space in very different ways in each of these
two projects. In the poster (left), they break the space into discrete
units that contain each element, whose axes help to interrelate them.
In the web page (above) the overlap of title and image, together with
the secondary texts’ staggered alignments and rotation, causes the
space to seem folded backwards and forwards in layers. Study both
and see if you can identify all the axes that the forms define in each.
LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY 
EXECUTIVE AGENCY / CANADA 

48

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 48 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 48 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 48
 s

Exceptionally large scale images interact with type and

abstract graphic forms in this website, dramatically break-
ing the page space. Seeing the whole page, the composition
seems very energetic but, viewed in a typical browser,
. the size of the images means visitors scan their forms and
details relatively slowly as they scroll down the page.
Together with an intuitively organic structure, that stately
pace creates a relaxing, casual quality—while diagonal
axes among the forms establishes continuity from top to
bottom and perception of an underlying order.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

Each typographic element in this page spread subdivides

the format’s overall proportion to create new, smaller
shapes and proportions of space.
VOICE / AUSTRALIA

The differences in proportion between the various spaces

surrounding the elements in this page spread—as well as the
inward/outward contour of text and images—activate a
e tremendous amount of space without filling it.
LOEWY / UNITED KINGDOM
m.
h

49 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 49 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 49 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 49
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

How Dots Behave Seeing that forms create space is an (of a sort), that perception rapidly disintegrates because
important understanding at which to arrive, but a designer the brain acknowledges all the axes, radiating outward and
also has to know how each kind of form acts on space, inward at the same time. The net effect is that the dot shifts
and each kind does something different. Because dots are attention away from space toward its location. That changes
the most basic forms, it’s a good place to start. Dots draw as soon as another dot appears: the two dots create
attention to themselves. Within a rectangular space, a dot a specific axis (an invisible line); additional dots create
somewhat expresses vertical and horizontal axes, but the further axes among them, as well as begin to mark the
truth is that dots don’t have axes at all—or, better put, they boundaries, or contours, of space shapes. Working together,
have an infinite number. Although one might first see dots establish the simplest basis for structure, including
a dot as breaking its surrounding space into quadrants other kinds of forms, both positive and negative.

A dot centered in a space Introducing a second dot However, a new tension

establishes an immediate shifts attention away from arises: the dichotomy of
presence; its proportion, the relationship of the flat, graphic form and the
relative to its surrounding space to the interaction of appearance of three-
area, is the most important the two dots. They refer dimensional depth as one
consideration; second is to each other and imply a dot seemingly inhabits a
its relative position to the structure—an invisible, foreground, and the other, a
edges of the space. The dot connecting path that splits background position.
breaks the space neutrally. space apart. If the space The closer the dots are
It is weightless, internally between dots is just about to each other, the more
balanced, settled, and zero, its presence assumes powerful the sense of their
static, but it dominates the more importance than the unique identity as objects;
space around it. Once the dots themselves, and even the further apart, the more
dot moves from the center, more importance than any pronounced the sense of
there is a shift in domi- other spatial interval. If structure, induced by the in-
nance: the background the dots overlap, especially visible path between them.
asserts itself, tension arises. if they are different sizes,
the tension created by their
closeness is relieved.

The presence of more than The perception of spatial A tremendous number

two dots (especially in depth occurs among dots of small dots creates a field
close proximity) reduces that are different sizes: a of surface activity (see
the focus on identity and larger dot advances in front pages 42 and 43) in which
increases attention to their of a smaller one. Changing structure becomes far less
reciprocal relationships and, the relative tonal values important than the activity
thus, a sense of structure or of the dots, however, can itself. Dots that are evenly
meaning. How far are the create an ambiguous spatial spaced (top) create a regu-
dots from each other? Is tension among them, even larized pattern; or, if irregu-
each dot the same distance though their relative sizes larly spaced, a randomized
from its counterparts? What remain the same. In the ex- texture (right). The relative
is their configuration, and ample at top, the larger dot darkness or lightness of
what outer shape does it clearly appears closer than these fields depends on
make? What does this shape does the smaller one. In the density (how close the dots
signify? Do the dots appear bottom example, this condi- are to each other). In the
static, or to be moving, tion isn’t nearly as clear. textural field, this density
and how? changes, creating areas
of differing value, and a
sense of movement).

Working together, dots

create an endless variety
of arrangements and
increasing complexity—
rows, angles, planar forms,
curves, geometric patterns,
and so on.

50 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 50 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 50 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 50
s
s

r,

-
Dots, both literal (graphic) and pictorial, produce different effects. In the poster,
demonstrate radically different behaviors they illustrate the idea presented by
in these four projects. In the web page the headline; in the brochure cover for a
at top left, they create ecstatic bubbles. university science program, they behave
In the poster below it, they produce an in a way that seems molecular.
undulating mass, but restate the struc- IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES 
ture of the B logo. Dots are organized in LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY 
grids in both the poster above and the LOEWY / UNITED KINGDOM 
brochure cover below but, again, these
THINK MOTO GMBH / GERMANY 

51 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 51 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 51 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 51
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

How Lines Behave In contrast to dots, lines emphasize them—how little or how much; whether they’re the same
the space around them. As we’ve seen (page 35), that’s or different; and the way those intervals change, if they do:
because our eyes continually track across them; it’s hard what is known as rhythm, the sense of compression and ex-
to nail down a line’s location, so we focus instead on what’s pansion. Even though intervals between dots create rhythm,
happening on either side of it, or the places to which the it’s usually dominated by the dots’ visual insistence on their
line’s movement directs us. Multiple lines call attention to locations. More than any other kind of form, lines empha-
their individual, directional movements, whether parallel size rhythmic push and pull between them. Lines produce
or diverging; to their relative weights (and thus, potential another peculiar spatial effect that results from a percep-
foreground/background position); but more emphati- tion that they are inscribed, or scratched, across a surface:
cally, they call into question the spatial intervals between lines tend to optically flatten illusory space.

Several thin lines together Separating the lines A change in weight among space, while those further a thin line generally will White (negative) lines
create a texture, similar increases attention to their a group of lines, as well as apart recede. If any of the appear to recede against crossing in front of (and be- B
to that created by a dense individual identities. It a change in the intervals lines are rotated to cross a thicker line, the mind is hind) black (positive) lines
grouping of similar-sized also calls attention to the between them, creates the their counterparts, the per- capable of being convinced create increasingly complex
dots. intervals between them and illusion of spatial depth. ception of spatial depth is that the thin line is crossing spatial relationships.
what, if any, variation there Lines that are closer enhanced—and even more in front of the thick line.
might be. together exert tension on so if their weights also are
each other and advance in differentiated. Although

Lines that both enter and with surrounding space or

leave a format reinforce the forms is increased greatly as
sense of their movement the eye is able to focus on
along the direction in which the point at which they start
they do so. If the beginning or stop.
or ending points of the lines
are contained within the C
format, their directional
movement is changed from
continuous to specific; the
result is that their tension

Two lines joining create an A spiraling line appears to

angle. The joint between move simultaneously inward
two lines becomes a starting and outward, re-creating the
point for two directional visual forces inherent in a
movements; multiple joints single dot.
between lines create a sense
of altered direction in one
movement. An extremely D
acute angle might also be
perceived as a rapid move-
ment from one direction to Li
another. w
th
ad
fo
lin
Lines together produce sion, sequence, repetition, w
rhythm. Equally spaced, or system. Such rhythmic ba
a set of lines produces changes in interval create th
an even, relatively static directional movement; the jo
tempo; differences in space more complex the changes
produce a dynamic, synco- and the more variation
pated tempo. The kind of in line weights, the more
spatial difference introduced complex the rhythm
between lines affects the becomes.
perceived rhythm and might
create meaning: progres-

52 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 52 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 52 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 52
m,
r

A
The designers of both page spreads,
above, use lines to separate text into
distinct zones and create rhythmic
intervals from top to bottom. In the
page spread at right, lines act in a vari-
ety of ways: Circular lines enclose let-
ters, while diagonal lines join them in
a rapid zig-zagging motion. The heavy
spiral line crosses the spread’s gutter
to join the two pages; at the same time,
it participates in an ambiguous spatial
e- relationship with the large A (which
B
advances) and the green, lowercase
ex letters (which appear to recede).
STUDIO MARVIL / CZECH REPUBLIC 
E-TYPES / DENMARK 
BR/BAUEN / BRAZIL 

d
e

Lines that change in weight or value

(relative lightness/darkness) become
D
visually dimensional, as seen in these
stills from a video wall installation.
Lines might break or join spaces
This apparent dimensionality increases
within a format. In breaking or joining in lines whose weights change from
these spaces, lines might perform beginning to end (note the arcing line in
additional functions relative to other the blue screen immediately to the left),
forms within the same format: (A) The
line protects the circular form. (B) The which appears to originate deep in the
white line joins both forms across a distance, advancing over the type to
barrier. (C) The line offers contrast to exit the frame in the foreground at the
the form, but supports it. (D) The line lower right.
joins two spaces.
MANUAL / UNITED STATES 

53 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 53 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 53 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 53
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

How Planes Behave Planar forms cut space apart into movements, and how close other contours are, at any given
recognizable chunks. As they do, they describe the shapes point. As a result, planes force us to see the specific shapes
of those spatial chunks more explicitly than do other basic of spaces very concretely—more so when the planes are close
forms. That’s because we perceive planes as literal objects, together. Planes do also rhythmically squish and morph
with mass, occupying dimensional space (typically, in the surrounding spaces, but this rhythm is perceived as direc-
foreground); and because we are hardwired to focus on tional: because their shapes are so distinct, it’s easy to tell in
objects in our field of vision, we’re not only hyperaware of what direction a space shape is “facing” or “pointing,” what
their masses, but of their contours as we try to identify could be called its thrust. In this way, planar forms drive our
them (“Is it a threat?”). Our eyes compare planar contours eyes around them and through surrounding spaces, creat-
for their angular or curvilinear qualities, their directional ing tracks for our eyes to follow, or eyeline paths.

M
Rotating rectangular planes imparts a perception ap
to
of movement. In the folder just below, doing so ge
around a fixed point—together with a change in si
each one’s relative color temperature (see page 91
in chapter 2)—results in a spiraling effect.
The illusory movement of the square filmstrip
elements on the magazine cover (bottom) can be
interpreted in two ways: the individual squares
may be spinning in place, or they may have been
rapidly distributed to arrive at those positions.
FORM / UNITED KINGDOM 
STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO / SPAIN 

Ju
Planar forms can produce a variety of spatial effects. Among the video stills above, planes that are alternat- be
In the left-hand page of the spread at top, the plane ley opaque or transparent, of solid color or containing w
that contains the image and the solid one to its right images, act to create a sense of layers and “windows” up
in
act as adjacent fields that extend beyond the format at various depths. The interaction of their diagonal co
because their boundary is continuous and spans the contours and corners create vigorous inward and ed
page from top to bottom. Compare this to the dark outward movement. th
ki
plane on the right-hand page, which appears to enter FIASCO DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM  or
from the exterior and interrupt the page. On the same MUCHO / SPAIN  th
page, the small trapezoidal shape containing text th
appears as a discrete object “sitting” on the surface. di
en

54 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 54 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 54 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 54
e

n Planes need not be geometric

t forms, nor even completely
abstract shapes…nor image ele-
r
ments at all. In the page layout
just to the left, for instance,
the two major visual elements
are planes, even though they’re
organic, droplet or seed shapes.
For that matter, the figure is
also an organic plane (despite
Most polygons tend to (left); as soon as even one the dot-like shape of her head).
n appear “flat” in orientation of their sides differentiates, —
to the format surface (and they appear to exhibit In the video still (middle), one will
generally static) when their “perspective” and suggest first see the diagonally spliced
sides are equal in measure directional movement (right).
areas and the large dots as planes;
the human figures are also planes.
It’s interesting that the aforemen-
tioned diagonal planes are defined
as such by lines, and by the shift
of material between them, rather
than by individual shapes.
—
The letterforms in most fonts are
varied in their proportions and
detailing; the ones seen in the
poster at bottom, however, are ex-
ceptionally condensed (see chapter
A 3, page 135) and tightly packable;
this condition foregrounds their
shape as a group, or surface, that
is very geometric, with clearly
rectilinear contours. The rotation
of the black element across the
white one further exaggerates the
type’s planar quality.
ASCEND STUDIO /
UNITED KINGDOM 
B DAS BURO / NETHERLANDS 
STEREOTYPE / UNITED STATES 

Just as with dots, tension It’s this particular quality

between planes increases (and the overt direction-
with proximity, but eases ality of edge axes) that
upon overlap (A); it likewise establishes eyeline
increases when a vertex path. Aligning edge axes
confronts an edge (B). Two between planes creates
edges in close proximity, on additional, intercon-
the other hand (C), create a nected movement.
kind of optical compression,
or squeezing, that forces
the eye along the channel
they create; the “pressure”
dissipates when the eye
encounters a deviation.

55 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 55 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 55 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 55
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Arranging Form After becoming familiar with the ways whether the forms are geometric or organic themselves;
each kind of form element behaves in space, it comes down either kind may be arranged either way. Geometric arrange-
thinking about what forms can do together, adding further ment means regularity and mathematical relationships:
dimension to a communication’s visual logic. A first consid- repeated spatial intervals and alignments of edges and axes,
eration is how forms will occupy their given space—which especially ones that restate or emphasize basic structural
really has to do with their overall scale, and whether they attributes of the format. Conversely, just as organic forms
fill that space to some degree or appear contained within it. are highly irregular, so too is organic arrangement: inter
And, just as forms themselves may be geometric or organic vals change in measure and proportion; their negative
in nature, the way they’re arranged within a given space space shapes are more differentiated; and there’s a notable
may exhibit similar qualities in gesture. It doesn’t matter absence of alignments between contours and axes.

A B A B

In simplest terms, there are only format (A). Alternatively, forms An arrangement of geometric forms in geomet-
two ways that form elements may be contained, or inset, within ric, or mathematical, spatial relationships (A)
can occupy a space—whether they the space (B); such forms may be is contrasted by the irregular, organic quality of
happen to be nonpictorial, or shapes unto themselves or contain their arrangement in irregular relationships (B).
abstract, or pictorial, meaning im- cropped images, and they may also
ages (see chapter 4, pages 196 and touch the format's edge or bleed.
198). First, they can more or less
cover the field, either completely
or partially bleeding out of the

These two posters combine a variety of

arrangement strategies: In the poster
at near right, the pictorial imagery,
although spliced by vertical, planar
divisions, bleeds the format; the flat
gray rectangles, although they do bleed
the poster’s left- and righthand edges,
also appear as inset planes. Throughout,
all of the material is arranged geometri-
cally. In the poster at far right, most of
the material is inset (except for the left-
hand arc of the circular element, which
bleeds the format’s left edge); the blocks
of gray and brown dot patterns are ar-
ranged geometrically, in contrast to the
illustrative pottery shards and the large
title, which are arranged organically.
SANG ZHANG / UNITED STATES 
LESLEY MOORE / NETHERLANDS 

56 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 56 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 56 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 56
 Dynamic or Static? Regardless of form identities or the sions, designers and design educators will most often
- geometric or organic qualities of their spatial arrrange- advocate for dynamism as a desirable goal, rather than for
ment, positive and negative may be arranged so that they’re a static impression. As with all “rules” of this kind, of
, perceived as interacting with differing levels of “energy.” course, context is everything: If the perception of a project’s
At one extreme, their dialogue can be made to seem ener- intended message will benefit from a quiet, static composi-
getic, or dynamic (alive, noisy, vigorous, in motion). tion, a designer should obviously pursue organizational
At the other, a designer can cause this interaction to quiet approaches that will achieve that result.
down or even to become still, or static (devoid of energy
or vitality, or restful). Because the picture plane is actually
a flat environment where movement and depth are illu-

Multiple forms situated around

similar spatial intervals create
static interaction. The com-
position at top seems restful,
comfortable, and quiet, and
exhibits a kind of stasis, despite
the irregularity and rotation of
the forms. Altering the intervals
between form elements, or
between elements and format
edges (bottom), creates a
dynamic composition. The
movement of the eye is enhanced
as these intervals exhibit more
contrast with each other. Note
the areas where the negative
spaces become compressed or
exhibit a directional thrust.

Orienting the axes of various

forms parallel to those of the
format typically results in
a more restful, static quality,
in which the forms appear
anchored to the format’s space
(top). Rotating forms so that
their axes contrast with those
of the format usually results
in a more dynamic quality
(bottom).

In the book spread at top, the designer rotates type elements

and crosses image boundaries with them to enhance the compo-
sitional activity created by decisive spatial breaks of differing
interval. In the book spread just above, regular intervals and
strict alignments between elements statically anchor them, in
contrast to dynamic movement provided by the image on the
right-hand page.
MICHELLE LIV / UNITED STATES 
ESTUDIO PÁNICO / ECUADOR 

57 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 57 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 57 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 57
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Symmetry Of the many types of arrangement that are pos- a specific direction in which to read them; further, form
sible, most fall into two categories of governing rationale elements that don’t participate in that order tend to discon-
(or logic, for short). The first of these is symmetry, which is nect and seem out of place. Symmetrical arrangements
about mirroring forms and their relative positions across present content very simply and directly, but they are best
an axis. Symmetry occurs in nature, a fact with which we live approached with caution because they’re inherently static.
every day: if we were to divide ourselves down the center, By duplicating form shapes and their surrounding spaces
top to bottom, we would recognize that our parts on either on either side of the axis, their simplicity is often so direct
side of that division (axis) are identical. Symmetry imposes it causes viewers to read them very quickly; viewers are thus
a strict order on arrangement: it almost demands a single less likely to intellectually engage the composition, and so,
starting position at which to begin reading forms, and then “gloss over” them.

Within a symmetrical In rotational symmetry,

composition, elements elements invert in their
may respond to a format’s orientation relative to the
vertical (A), horizontal (B), axis (D).
or diagonal axis (C). This
kind of symmetry, in which
form elements’ centers align
with the axis (straddling or
mirroring each other across
the axis,) is described as
bilateral symmetry.
A B C D

Arranging forms sym- Symmetrical forms may

metrically around two respond to their axis in a
axes creates greater number of ways: by strad-
complexity. dling or mirroring across it
(A); alternating in position
across it (B); and/or by
explicitly hugging the axis
or straying from it, referring
to it by implication (C).

A B C

A
p
Symmetrical arrangement is the oldest kind of visual rh
organization, typically associated with authority and el
traditionalism—both of which qualities are appropriate th
in the poster at left. The use of rotational symmetry in
C.
the page spread, above, exploits symmetry’s capacity to
rapidly interconnect forms in space, but does so in a way
that imparts a more contemporary feeling.
BRUKETA & ZINIC / CROATIA 
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM 

58 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 58 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 58 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 58
 Asymmetry The second, general type of organizational naturally greater complexity, asymmetrical composition
- logic a designer may consider is one in which the relation- holds viewers’ attention for a lot longer, because the brain
ships among the axes and contours of subject forms do needs to keep looking at all of the different relationships a
not respond to a single axis—the opposite of symmetry, lot longer to figure out what’s going on. It’s often argued
or asymmetry. In contrast to the condition established by that, because information is organic in nature (whether it’s
symmetrical logic, this means, generally, that no set of pure form, imagery, or type), asymmetry is fudnamentally
spaces, nor the contours of any forms, will correspond better suited to organizing it: Asymmetry allows for the
s with each other in a direct, one-to-one repetition. Further, content to do what it needs to do in the most effective way
asymmetrical arrangements require continual differen- possible, whereas symmetrical organization forces it into
tiation in structure to achieve resolution. Because of this predetermined relationships.

Content is always different and always changing, and

an asymmetrical approach allows a designer to be
flexible, to address the spatial needs of the content, and
to create visual relationships between different items
based on their spatial qualities. The horizon line in the
room, the vertical column, the red headline, the text on
the page, and the smaller inset photograph all respond
to each other’s sizes, color, and location; the negative
spaces around them all talk to each other.
THINKSTUDIO / UNITED STATES

Reconciling the oppos-

ing logic of symmetry and
asymmetry is difficult, but
the complexity and contrast
that results can be very
useful. It’s important to
ensure that the composi-
tion’s overall logic is very
clearly defined as one or the
other, so that form elements
or groups opposing it don’t
create confusion. In the first
example (top) an overall
symmetrical composition
is violated by asymmetrical
elements; in the second
example (bottom), a sym-
metrically arranged group-
ing takes on a remarkable
specificity within an overall
asymmetrical composition.

Asymmetrical organization, as seen in this web

page, tends to impart a greater sense of activity and
rhythm—primarily because the proportions of the
elements, as well as the spatial intervals between
them, are continually changing.
C. HARVEY GRAPHIC DESIGN / UNITED STATES

59 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 59 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 59 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 59
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Structure Arranging forms in space builds a skeleton Individual elements may be arranged in secondary struc-
of visual interconnections—a sturdy gestural framework of tures that restate relationships in the superstructure, add
parts that together, create a totality called structure. Viewers to or evolve them, or contradict them entirely. Structures
recognize structure through the organization of forms’ may be very rigid and repetitive in interval or very fluid and
contours and axes as an underlying framework across irregular. Because viewers can easily relate visual structures
space. Both within forms, as well as between forms, the to physical ones they encounter in the real world (plants,
contours and axes may be aligned or grouped in an almost buildings, and so on), a particular structure’s qualities will
limitless number of ways. Viewers will first appreciate a likely impart extremely different associations that influence
primary superstructure that binds everything together a viewer’s overall perception of content and, therefore,
and dominates the visual field or format as a whole. of its meaning.

Aligning Staggering Stepping Stacking Clustering Mirroring

Rotational Chaining Radial Concentric Spiraling Waving

Orthogonal Diagonal Grid Based Branching Constellational Networked

E
ia
re
a
Hanging Resting/Baselined Parallel Divergent Intersecting Zigzagging
ex
th
of
p
Arrangements of a single kind comprehensive, nor must they be cr
of form—rectangular planes— used independently of each other;
present numerous compositional combining different kinds of ST
structures that vary between structural approach offers infinite E-
geometric and organic, rigid compositional possibilities.
and irregular. These structural
approaches are by no means

60 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 60 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 60 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 60
d
s

Considering potential structural

relationships one might use for
layout (and even seeing them) in
the context of complex, organic
material can be very challenging.
Cases in point—the LP cover
above, and the frames of the
motion graphic below it. A
first step is to identify the basic
geometry of the forms involved:
in the album cover, the butter-
flies and the mountain shapes
are, most basically, triangles
of different proportion; in the
motion graphic, splattery dots
are accompanied by horizontal
lines (the type). Describing the
structure in each project then
becomes easier. The album cover
uses a combination of diagonal,
zigzag, and stacking structures,
while the elements in the motion
Extremely geometric structures are readily appreciated, and we’re very famil- graphic are always arranged
iar with them because we seem them used to organize editorial projects on a along diagonal axes which gener-
regular basis. That’s because structures like grids (used in both the web page ally cross each other.
at top and the newspaper below it) are closely related to typography, and so, FLORENCE TÉTIER / FRANCE 
extremely useful for organizing text and images (see chapter 5, page 256). Still, DAEUN KO / UNITED STATES 
the grid sturctures here are used very differently. In the web page, the presence
of the square module dominates (it’s more apparently grid-like). In the news-
paper, content—including images—is organized to emphasize the horizontal,
creating a rhythm of darker and lighter bands from top to bottom.
STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES 
E-TYPES / DENMARK 

61 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 61 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 61 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 61
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Structure: Spatial Division A designer may also establish idea to work from the relationships one can discover by
a superstructure by organizing forms’ contours and axes intuitively testing layout variations with the actual material
such that they break a format’s space into major intervals in question: format divisions and image or form structures
based on fractions of the format’s proportions. There are a will need to correspond to each other very specifically. It’s
number of proportional systems to which designers in possible, of course, to begin with a mathematical, intel-
various cultures have turned throughout history; many of lectualized approach based on desirable relationships. But
them are mathematical and appear most often in architec- a danger lies in the potential for some material to not fit so
ture, but in painting and sculpture as well. Because a spatial well—making it appear indecisive or disconnected—or,
proportioning system is dependent on the specific format, worse, creating static, rigid interplay between positive and
and the specific forms for a particular project, it’s a good negative that is stiff, awkward, or otherwise limiting.

The Law of Thirds A simpli- of the thirds produced. While

fied mathematical approach dividing a format into thirds
divides any format into thirds presents an intrinsically
(left to right or top to bottom) symmetrical structure, the
under the assumption that the two axes that define the
intersection of these axes will symmetry also provide a very
be points of visual focus. As a asymmetrical proportional
format’s proportions become system of one-third relative to
more exaggerated relative to two-thirds.
each other, so too do those

Musical Logic The intervals attributed to structure musical

between musical notes or compositions can be applied
chords—the octave estab- to the distances between
lished by the seven unique elements in a layout: ABA, for
tonal pitches in Western mu- example, or ABAC, in which
sic—have been used by book A is one measurement, B
designers to create page divi- another, and so on.
sions since the Middle Ages.
Similarly to pitch intervals, the
rhythmic or thematic structure

Mathematical Logic Any nu- A 13th century Italian

meric progression or fractional mathematician, Leonardo
relationship can be a starting Fibonacci, discovered a natural
point for creating spatial progression of numbers in
divisions—odd-number ratios which each number
(1:3:5:7), for example, or is the sum of the preceding
perhaps a system of halves two—for example,
(1:2:4:8:16), as shown in 1:1:2:3:5:8:13:21:34, and
the first example. The second so on. Coincidentally, this
example shows a grid system same proportional relationship
based on a common prime is what drives the golden
number, 3. section.

The Golden Section First the same proportions as the In the context of static printed pages, spatial
implemented in a design originals; and this division divisions remain fixed and, so, easily appreciable.
context by Greek sculptors and may be repeated over and over In the context of a typical web page, however,
architects, the golden section again in decreasing size. By establishing a clear proportional structure is
focuses on the relationship of a connecting the corners of the challenging because the browser can be resized;
square and the rectangle that squares with circular arcs, the and further, top-to-bottom breaks are constantly
will be defined from it by using spiral that is present in the in flux as the viewer scrolls down the page. Left-
a line drawn from the square’s formation of nautilus shells is to-right spatial divisions—anchored by vertically
corner to the midpoint of its magically revealed. aligning forms’ axes—become more important,
bottom edge. Dividing this therefore, to establish recognizable proportional
new rectangular area by the relationships.
width of its short side creates
a new square and rectangle in

62 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 62 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 62 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 62
 The projects at left each employ a radically different
proportional structure. The poster at left emphasizes a
set of vertical divisions whose depth measures increase
l exponentially from compressed at bottom to expansive
at top. In the web page below it, space is also appar-
ently broken in a progression from narrow to wide
(left to right) but the proportions of those breaks are
based on a square module, expressed by the angle form
in the client’s logo. In the brochure at bottom left, the
proportions are based on those of the Golden Section.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES 
ESIETE / SPAIN 
VOICE / AUSTRALIA 

All three of these projects—the brochure spread at top, the

book cover above, left, and the magazine ad above, right—
y
divide space into thirds (in the case of the brochure spread,
y that happens on each of the two pages).
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM 
ASTRID STAVRO / SPAIN 
PEOPLEDESIGN / UNITED STATES 

63 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 63 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 63 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 63
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Near and Far In addition to side-by-side (lateral) arrange- and then interpret; larger objects appear closer and smaller
ments, a designer may create structure in illusory space objects as farther away. Hence, a good starting strategy is
by defining elements as existing in a foreground, middle- to enforce differences in size. Overlapping forms also opti-
ground, and background. Usually, the field or ground is per- cally positions them nearer or farther away from the viewer.
ceived as existing deeper in space, or farther away, and posi- The designer may increase this sense of depth by changing
tive elements as closer—but placing forms that are reversed the forms’ relative values (their lightness or darkness), and
(made negative, or the same value as the field or format by making them transparent. The seeming nearness or
space) on top of positive forms, will move them into the distance of each form will also contribute to the viewer’s
foreground. The relative size of forms in the perceptual field sense of its importance and, therefore, its meaning relative
is usually the quickest determination the brain can make to other forms presented within the same space.

Th
ill
th
Th
is
te
un
TI
The quality of a space’s The apparent depth of a A difference in the relative Allowing one form to cross The use of transparency in a When forms within the
spread (see page 24) often space generally increases size of form elements will in front of another, even if cluster enhances the illusion compositional space appear
contributes to a sense of its when there are a range of immediately introduce the both are the same color, of their apparent existence to “bleed” the format—that
depth. Fields, like the one tonal values—and the wider perception of depth into a will create the illusion of in three-dimensional space. is, are cropped off by the
shown at top, tend more the range, the deeper the composition. Larger forms foreground and background. Carefully considering which edge of the format—they
often to be perceived as hav- space will seem. Conversely, typically appear to advance, Introducing size changes elements appear solidly imply a much bigger com-
ing greater depth, because a minimal tonal range while smaller ones appear among forms that overlap, positive or negative (and position extending outward
we associate expansive will generally compress a to recede. Changing the as well as changes in their which appear transparent) into the real world.
space with that we see in the space’s amplitude (or, more relative values of forms will relative values—or, for that can create startling conflicts
physical environment. Sin- simply, flatten it out). similarly contribute to the matter, placing negative in apparent spatial position.
gularities, like the bottom perception that they are forms on top of positive—
example, typically register closer or further away. will greatly enhance the
as flatter... of course, the illusion that the forms exist
nature of the material and within three-dimensional
its contrasts can reverse space.
those conditions.

Linear forms, in particular, tend to focus

attention on the surface, primarily because
they tend to be perceived as being inscribed.
That’s clearly the case with the imagery on
this beer case; and its flatness is augmented
by the stark contrast in value (lightness/
darkness) between the linear forms and the
background. Interestingly, however, the more
space bteween groupings of line elements, In
the deeper that space seems to be. th
MANUAL / UNITED STATES in
v
in
li
M

64 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 64 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 64 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 64
r.

The tremendous amount of negative space enhances the In these panels that form part of an exhibition space, the
illusion of deep space achieved by dramatic differences in designers make startling use of opacity, transparency,
the sizes and weights of the forms in this brochure cover. and scale change to exaggerate the space’s physical di-
The large diagonal line appears closest—but this directness mensionality and, at the same time, create an ambigu-
is thrown into question by the clever overlap of the small ously flattened space in which type elements that are
farther away appear to sit on the same surface as others
text element which, if positioned freely, would appear that are physically closer.
unquestionably to recede.
NAROSKA DESIGN / GERMANY
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

r
at

re
In these brochure spreads—and, in complete contradiction to the way
they work in the packaging, opposite (by the same designers)—lines
introduce the perception of greater, albeit more ambiguous, depth. The
visually heavy inset images already establish strong foreground presence
in relation to the lighter, textural typography; the transparent, colored
lines establish an indeterminate middle ground.
MANUAL / UNITED STATES

65 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 65 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 65 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 65
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Movement It’s generally considered desirable to create a arrangement of forms whose superstructure also creates a
sense of movement, or kinesis, among elements in a two- directional path for the eye to follow as it jumps from one
dimensional presentation. Like illusory depth, the percep- to the next; and the spatial intervals between form elements
tion of illusory movement counters the physical flatness of themselves, which generates the appearance of push and
a printed page; it imparts the sense that form elements are pull between the forms. The specific kinetic quality we ap-
active, alive, or vital, and encourages viewers’ engagement. preciate in a composition contributes to our understanding
We perceive a sensation of movement from three primary of its content: a falling motion versus a rising one; or slow
aspects of forms in space: the axial directions of form ele- and methodical movement versus that perceived as rapid
ments’ contours, creating paths the eye will travel (around and irregular. The perception of a particular kind of move-
individual elements and then, between them); the overall ment corroborates ideas that forms visualize.

Even shifting a single ele- Any element that is rotated Forms that bleed the The sense of a sequence of animation occurs
ment off center will cause away from orthogonal ori- format, or overlap each when forms change size, proportion, value,
it to be perceived as having entation will be perceived other, are usually perceived and/or orientation, either alternating between
moved. as moving, or kinetic, espe- as moving. states or progressing from one state to an-
cially if it can be compared other—especially along a consistent axis.
to any orthogonally oriented
forms.

C
The accordion-fold brochure at right and the book fo
page spread below both establish a strong horizontal si
(t
axis across their respective formats; the sensation of pr
movement occurs because of how rectangular forms pr
of different scales push upward and drop below that rh
(m
static axis. th
GARBETT / AUSTRALIA  tr
L2M3 KOMMUNIKATIONSDESIGN GMBH / GERMANY 
an
ti
or
si
on
a
co
an
Lines of increasing weight, oriented in angled increments
around a fixed, central point, create the illusion of a
circular rotation in this logo for an airline.
MANUAL / UNITED STATES

T
cr
to
qu
by
M

66 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 66 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 66 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 66
 Rhythm Superstructure and axis relationships create compression and expansion appear among the layout’s
movement based on direction—paths the eye will follow positive and negative parts. As with structure and move-
s through the forms—but it’s the spatial intervals between ment, the nature of a particular rhythm contributes to the
them that most dramatically characterizes the quality of totality of its logic, and will evoke varying degrees of energy
the perceived movement. Placing forms closer together or restfulness. A clear, dramatic rhythm is important not
g squeezes the spaces between them; positioning forms away only for visual interest, but also for delivering emotional
from each other does the opposite; and the result is a visual or conceptual messages. Compositional rhythm alone ac-
“pulsing,” or rhythm. The organization of forms should counts for much of an audience’s immediate interpretation:
establish a clear, decisive visual tempo across the format: stability or uncertainty, for instance, or frenzy or restful-
how much, how often, and where alternate sensations of ness, precision or disorganization, growth or decline.

Follow the contours of the indi-

vidual forms in this poster—those
of the figures and of the typo-
graphic elements—and take note of
two different rhythmic movements:
one in which the outer contours
push inward toward the center
and then outward to the edges at
changing intervals; and another
in which major horizontal spatial
Figure/ground reversal may breaks progress from more tightly
create the same alternation,
progression, or opposition in compressed at the top to more open
rhythm—not only laterally, toward the bottom.
but also with the appear-
CONOR & DAVID / IRELAND
ance of moving backward
or forward. Value changes
among elements in fore-
ground, middle ground, and
background may accomplish
a similar effect.
—
It’s useful to note that a
particular arrangement struc-
ture itself will produce an
inherent rhythm; you can see
how that happens in different
Compositional rhythm may ways among the examples of
follow such laterally empha- structure on page 60.
sized logic as alternation
(top), where positive/negative
proportions flip between com-
pressed and open states;
rhythmic progressions
(middle) are those in which
the interval differences
transition from one state to
another (for example, from
tight or compressed to open
or expansive). Another pos-
sibility is opposition, where
one general area expresses
a singular, specific rhythm in
contrast to that expressed by
another area (bottom).

The brochure here balances lateral rhythm

created by linear subdivisions of space from left
to right (alternations between full, half, and
quarter widths) with up/down rhythm created
by alternation of light and dark color blocks.
MANUAL / UNITED STATES

67 FO R M A N D SPA C E P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 67 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 67 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 67
 PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE

Format Considerations Designers sometimes get to whatever it turns out to be will likely present challenges in
choose the format proportions for projects but, more often achieving the kinds of structure, movement, or rhythm a
than not, the format is predetermined—either it follows designer determines will best suit the given content. So be
some standard or convention for what it is, the client needs it! Really practical problems such as this come with the ter-
for it to fit an existing folder or display case, or simply to ritory and so, at the outset of any project, it’s important that
meet budget constraints. In these cases, the format will a designer carefully consider the format’s characteristics
somewhat force the designer’s hand—their strategies for (especially if it’s one that can change, like a responsive web
organizing content forms must respond to limitations that page) to proactively assess what effects they may have in
the format imposes. As briefly noted, different format relation to the content.
proportions generate very specific spatial effects (page 22);

Circular formats, like discs or the

lids of canisters, present several
options for organizing material The designers of these three projects took advantage of the format
(especially type): either ignoring limitations (or possibilities) inherent in each to arrive at inventive
the circularity in favor of a unidirec-
tional, “page” oriented approach solutions. The designs of the ticket and signage at top seamlessly
(A); multiaxis orientation that integrate the client’s logo into the standard proportions of each
responds to the circle’s “spin” (B); application; the paintbrush packaging, above, uses its format to
or structures that directly derive humorous effect; and the bookmark at right is cleverly made to do
from the circle—either radial
or concentric (C). double-duty as a business card simply by folding it.
MOLTOBUREAU / GERMANY 
BANG BANG / CANADA 
GARBETT / AUSTRALIA 

68 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 68 4/6/20 9:57 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 68 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 68
 This deep-scrolling web page
makes dramatic use of spatial
breaks, along with variations
in lateral emphasis, value, and
- scale to overcome potential
at rhythmic monotony sometimes
encountered in such a format.
YOUJIN CHOI / UNITED STATES

The rounded corners of this fish-packaging tray no

doubt influenced its designer’s choice, given the simi-
larly rounded corners of the client’s logo; that element
is further brought to attention by the reverse-curved
die-cuts in the paper wrapper.
FUMAN / NEW ZEALAND

The gutter between left- and right-hand pages in a book spread

are typically a “danger zone” that type and important compo-
nents of imagery should try to avoid to minimize distractions
or loss of information. Here, the designers realize that large
type can easily cross the gutter without trouble, creating a
single, expansive space (top); and that the gutter can enhance Glass bottles and other similar transparent
the relationship between figures in an image (bottom). containers present interesting opportunities to
integrate graphical material from front to back.
HUNGRY STUDIO (SK) / SLOVAKIA
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE

P U T T I N G S T U F F I N T O S PA C E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 69 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 69 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 69
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

The Goal of Totality The cornerstone of every effective to be understood. A lack of visual, and thus cognitive, inves-
visual communication (after a compelling concept or narra- tigation is also likely to become difficult to recall later on.
tive) is a dynamic presentation of its content, accomplished Second, the strong resolution of a composition contributes
through decisive control of the relationships among form to its ability to persuade its audience; appreciating its total-
elements. It’s impossible to understate the importance of ity effectively removes our wariness of being manipulated:
creating a strong composition. The clarity, confidence, and Similar to what happens when watching a film, we suspend
rich interrelationship of elements that define a composition our disbelief and the message becomes incontestable.
as successful contribute, first and foremost, to attracting—
and then holding—the audience’s attention. And that’s
critical for ensuring the content is explored long enough

The projects shown here all achieve

a sense of compositional totality
by focusing on very specific aspects
of visual syntax and grammar (form
identity, proportion, axes, and scale)
that repeat in variation from part
to part. The repetition unifies the
compositional components; their
variation introduces liveliness.
METAKLINIKA / SERBIA 
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES 
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM 
PEOPLEDESIGN / UNITED STATES 

70

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 70 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 70 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 70
s- A successful composition exhibits contrast among its contributes to the more important goal a designer hopes to
parts, even while establishing visual continuity among achieve—the creation of meaning. It’s important to realize
their behaviors; it further creates synergy between the that the compositional relationships that hold everything
- syntax and grammar that makes it up. All these intercon- together on a visual level also remind us of other experi-
nections, together, serve to order the material in an ences: they carry information, in and of themselves, beyond
d understandable sequence, or hierarchy, so that the viewer that which is explicitly presented in the content of images
knows where and how to enter the communication, or of words. Structure, gesture, spatial quality, movement,
proceed through it in a logical and intuitive way, and and rhythm of different kinds add understanding that is
make deeper connections as they do so. Last, but certainly just as valuable as what one may identify concretely.
not least, a successful composition, in all its aspects,

In contrast to the projects on the opposite page, all

those shown here integrate radically different form
syntaxes and behaviors to achieve totality. In each
case, one or more kinds of such conflict are expressed
and resolved by emphasizing their differences very
clearly: continuity of surface versus discontinuity;
texture versus plane; geometry versus organicism;
linearity versus planarity; diagonality versus
orthogonality; soft veruss hard; and two-dimension-
ality versus three-dimensionality (whether physical
or strictly perceptual).
VON K BRAND DESIGN STUDIO / AUSTRIA 
GORRICHO / ARGENTINA 
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES 
SELF-TITLED / AUSTRALIA 

71 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 71 4/6/20 2:10 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 71 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 71
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

Activating Space During the process of composing an excellent way of creating emphasis and a contrasting
form within a given space, portions of space might become area for rest. But this strategy might also result in spaces
disconnected from other portions. A section might be that feel empty or isolated from this activity. In all such
separated physically or blocked off by a larger element cases, the space can be called “inert” or “inactive.” An inert
that crosses from one edge of the format to the other; or or inactive space will call attention to itself for this very
it might be optically separated because of a set of forms reason: It doesn’t communicate with the other spaces in the
aligning in such a way that the eye is discouraged from composition. To activate these spaces means to cause them
traveling past the alignment and entering into the space to enter back into their dialogue with the other spaces in the
beyond. Focusing the majority of visual activity into one composition.
area of a composition—for example, by clustering—is

The diagonal line in the up-

per composition separates
a triangular space from the
remainder of the format;
this space disconnects
from the composition and
is deactivated.

By ending the line short of

the format edge, even mini-
mally, the eye is encouraged
to travel optically around
its ending point and join
the two spaces together,
activating and relating them
to each other.

In this example, a line once

again intersects the format,
but, because there is an
overlap of shape connecting
the spaces on either side
of the line, both spaces
are activated.

The degree of spatial

activation in various parts
of this composition differs
Because the arrangement because of the changing
of these forms creates an proximity and tension
optical alignment that, between forms ... as well as
while open to the space at from differences in how the
the top of the composition, various forms confront each
stops the movement of other—some overlapping
the eye begun in the lower and decreasing tension,
part, this same space now some aggressively opposing
appears inert. each other in direction or
contrasting curve and angle.

In contrast, a simple shift

of one element to violate
this invisible alignment
helps invigorate the for-
merly inactive space. Although the gigantic pink exclamation point—created by the
line and the letter K—is strong, it is surrounded by relatively
static spaces of the same interval, value, and color. This static
quality is broken by the brass ball, a dot, which very decisively is
not centered and activates the space defined by the floor.
MUTABOR / GERMANY

72 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 72 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 72 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 72
 The negative spaces in this brochure spread
are already somewhat active simply by virtue
of how its designer has shifted the blocks
of text back and forth, generating spatial
intervals that change in proportion and size;
in addition, small graphical circles have been
printed in a clear varnish to further activate
e vast negative spaces by introducing a change
in surface texture.
e ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM

On the text side of this business card,

the spaces are all activated with content.
On the image side, the light, transparent
blue wave shape activates the space
above the purple wave; the line of white
type activates the spaces within the
purple wave area.
MONIGLE ASSOCIATES / UNITED STATES

The space that would have been most in danger

of becoming inactive is that at the bottom of this
collage, defined by the baseline of the text block and
the barcode; the hand, crossing that boundary, easily
solved that problem. Also note the vertical column of
space to the far right; it too has been made active by
allowing the small numeral to break into it.
KENICHI TENAKA / JAPAN

73 FO R M A N D SPA C E C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 73 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 73 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 73
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

Establishing Unity In the simplest sense, a designer’s basic so all become one, inseparable sound. It’s that inseparable
compositional goal is to make sure all the aspects of the quality that’s so tricky: How do you make elements that
visual language are “talking to each other” in similar ways, are radically different from each other feel similar? Here’s
sharing characteristics, even though its parts are likely to where recognizing the underlying form identity of each ele-
be fundamentally different (geometric shapes, organic ment (regardless of what it is) becomes so important—
photographs, type): Think of a layout’s composition like it’s a designer has to identify similarities among them and,
a chorus of singers, some of whom are following the same through whatever means possible, emphasize them. That
melody, while others are singing harmonies; the harmonies similarity, or parity, must then extend to structure (within
provide some difference (contrast) in tone or rhythm but, forms and between them), spatial organization, and rhythm.
even so, the harmonies share a lot with the melody itself That means looking at part-to-whole relationships.

FORM PARITY GESTURAL PARITY STRUCTURAL PARITY TEXTURAL PARITY

T
cl
by
le
to
th
PA

Identifying similarities in form identity Similarities in the way elements Repeating a particular kind of Riffing on texture or pattern seen in a
among the elements in a composition are scaled, positioned, overlapped, structural organization (see page 60) particular image being used, either by
is likely the most direct means of es- grouped, or directionally oriented— between groups of elements—perhaps literally repeating it or abstracting it
tablishing unity among parts. Dot-like, and the kinds of movement or rhtyhm at different scales, or along different and introducing it independently is yet
linear, and shape similarities may be these conditions create—will help axes—creates unity while simultane- another option. Because type is, in es-
found between graphical elements, unify the experience even if the form ously introducing contrast. As with sence, a texture (see pages 164–166),
type clusters, and within the visual elements themselves exhibit no appre- formal and gestural strategies, a considering how it is spaced, and even
components of complex images. ciable parity. Repeating a composition- designer may find it helpful to restate a the stylistic details in the chosen font,
al gesture found in a single element structural formation inside an isolated offers another means of establish-
(like an inset image) with surrounding element with other material. ing unity beyond that among purely
elements is another useful strategy. graphic or image-based forms.

The individual layouts on each of the pages of this magazine spread are This website’s modular, square-based structure—for images and
quite different: one creates an inward-focused cluster with a stepped text areas—combines with the repeated use of graphic, linear
outer contour; the other creates a horizontal band shape with irregular bars and bar-like highlighting around text for a unified, geometric
contours along the bottom. Unifying their compositions is their response quality in all its parts. This geometry also appears in the back-
to the respective pages’ center axes. ground pattern that underlies all of the foreground material.
BUREAU MIRKO BORSCHE+ANNA MEYER / GERMANY STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES

74 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 74 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 74 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 74
 Macro and Micro One can conceive of the primary part- to, or influences, compositional relationships downward
to-whole relationship as the “big picture” created by the in greater specificity or variation on the micro-level; and
basic gesture, the superstructure, in relation to the format. second, as a set of individual micro-compositions that to-
- This basic relationship may then be restated by the form gether create the macro—sort of like a fractal. Parts within
elements and their behaviors within the superstructure the whole may simply restate each other, but they may also
(at a smaller scale, perhaps, or in a different proportion). contrast each other (and often do, or must) to prevent mo-
Designers refer to the whole as the macro-level of composi- notony. The intrinsic properties of the form elements can
tion, and to the secondary, component parts as the micro- be a source for both micro- and macro-level compositional
m. level. The idea of unity, therefore, may be understood in unity and, as a result, create direct synergy between formal
two ways: first, in which the macro-level lends its qualities qualities and compositional qualities.

The dominant visual elements in this poster are the stylized

clouds, whose rounded contours and sharp junctures are echoed
by the extra-bold, serif typeface of the name “Copland,” whose
letters mimic the up-and-down movement of the clouds’ con-
tours. The faintly tinted, textural flower image is suggested by
the textural and linear qualities of the sans-serif secondary text.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

In this website, the designer counters bold, regular spatial breaks—used

to separate fields of information—with irregular, side-to-side movement.
This gesture derives from the helical quality of the navigation buttons at
the left, creating an abstract metaphor for DNA and genetics.
JUNE KIM / UNITED STATES

Macro-level elements like the colored circular arcs establish

more subtle relationships with micro-level elements in this
brochure: they restate the curve of the gymnast’s legs and the
frames of the swimmer’s goggles. Confrontations between curves
and angles are suggested in the slashed zero of “2024.”
CLASSMATE STUDIO / HUNGARY

75 FO R M A N D SPA C E C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 75 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 75 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 75
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

Compositional Contrast Creating areas of differing a designer might integrate within a single format space,
presence or quality—what is known as contrast—is crucial from that of form identity to organization, the contrasts
for a successful composition. Opposing visual states are typically used the most (and that offer the most immediate
what keep viewers from getting bored while looking; they impact), are those of scale (large versus small), spacing or
impart vitality (along with depth, movement, and rhythm) density (compressed versus open), and value (how overall
to ensure that viewers remain engaged as they analyze the light or dark disparate areas appear). Establishing these
content which the designer puts before them. Contrast also contrasts first, whether to extremes or more subtly, sets
helps viewers distinguish between different kinds of con- up all the others. Each kind of contrast a designer presents
tent, making it easier to navigate. While there are perhaps between elements can also serve to corroborate or evolve D
thousands of individual contrasting relationships that the meaning that they present.

Fl

In the page spread above, repeating

intervals are defined by vertical lines,
evenly spaced to define a column
structure. Images and text provide a
counterpoint of irregularity. In the menu
cover, above right, line contrasts plane,
and organic curves contrast angles; fore-
ground and background are brought into
tension by the lines’ continuity through
A
the image area. The poster just to the
right contrasts dots against the linear
geometry of the letterforms, and texture
against hard edges. To the far right, the
gestural movement, heavy mass, and
irregularity of the imagery contrasts the
geometric structure, delicate texture,
and lighter mass of the text.
SPIN / UNITED KINGDOM 
GRETEL / UNITED STATES 
STUDIO INTERNATIONAL / CROATIA 
MUNDA GRAPHICS / AUSTRALIA 

76 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 76 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 76 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 76
 Dot/Line Curve/Angle Light/Dark Thin/Thick Opaque/Transparent

Flat/Textural Planar/Volumetric Geometric/Organic Hard/Soft Large/Small

Orthogonal/Diagonal Grouped/Separated Active/Restful Simple/Complex Symmetrical/Asymmetrical

Adjacent/Overlapping Inset/Bleeding Parallel/Divergent Ordered/Disordered Continuous/Interrupted

Compressed/Expanded Uniform/Differentiated Textured/Patterned Solid/Fragmented Regular/Irregular

77 FO R M A N D SPA C E C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 77 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 77 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 77
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

Tension While the term contrast applies to relationships areas that are generally more open and regular exhibits
between specific elements, there will likely be different tension in rhythm. The term tension can also describe a
kinds of contrast, or variations within a specific kind of perceived feeling of anxiety or stress—not necessarily in a
contrast, among forms and spaces in the same field— negative way, but in terms of visual emphasis. For example,
a sort of contrast between contrasts (it’s complicated!), there may be an instance in which the corner of an angu-
or what is known as tension. A composition with strong lar plane comes extremely close to a format edge at one
contrast between round and angular forms in one area, location, but is relatively free of the edge in another; the
opposed by another area where all the forms are similarly first location could be said to feel “tense,” or exhibit a tense
angular, exhibits a tension in angularity; a composition relationship, while the second location might be perceived
that contrasts areas of dense, active line rhythms with as less tense or relaxed.

In this composition, the edge rela-

tionships offer one kind of tension
within the space, some more ag-
gressive and others less so. At the
same time, the edge relationships
of angular forms create tension
relative to the open, sweeping
forms of the curved elements; a
similar change in tension occurs
between the line elements—which
are themselves angular, but in
the foreground—and the angular
plane surface—which appears as a
background element. Both angled
plane and lines contrast with each W
other in identity and apparent spa- fo
tial position but complement each th
other’s sharp, geometric qualities. re
This attribute is yet another type th
of tension. fo
re
ov

W
eq
co
to
The primary relationship of contrast in this poster in
to
is that between hard, geometric angularity and free- (a
form, curvilinear gesture. Tension in this relationship of
appears in the varied ways that the curves of the of
large yellow form interact with angled forms: at some di
In this ad, starkly contrasting visual syntax (circular tr
points, dramatically swooping around or crossing ni
and organic planes, rectangular planes, continuous through them; at others, coming into close proximity
tone washes of color, bold patterns, solid forms and or anchoring to them
volumetric ones) interact in different combinations
TOORMIX / SPAIN
at each location, and often in different ways: overlap
versus separation, confrontation of multiple syntaxes
versus only two, and alignment versus nonalignment.
ESTUDIO PÁNICO / ECUADOR

78 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 78 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 78 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 78
 Contrast in Symmetry Asymmetrical arrangements of of contrast to consider, the viewer is likely to gloss over
material intrinsically involve a variety of contrasts that material and quickly come to an intellectual rest, rather
provoke rigorous optical and intellectual involvement; in so than investigate a work more intently. To counteract these
, doing, they may improve the ability to differentiate, cata- conditions in symmetrical compositions, it’s most helpful
logue, and recall content because the viewer’s investigation to exaggerate contrasts among elements (in scale, propor-
of visual (especially spatial) differences is simultaneously tion, density, and interval rhythm) in relation to the central
tied to the ordering, or cognition, of the content itself. axis around which they’re arranged.
e Symmetry’s overall restfulness and uniformity, on the other
hand, can be problematic relative to the goals of designed
communication. Without a variety or exaggerated degree

When symmetrically organized Radical changes in size among

forms become so large that elements, or in their relative
they are clearly bigger than any lightness and darkness, helps
remaining symmetrical spaces, enhance the illusion of deep
their confrontation with the space and, therefore, reorders
format becomes very tense, the lateral movement typical of
reducing the composition’s symmetrical arrangements
overall static quality. dimensionally—that is, move-
ment becomes perceived as
occurring from near to far.

When attempting to ensure ad- Another strategy for introducing

equate contrast in a symmetrical contrast is to juxtapose dramati-
configuration, it’s important cally different emphases in
to exaggerate the differences proportion, among form elements
in relative width of elements themselves or the spaces that
toward the axis and away from it separate them—or both.
(as well as clearly define a logic
of progressions or alternations);
of equal importance is the
distance between forms as they
travel along the axis from begin-
ning to end.

Changes in various elements’ weights and sizes, and

alternating distribution of material across the center
axis, add vitality to these symmetrical page layouts.
VRUCHTFLEES / NETHERLANDS

79 FO R M A N D SPA C E C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 79 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 79 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 79
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

Visual Hierarchy Ultimately, compositional structures The form element that is meaningfully most important must
and contrasts have to do more than just create a compelling be seen first. Designers help viewers discover this element—
visual experience. The most dynamic layout becomes a hot the primary, or “top” level of the hierarchy—as a starting
mess if viewers don’t know where to start looking, what point by making its visual qualities different enough from
elements are the most important, or how to get from one the others (the secondary level) so that the viewer is able to
place to another. In addition to attracting viewers’ attention, focus on it. Creating other contrasts is still important, but
designers have to apply their compositional decisions to the designer must be really careful with how he or she ap-
help viewers navigate by creating a pattern they can dissect plies them to whatever is intended to be seen second, then
and follow—what is called a hierarchy. Here is where form third, and so on. The distinction between “important” and
and the content it represents become inseparable: “not important” is the first idea a viewer will understand.

3
1

4
6
5

When an element in a visual Contrast in relative size Relationships of proximity Repetition assigns relative Compositional flow, some- Relationships of value, or
field disconnects from the (large versus small) and can help separate—and so meaning to elements that times called “eye path,” dark-to-light contrast, play
others, it becomes a focal relative spacing (or density distinguish—or join, and will be understood as occurs as a viewer compares a dramatic role in establish-
point and, therefore, as- and openness) account for thereby relate, elements. In related, no matter where each hierarchic level’s ing hierarchy—especially
sumes the greatest level of the most effective ways to separating the main levels they occur within the visual degree of contrast from the when it comes to type.
importance. Although there establish a clear hierarchy. of this hierarchy, the radical field—even if separated by others and senses the differ- Following the notion of opti-
are other kinds of contrast These two contrasts, as ex- distinction among levels material that is clearly dif- ence as a decrease in optical cal disconnection described
evident in the secondary ma- pressions of purely positive/ by large spaces allows for ferent. Hierarchy, in addition resistance (another way of at far left, elements that are
terial, the extreme degree to negative interaction, affect the creation of similar, but to being strictly about level thinking about contrast, similar in value will visually
which the primary element our sense of the format smaller-scale, hierarchies of importance, is also about incidentally). The eye will join into groups or levels,
disconnects diminishes the being divided into darker within each level. relation or establishing move from area of greatest while those that exhibit the
effect of these contrasts. and lighter areas. This effect which elements are alike in overall contrast to less, greatest contrast in value
is enhanced through the use meaning (whether they are following a predetermined (compared to other such
of actual value change— important or not). direction that the designer contrasts) will differentiate.
changing elements from — can support by positioning —
solid positives to middle In general, form elements axes to help direct or by us- The relative value of the
tones of gray. that exhibit formal parity ing graphical forms to point. field defines the value
(more simply, those that conditions of the elements
are visually similar) will be within it that are needed
perceived as being meaning- to create a hierarchy: If the
fully related; elements that field is overall light in value
are visually different will be (top), each successively
perceived to be meaning- darker element will become
fully unrelated. increasingly important; the
opposite is true if the field
is of relatively dark value
(bottom).

80 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 80 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 80 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 80
 The hierarchy in this poster is relatively complex,
t divided into three major levels, as diagrammed below.
ROBERT MCCONNELL / UNITED STATES

y
h-

ti- No matter the viewing angle or

d time of day, the name of the designer,
re Armin Hofmann, is the first level of
y the hierarchy, together with the bold
red elements that form the Swiss cross;
e these are the simplest, most easily
differentiated elements, compared to
the visual complexity elsewhere that
e. results from cast shadows. One shadow,
however—the horizontal one cast by
the window frame—acts as a bold
underscore to the white name.
—
Although the text at lower right should,
e theoretically, be appreciated second,
e that area’s visual complexity also
renders the date information at far left
e The first level consists of The second level comprises The third level is made up the second level in the hierarchy.
e the titling text, the two the date and subway car of the elements that are
large dots, and the horizon- information, and the row the smallest in scale, as
tal train image. The dots, of bold dots: these are the well as the most textural;
while light in value, are elements next in size to be they also are positioned
large enough in the field appreciated that repeat along the periphery of the The design of this exhibition gallery display window
that they seem related to the line/dot relationship format. That said, a reader
the title’s mass; the train first encountered at the may link the text at far left incorporates spatial effects imposed by its architecture
is the only bold-weight top of the hierarchy. with the massive dot form, to achieve a compelling, multilayered optical experi-
element that spans the perceiving it ahead of ence and, at the same time, support a clear hierarchy.
format from left to right. other elements within this
level of the hierarchy. PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

81 FO R M A N D SPA C E C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 81 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 81 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 81
 COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES

The Foundations of Meaning The syntax and grammar superstructures they create, set up a general context, a
of a visual language that a designer chooses for a designed frame of reference, that will influence viewers’ understand-
communication initiate the understanding of meaning at ing of every content element encountered, no matter how
the most fundamental level. Abstract forms carry mean- literal it happens to be. It follows, then, that designers must
ing because we associate them with concrete experiences, strategically develop compositions in concert with all other
and we understand different ones as meaning different considerations noted thus far in order to convey relevant
things because they are literally different. The abstract messages. It’s a huge can of worms, wrapped up in the
qualities of forms within pictorial images similarly suggest perceptual psychology of form and meaning in images (or,
relationships in meaning between the subjects they each semiotics, discussed in-depth in chapter 4), but it can not be
depict. And the arrangement of forms, and the optical ignored with regard to the very basics of visual language.

Rhythmic misalignment of vertical

strokes, together with size changes
among the letters of a book’s title
( just below) creates a jostling
anxiety that captures the essence of
its meaning. In the cover at bottom,
the clustered arrangement of forms
(also type) isolates one—similarly
concretizing the title and creating a
pictorial experience.
TRIBORO DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
JESSIE GANG / UNITED STATES 

Different use of grid-based structure results in respective meanings. In the poster, above right,
different interpretations: In the poster above, left, the ordering is repetitive and even, imparting a
the grid units and their images are different in size mathematical, analytical, structural quality.
and fit together to create a puzzle pattern, inviting BARNBROOK / UNITED KINGDOM 
comparison and emphasizing differences in their L2M3 KOMMUNIKATIONSDESIGN GMBH / GERMANY 

Together with the irregular, tex-

tural rhythm of the larger-scale
type elements, the shuffling
of text columns up and down
imparts a tenuous, uncertain
quality to this book’s layout.
THOMAS CSANO / CANADA

82 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 82 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 82 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 82
 When an audience first confronts a visual communication, any combination, may be useful at any given time. The
they appreciate its totality (or gestalt) and then begin dissect- designer must carefully consider the purely visual aspects
ing it to follow a particular conceptual and emotional path. of form and space side by side with the goal of evoking
t Every kind of decision the designer makes at this level the right feeling or association that will underscore and
r has implications: the forms are organic or geometric; the enhance whatever complex, higher-level messages are
structure is regimented, irregular, classical, or revolution- to be found within the content.
ary; edge proximities will induce comfort or anxiety; the
intervals may repeat with certainty or change discordantly;
e the space is perceived either as ethereally deep or analyti-
cally compressed and focused. Any of these qualities, in

Graphical lines—arranged in irregular, waving sequences

and appearing to pulse as they change weight—suggest
sounds and signals, a relevant basis for the identity of a
l telecommunications provider.
BR/BAUEN / BRAZIL

f
m,
s

The dots in these projects take on meaningful patterned grid of dots on the cover of the financial
identities through composition: The large, yellow report, above right, calls to mind pixels and data;
dot in the poster at left creates a warm, central overlayed dots create pulsing among different
“space” that radiates a “diagram” of experiences areas to suggest the interplay of market forces.
to be found within it; viewers will appreciate LESLEY MOORE / NETHERLANDS 
the red dots on the brochure cover, above, as a MUTABOR / GERMANY 
random scattering of golf balls; the densely UNA (AMSTERDAM) DESIGNERS / NETHERLANDS 

83 FO R M A N D SPA C E C OM P OS I T I ON A L S T R AT E GI E S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 83 4/6/20 9:58 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_001-083.indd 83 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 9:30 AM
Text Page: 83
 If one says “red” and there are fifty people
listening, it can be expected that there will
be fifty reds in their minds. And all these
reds will be very different. Colors present
themselves in continuous flux, constantly
related to changing neighbors and
changing conditions.

JOSEF ALBERS / Artist, visual theorist, and educator; from

Interaction of Color, Yale University Press

COLOR
FUNDAMENTALS

84

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 84 4/6/20 10:38 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 84 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 84
 IN THIS CHAPTER:

86
THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
Color is really another part of visual language, along with form and space,
but it deserves its own chapter because it’s so complex, mysterious, and
challenging for many people. First up: the physics of how we perceive light
and interpret what our eyes do with it to identify color’s basic attributes.

92
CHROMATIC INTERACTION
We never see colors in isolation. That means every color we perceive always
interacts with others…and radically changes as a result. This section shows
how visual relationships among colors (which combinations, how much of
each, and variations in their relative qualities) alter our experience of them.

108
COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS
Just like relationships among forms, those among colors establish a specific
visual logic—one that designers define in selecting a set of colors (a palette)
for a particular project. How do you build a rich palette with a clear logic? And
how do you use it effectively to unify a communication’s various parts?

118
WHEN COLOR MEANS SOMETHING
Color conveys information and ideas. As subjective as color preference and
interpretation can be, the meaning that color transmits can be (somewhat)
reliably directed by cueing general associations—some, purely biological;
and others that are cultural, experiential, psychological, and symbolic.

126
COLOR IN THE REAL WORLD
Most design work takes place on a computer but, aside from screen-based
applications, color is likely to be experienced through physical means—in the
form of printed matter, packaging, and fabricated environments. This section
addresses important color considerations in technology and production.

85 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S C OL OR F U N DA M E N TA L S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 85 4/6/20 10:38 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 85 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 85
 THE IDENTITY OF COLOR

What Color Is In the simplest terms, we experience color by our brains; each color we see represents a very specific
because light is one kind of electromagnetic energy, in the wavelength of light. The mechanism of color perception is
form of particles that move in waves, which does certain universal among humans but, being processed through
things when it hits physical objects. A given object’s chemi- imperfect organs (the eyes) by an imperfect interpreter (the
cal/molecular make-up absorbs some of the lights’ energy, brain), that perception is profoundly subjective. Even more
but not all of it; the rest either bounces off the object’s complicated: People from different backgrounds associate
surfaces (reflection) and often splits into multiple, differing colors differently; even though we all may agree we see “red,”
wavelengths (refraction). The cells that line the backs of what we’ll each think about it is another thing altogether.
our eyes direct different wavelengths that enter our eyes Controlling color reliably for communication first depends
along specific neural pathways to be individually interpreted on understanding its optical qualities and how they work.

HUE
A distinction between
color identities as defined
by their wavelengths:
The hue on the left is
blue-green; the one to
the right is orange.

SATURATION

The relative brightness

or dullness of a color:
The swatch on the left
is bright, or vivid; the
swatch to its right is
dull, or “grayed out.”

VALUE

Whether a color appears

dark or light: The swatch
to the left is darker in value
than the one to its right.

TEMPERATURE

A color’s perceived
warmth or coolness: Color is one of the most engaging aspects of visual
The swatch at the left language, and also one of the most expressive and
seems warmer than evocative. Like the sense of smell, the experience of
the one to its right.
color links us to places and memories, materials,
and the emotions they conjure—which also makes
it useful for describing and differentiating products
A single color is defined by four through their packaging, as seen here.
essential qualities related to our PARÁMETRO STUDIO / SPAIN
perception of its essential nature
as waves of light.

This color study is interesting for

its examination of relationships
between warmer and cooler colors
as well as between analogous and
complementary colors.
DIANA HURD / UNITED STATES

86 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 86 4/6/20 10:38 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 86 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 86
 Color Spaces The physical properties of objects and media depending on the medium in question. These two aspects
that we use for communication affect light in different ways; together define a color space, and there are two basic kinds:
some, like computer screens and projectors, generate light Additive (or light-based), in which colors combine to pro-
e themselves. That means designers have to think about what duce white; and subtractive (or pigment-based), in which
light does differently when it’s reflected from a surface, like colors combine to produce black. It’s probably intuitive that
paper, as opposed to when it radiates from a monitor—and radiant media use additive color, and print or other physi-
” so, how color might best be used for a particular project. cal media use subtractive color. Each of these major color
The basic concerns here are how wide a variety of colors will spaces also comprises several kinds of color space that can
be able to be appreciated (what’s called the color gamut, or be specific to the means of production; and these are impor-
range), and the way color wavelengths will be mixed for us tant visual, as well as practical, considerations.

ADDITIVE COLOR SUBTRACTIVE COLOR

The visible color range, or gamut, In comparison, the gamut for subtrac-
that can be reproduced by a typical, tive color is far narrower overall. In
high-resolution computer monitor painting, in which a large number of
spans some 16 million colors; that individually pigmented hues may be
sounds like a lot, but still it falls brought to bear, the gamut is relatively
well short of the gamut our eyes expansive; in most kinds of printing,
are able to perceive. In most cases, however, the gamut is drastically nar-
AVERAGE though, that gamut is more than rowed because only a few ink pigments
RGB DISPLAY CMYK
GAMUT
enough for most needs. DISPLAY
are used to reproduce color—even
GAMUT “full color.”

FULL
VISIBLE SPECTRUM

The color space of most Most commercial printing uses

monitors is produced using a a combination of four ink colors
combination of three colors (cyan, magenta, yellow, and
of light (red, blue, and green), black), printed in different densi-
each emitted at one of 255 ties, to create the illusion of a
levels of brightness within the wider gamut. While process color
same pixel area. Groups of simulates full color pretty well,
pixels of differing colors, seen it’s never able to achieve the
RGB COLOR
together, mix optically to cre- PROCESS (CMYK) COLOR
subtlety or range possible with
ate the appearance of a wider additive color like RGB.
range of colors.

Compressing the size of image files Using inks of particular pigmented hues, or
is often necessary for rapid drawing “spot inks,” limits the color space further
onscreen, and for quick transfer over because all material will appear only in
the internet. Indexing is a means different densities of the ink colors used.
of reducing file size by limiting the That limitation is somewhat offset by the
actual number of colors used to vibrancy of the inks, which is far greater
represent an image, based on which than can be achieved with process color
colors are most dominant—and because the latter is always a mixture of
then mixing those colors to create pigments, which become duller and darker
SPOT COLOR
the illusion of more. The parameters as they mix.
are adjustable, so, for example, one
might index an image to only 256
colors (top), or even more drastically,
to 32 colors (bottom).

INDEXED COLOR

Color can vary tremendously from

device to device. So-called “websafe”
color aims at further restricting the GRAYSCALE
available gamut to colors that are
more uniformly and displayed by The world of black and white is also
software. Each color is designated a subtractive color space; it can be
by a code of letters and numbers. one of continuous tone (grayscale) or
a representation of tonal value using
HEXADECIMAL (WEBSAFE) COLOR only pixels or dots of black in different
densities (bitmap).
BITMAP

87 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S T H E I DE N T I T Y OF C OL OR

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 87 4/6/20 10:38 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 87 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 87
 THE IDENTITY OF COLOR

Hue No matter the given color space, one must be able to able to perceive some hues as more or less absolute, what
describe individual colors. Every color exhibits four intrinsic we name the primary colors: red, yellow, and blue. That’s
attributes that we can use to do that. Of the four, hue is the because their frequencies are as different from each other
most basic: this term refers to our perception of a color as as can be perceived by the human eye (these frequencies are
basically red, violet, orange, green, and so on. In essence, it those we were first biologically able to process during our
describes the dominant wavelength or frequency of light evolution, so we distinguish them the most purely). Our
we perceive being reflected or refracted from an object. As eyes are very sensitive, so the slightest change in frequency
we’ll see a little later (below, as well as on p. 96), all color in any one of the primary colors will cause the eye to per-
identity is relative, meaning that it is only truly knowable ceive that its identity has shifted slightly toward that of
when it can be compared to an adjacent color. Still, we’re one of the other primary colors.

Hue defines the The colors we call “primary”

essential identity of are red, yellow, and blue.
a color, based on its These wavelengths are
wavelength: yellow PRIMARY as different from each
versus violet, for other in frequency as can be
example. discerned by the rods and
TERTIARY TERTIARY cones in the human optical
system. The secondary
colors (orange, green, and
violet) represent shifts
in frequency toward one
Basic hue identity is primary color or another.
relative: both of the SE The tertiary colors are still
swatches here are CO RY smaller shifts perceptible
ND DA
red, but once adja- AR
Y C ON between the secondary
cent, distinctions TERTIARY SE TERTIARY colors and their nearest
in temperature and parent primaries.
value may be made.

SECONDARY
PRIMARY PRIMARY
Even when altered
in value (left) and
saturation (right), a
hue still retains its TERTIARY TERTIARY
essential identity (in
this case, blue).

The hue selection in each poster shown

here acknowledges color conditions
imposed by the photographs. In the
poster just to the right, the color in the
photograph is more greatly varied, so
choosing closely related yellow-orange,
red, and red-violet hues provides a
more definitive color impression. In the
poster to the far right, the photograph
presents yellow-green, blue-green,
and orange hues; the hues selected for
graphic fields extend and exaggerate
those color impressions.
ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. / UNITED STATES

88 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 88 4/6/20 10:38 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 88 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 88
 Saturation After identifying a color’s hue as a starting the hue is said to have become neutral. As with hue, a color’s
point, one can then talk about whether that hue is very apparent saturation will change if it can be compared to
intense, vibrant, and brilliant; or whether it appears dull, an adjacent color. Of equal interest is the effect of value
e or “grayed out.” The term saturation describes this relative (a color’s relative lightness or darkness, discussed on the
level of a hue’s intensity (sometimes, in particular fields, following page) on saturation: As a pure, saturated hue is
the term chroma is used instead—but it’s not common). lightened or darkened, its apparent saturation will dimin-
A hue that appears brilliant and intense, or pure, is said to ish. Similarly, increasing the saturation of a hue, in certain
be saturated; one that is very dull is said to be desaturated. contexts, will cause it to appear lighter in value (although,
The more desaturated a hue, the less visible its color is, in some instances, darkening the value of a particular hue
until the point where no hue is visible at all; in which case, will make it seem more saturated, but only to a point).

” In their purest, or most satu-

rated, states, some hues are
yet intrinsically more or less
saturated than others. Yellow
e is intrinsically more saturated
than other hues.

The same hue seen in its

pure, or saturated state (left)
and desaturated or neutral-
ized (right).

Changing a hue’s value

typically diminishes its
saturation, and sometimes
affects its apparent
temperature as well.

Photographs of elegantly styled dishes of soup define layout colors

in this cookbook. Because the majority of the recipes feature golden,
creamy, soup stocks and a variety of orange and green ingredients, the
designer distilled a palette of desaturated versions of those hues for
color fields and typography; a relatively saturated yellow punctuates
the layouts throughout.
SANG ZHANG / UNITED STATES

Desaturated colors, all of a similar temperature,

create a feeling of sophistication and repose in the
splash page of this website.
PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES

89 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S T H E I DE N T I T Y OF C OL OR

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 89 4/6/20 10:38 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 89 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 89
 THE IDENTITY OF COLOR

Value Every color’s wavelength is perceived as intrinsically Possibly more than the truly chromatic quality of hue itself,
light or dark. Primary yellow, for instance, is perceived as a color’s value has the most pronounced effect on all the
being light, while violet is perceived as being dark. A color’s other attributes of a color’s identity: darkening or lightening
relative lightness or darkness is the third attribute by which a color will have serious consequences for its perceived
it can be described, and the term that does so is value. And saturation and temperature; altering its saturation or tem-
indeed, it is all relative. Yellow appears darker than white, perature will produce some, but comparatively little, effect
which has the lightest possible value of any color; a very on its value. Further, the value of a color (or, of any form
dark-value violet, on the other hand, will appear luminous element) relative to its surrounding field will dramatically
and relatively light against a maximal black, which has the affect its apparent spatial position—and that means it is
darkest value (being technically the absence of light). exceptionally important with regard to visual hierarchy.

Absolute value identity Saturation has an effect on

is considered in terms of the perception of value. Even
hues’ similarity to a tone though both of these colors
of black, which achieves are the same value relative
the darkest value pos- to the gray strip, the more
sible. Every hue has an saturated one (right) appears
inherently lighter or lighter in value.
darker value, relative to
the others in the visible
spectrum.

Using colors of very close (or exactly the same) value

emphasizes their hue identities and, therefore, their
temperature and saturation differences.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES
Any hue can be made
lighter or darker, even
though it may be
intrinsically lighter or
darker to begin with—
as shown here.

Changing value often

changes not only satu-
ration, but tempera-
ture. Some green hues,
for instance, will warm
as they darken and
cool as they lighten.

Placing any color on

a darker color will
make it seem lighter,
as will increasing the
amount of a color. If
you’ve ever had the
unfortunate experience
of picking out a paint A
swatch for your living ty
room only to find that ge
it’s three or four values
too light once you be
paint an entire wall, LS
you already know this
to be true.

90 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 90 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 90 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 90
, Temperature The last of the four attributes that defines a of temperature is so pervasively associated with physical
color’s identity is a subjective quality related to physically experience that really warm colors will be referred to as hot,
g sensory experiences: the attribute of temperature. Hues and really cool colors as cold. The temperature of any color
like red or orange remind us of things that are usually hot will be thrown in one direction or another if compared to
(fire, in particular), and so are considered warm colors; any other color. Placing a warm, or even a really hot, red
hues like blue and green remind us of cold objects or envi- near an even hotter orange, for example, will make that red
ronments (such as ice or plants), and so are considered appear relatively cool. Needless to say, a color’s apparent
cool colors. Colors of a particular temperature remind us of temperature is also affected by changes in relative value and
these specific kinds of objects or substances because those saturation, as well as by juxtaposition with other colors.
substances reflect similar wavelengths of light. The quality

Any hue may be presented Any color’s temperature will

as cool or warm; the further appear to change, of course,
the temperature shift from in different contexts—as
its pure form, the more likely does the same red swatch in
the hue will be perceived as a these two pairs. In the top
different one; this is especially pair, it appears warm when
true of yellow, which shifts juxtaposed with a cooler
rapidly to orange or green, red-violet; in the lower pair,
as seen here. it appears cool when paired
with a warmer red-orange.

All of the illustrations on these packages are,

technically speaking, in the red family—some
are cooler, skewed toward the violet range, and
others are warmer, skewed toward the orange
range of the spectrum.
BEETROOT DESIGN GROUP / GREECE

A shift in temperature between background and

type—from cooler to warmer, respectively—exag-
gerates their relative intensity, despite both hues
being relatively neutral to begin with.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN

91 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S T H E I DE N T I T Y OF C OL OR

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 91 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 91 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 91
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Color Relativity While reading about color identity And that’s typically the case anyway. So, after a designer
throughout the previous section, you’ve probably noticed understands the basic attributes that define a single color,
how often the subject of relationships between colors the next step is to dig into what happens when colors start
comes up. That’s because colors appear to change—in all “talking to” each other. In the same way that one must think
their attributes—as soon as they come into contact with about how forms interrelate, a designer has to assess the
other colors. It’s actually impossible to accurately describe ways that colors behave when they interact—and this, too,
a particular color in the absence of others. To get really becomes an important part of the visual language. Color
theoretical and philosophical about it: “color,” as an idea, relationships may just as easily destroy, confuse, or obscure
doesn’t actually exist until there’s more than one present, formal and hierarchic relationships in a composition as
because it depends on what happens when there is. they can act to enhance and dramatize them.

The effect of value relation-

ships is shown here in a close-in
comparison of two colors of rela-
tively similar hue and intensity; the
greater the difference in the value
of either color—or of the color
field on which it sits—the greater
the effect on relative intensity.
In the lower example, the deeper
ochre becomes more intense as the
yellow orange lightens.

The boundary between the blue-

violet on the left and the blue-
green on the right is easy to see
in the top pair. Replace the darker
color with a violet of similar value
to the blue-green, however, and
their boundary is more difficult to
see and seems to vibrate.

Extremely desaturated neutrals,

even those devoid of any chromatic Th
activity, may be distinguished by tem- fr
perature. The absolute gray at left ar
(a tonality of black) appears to take It
on warmth when adjacent to a subtly w
cool gray, a desaturated blue. vo
—
H
th
gu
w
A color’s perceived temperature is, ot
of course, relative; even colors that to
are commonly experienced as cool an
or warm will demonstrate a shift in fr
temperature when juxtaposed with Using only three very decisively selected colors that all share to
another hue. In this example, a very some chromatic component—but altering the relative volumes,
cool green—cool, that is, when next
to a warm orange—becomes unusu- adjacencies, and values of each in different areas—provides a
ally hot when next to an icy cool blue. definitive color experience for this brand’s website, and allows for
tremendous variation in the apparent number of colors used.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

92 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 92 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 92 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 92
 Color Models Since the 15th century, artists and scientists brilliance (its saturation). Johannes Itten, a founding master
have been creating diagrams for describing color percep- at the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany, in the 1920s, posited a
tion and relationships. A color model helps a designer see color sphere—a three-dimensional model that reenvisioned
k these relationships for planning color ideas. The most Munsell’s color wheel as a globe—in his landmark book
common of these is the color wheel, developed in the late The Art of Color, published in 1961. These color models were
1800s by Albert Munsell, a British painter and scientist. developed to describe how color works with refracted light,
Munsell’s color wheel is a circular representation of hue— but the relative color relationships described by these
e the differences in wavelength that distinguish blue from models, however, work in much the same way with mixed
yellow from red—modified along two axes that describe pigments; the difference is simply how these relationships
the color’s darkness or lightness (its value) and its relative are achieved in a physical sense.

RED

RED-VIOLET RED-ORANGE

Relationships between colors

VIOLET ORANGE are defined by their relative
position on the Munsell color
wheel—which actually is a set
of concentric rings, like those
of an onion slice, stacked over
each other into a cylinder:
BLUE- YELLOW- hues are mapped, in their pur-
THE COLOR WHEEL est (most intense) saturation
VIOLET ORANGE
around the outer ring, and
gradually desaturate toward
the center; value is shown as a
progression in the “slices”—
from lightest (top slice) to
BLUE YELLOW
darkest (bottom slice).

BLUE-GREEN YELLOW-GREEN

GREEN

THE COLOR SPHERE

The color sphere, developed

from earlier models by Swiss
artist and theorist, Johannes
Itten, extrapolates the color
wheel’s flat “slices” into a truly
volumetric model.
—
Hues are mapped around
the sphere’s exterior (distin-
guished as hemispheres—
warm on one side, cool on the
other); saturation diminshes
toward the sphere’s center; The warm hemisphere of The cool hemisphere of A cross-section of the sphere, Another cross-section, cut
and value progresses upward, the sphere, showing hues the sphere, showing hues cut vertically between the horizontally, separating
from dark at the sphere’s base in the spectrum from red in the spectrum from green warm and cool hemispheres. the top (lighter) half from
to light at its top. to yellow; value is mapped to violet; the same value- The complementary nature of the lower (darker) half. This
from lightest at top to dark- mapping as in the warm the opposing sides is shown view shows the pure hues
est at bottom. hemisphere is visible. by their mixing to create a mapped along the exterior,
neutral in the middle. their saturation decreasing
toward the center.

93 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 93 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 93 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 93
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Simultaneous Contrast The problem with trying to get What happens (basically) when two colors are juxtaposed
a handle on color interactivity derives from the fact that is that each exaggerates the other’s apparent attibutes. So
each of the colors in one’s field of vision is affecting the a saturated color will desaturate the other, and vice versa;
other ones at the same time—that is, you can’t just look at a dark value color will lighten the other’s value; a warm
one of the colors and try to figure out what it is by itself, color will cause the other to appear cooler; and these effects
because that color is changing the ones around it while the will happen in combination. And that assumes there are
others are also changing that particular one. And that’s only two colors at play, and that there’s a similar amount,
with regard to every attribute of the colors in the mix (hue, or extension, of each of the colors. The more colors there
saturation, value, and temperature. This complicated, are, and the more disparate the amount of each, the weirder
mutual, visual dynamism is called simultaneous contrast. and more complicated the simultanous contrasts.

The complexity of interrelation- probably startle you—considering it’s that pure (saturated) colors
ships between colors’ relative that the two small swatches in tend to change less in different
temperatures, saturations, and each example are identical to those contexts; conversely, desaturated
values makes any kind of isolated shown just to the right. The two hues (especially neutrals) tend to
or comprehensive examination base swatches that appear in all change more drastically, because
of simultaneous contrast nearly are the same hue, and of the same they lack strong chromatic identity
impossible. That said, the above value, but of different saturation. to begin with.
examples offer a cursory dem- If there’s any constant in the way
onstration of the effect that will simultaneous contrast works,
E
w
co
The value of the field on which a color sits n
also will affect its apparent intensity. For (t
example, on a white background, primary v
yellow will appear somewhat less intense—
white is the ultimate in saturation—but
ef
on a black background, the same yellow sh
will become extremely intense. Against a TI
middle value of gray, the yellow decreases
in saturation unless the surrounding
value is similar.

94 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 94 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 94 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 94
 Extension In any given situation, one can apply different (to clarify the visual hierarchy, for instance, by using an
colors to various form elements in relatively equal amounts “accent” color to emphaszie some elements against the
(meaning, quantitatively the same physical area) or in very others, or simply to add visual interest). The relative per-
different amounts. Depending on the selected colors them- cieved volume of colors is described by the term extension;
s selves, some will be perceived as having greater presence, and different combinations of colors require different
or even of dominating, the others, in the gestalt (totality). extension of each to balance each other out so that both
This effect results from the specific physical energy required appear to have the same presence. This “balancing” is most
to process each color’s wavelength frequency. Very often, apparent between hues that are pure and complementary
r however, a designer needs to balance the presence of two (see the following page) but applies to all color relation-
or more colors so that another may have greater presence ships—and exaggerates simultaneous contrasts.

The relative extension Less of a saturated hue

between pairs of complem- is needed to balance a
etary hues that “balances” large field of a neutral
them out—such that one, as shown in the top
neither hue’s presence example. As the rela-
dominates that of the tive saturation of the
other—are shown here. neutral field increases,
It’s worth noting that red more of the saturated
and green become balanced blue is required to
when their relative exten- achieve chromatic bal-
sions are equal, but no ance between the two.
other pair of complements
behaves this way.

Complementary colors buzz when

they get close to each other and
neutralize each other when mixed.
If you cover up the heart and blur
your vision, you’ll perceive a less
intense olive color where the pure
red and green mix more evenly.
The increase in red numbers in the
heart area appropriately changes
its relative intensity.
GUNTER RAMBOW / GERMANY

Extreme shifts in extension between two colors

will super-exaggerate the effects of simultaneous
contrast and phantom color. In this CD cover, the
narrow horizontal line is actually a neutral gray
(tint of black)—it appears almost orange over the
violet field, but lavender over the yellow field. The
effect is enhanced by the complementary relation-
ship of the two background hues.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

95 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 95 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 95 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 95
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Hue Relationships Before any other considerations, the Logic and Systems), the relative dynamism of hue contrasts
relationships between hues that a designer uses in a project is important because the degree of activity they provide
will be most dominant. Designers can create interaction will influence viewers’ perception of meaning. In general,
between different hues, independent of their saturation or it’s helpful to choose fewer hues, that exhibit clear relation-
value, according to where they lie on the color wheel. The ships among them, to ensure a strong, memorable color
closer together the colors appear on the wheel, the more impression. Even with a palette of two hues, a designer can
similar their optical qualities and, hence, the more harmo- introduce a lot of variation simply by adjusting each one’s
nious or related. The further apart colors are on the wheel, saturation and value as it’s applied to different elements;
the more their optical qualities contrast. When developing and changing the relative extension of the hues in different
a project’s palette (see page 108 in the next section, Color areas will create further interest.

ANALOGOUS COMPLEMENTARY TRIADIC

Colors adjacent to each Two colors that appear Sometimes referred Exploiting the effect of simultane- Simply changing the relative extension
other on the color wheel opposite each other on the to as split complements, a ous contrast in a limited palette— of one hue in a pair (whether from
are said to be analogous. color wheel are comple- color triad involves three for instance, here, in a group of only page to page in a website or brochure,
Although noticeably dif- ments of each other. Their colors at 120° intervals three hues (orange complement- or in different areas of a poster), will
ferent from one another, mixture results in a neutral from each other on the ing blue, which is analogous to cause the two hues to exhibit differing
the relationship becomes tone. With light, the neutral color wheel. One color is green)—is a clever strategy for balance, and may also affect each one’s
more about temperature is a medium gray; with ink, complementing the two creating the impression of more apparent saturation and temperature.
difference. it’s a dull brown. colors equidistant from its hues than are actually present. The
true complement. two blue swatches are identical—
but don’t appear to be.

The book cover to the far left, as

well as the advertisement next to it,
both make use of complementary
relationships—albeit, ones that
have been slightly shifted. The book
cover’s orange is complemented by a
green-blue, rather than a pure blue;
in the ad, a range of blues is overall
complemented by a golden yellow,
rather than a true orange.
SHINNOSKE INC. / JAPAN 
UMBRELLA DESIGN / INDIA 

96 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 96 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 96 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 96
 These four websites each limit their hue
selection and relationships to create
clearer, more appreciable color logic:
The technology site at top uses a trio of
- analogous hues. The museum website
below it accommodates tremendous
variety in content by choosing images
that are mostly analogous (green, blue,
and violet), accented by violet’s comple-
ment (yellow) and further unified by the
presence of black. The conference center
site (third from top) minimizes full-color
images and emphasizes an analogous
pair (yellow and green), with the yellow
component further desaturated to create
a range of rich, neutral browns. The
website at bottom uses a range of blue
for its base fields and typography, but
introduces an analogue (violet) and its
complement (yellow) with imagery.
Strong, simple hue relationships
DAVID AIREY / NORTHERN IRELAND 
are critical for brand identities. The
YOOJUNG KANG / UNITED STATES 
three marks shown here all combine
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES  analogous pairs.
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES  DETAIL DESIGN STUDIO / IRELAND 
UMBRELLA DESIGN / INDIA 
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 

’s

it,

ok Analogous hues typically are

ya perceived as harmonious. That clar-
ue; ity and richness, however, doesn’t
ll mean they have to appear quiet or
w, calming. The skin-care packaging
above unifies exterior and interior
components with analogous hues,
but the differentiated hue in each
case (green, violet) is made vibrant
by desaturating the universal blue
that accompanies them. In the
hypothetical example to the left, the
analogous progression from blue to
yellow exaggerates the motion of the
car and pulls it forward in space.
DISTURBANCE / SOUTH AFRICA 

C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 97 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 97 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 97
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Saturation Relationships Relationships between dullness extensive palette, even when he or she is working with only
and intensity may occur independently of hue relationships; a couple of hues. The specific choice of hues for a limited
still, they’ll usually have something of an effect on the ap- palette (see p. 114) will offer different possibilities in rela-
parent values or temperatures of the hues as well. When a tion to saturation effects. Choosing analogous hues, but
given hue is desaturated, it may appear to become darker, changing the intensity of one, will create a rich, intimately
especially if it’s adjacent to a similar or different hue of harmonious color experience; choosing complementary
greater saturation, but it may also appear to become cooler hues, or triads (split complements), on the other hand, all
if the adjacent hue is a warm color. By introducing strong, with similar values but different saturations, will create the
clear, and dynamic saturation relationships among hues, impression of an even more richly varied color experience.
a designer can rapidly create the impression of a more

B
ANALOGOUS PROGRESSIVE DIAMETRIC OPPOSITION SPLIT OPPOSITION bo
p
to
d
sh
sa
JE

Any colors, regardless of hue, temper- Any colors (again, without regard to This relationship concerns the juxtapo- The most intense version of a given
ature, or value, that exhibit the same any other identifying characteristics) sition of the most intense and almost color in relation to the nearly desatu-
intensity or brilliance, are said to which, as a set, incrementally increase completely desaturated versions of rated versions of its split complements
exhibit analogous saturation. in their relative intensities, are said to the same hue. While the desaturated creates a relationship of split opposi-
exhibit progressive saturation. component retains its base hue, its com- tion. The split relationship can also
plement appears to be present because occur between the desaturated hue
of what is called the “after-image” and the most intense versions of its
effect—an optical illusion in which the split complements.
eye is stimulated by the saturated color
so much that it triggers the perception
of a “phantom” of its complement.
EXTENSION THE “BLACK EFFECT”

Juxtapositions of two or more colors A field of black surrounding even rela-

of similar intensity, but in different vol- tively desaturated colors will tend to
umes, create effects of simultaneous increase their apparent intensity (top).
contrast and after-image. Juxtaposing Introducing small graphic elements of
a small volume of a desaturated color black into an environment of desatu-
with a large volume of an intensely rated colors (especially if they’re also
saturated color creates hue shifting; light in value) sometimes will appear to
the intense volume acts on the desatu- diminish their intensity, or “suck the life The brown covering, whose typographic cut-outs reveal S
rated color to skew it toward the out of them” (bottom). a saturated orange underneath, is a desaturated version ra
intense color’s complement.
of that same orange—not to the extreme of “diametric a
opposition” described above, but it’s close. gr
STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES VO

98 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 98 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 98 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 98
 In the logo at far left, the pink letterform is less
saturated than the red droplet, enhancing its
vitality and symbolic quality. In the logo at near
left, the effect of diametric opposition occurs: the
more intense squares (T, E) cause the viewer to
see the complement in the desaturated squares.
Looking at the T and E tiles will cause the others
to appear greenish.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
e DROTZ DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

Both of the featured photographs in these

book spreads emphasize saturation as a
primary chromatic element. The image at
top shows a single hue (yellow) in varying
degrees of saturation. The lower image
shows a desaturated cool red contrasting a
saturated warm red.
JELENA DROBAC / SERBIA

Similarity in value between two relatively desatu- This website’s modular layout incorporates hues
rated hues emphasizes their temperature difference that progress from less saturated to more, creating
and imparts rhythm and movement to the rigidly a greater sense of integration among its parts.
grid-shaped typography. TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES
VOICE / AUSTRALIA

99 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 99 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 99 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 99
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Value Relationships Regardless of the specific hues and form elements that are correspondingly light or dark—even
their relative saturations, the colors selected for a given if there are ony one or two hues in the mix. Value changes
project will automatically introduce value differences in all by themselves can create tremendous contrast in a layout
their pure states. Because the value of any particular color, without the need for added hues.
being intrinsically light or dark, has implications for how
viewers perceive form elements (spatially and hierarchi-
cally), the choice of colors and to which elements they are
applied becomes very important. A designer can readily
exaggerate and enhance a hierarchy that is defined by light/
dark relationships by applying lighter or darker hues to

COMPRESSION ANALOGOUS PROGRESSIVE RHYTHMIC EXTENSION

A selection of hues whose relative In a scale from lightest to darkest, A sequence of values among colors— A series of values, lighter and darker,
values, while clearly not the same, two colors are considered to have in either optically even steps or opti- is considered rhythmic if there are
nonetheless are concentrated within analogus value if they exhibit the cally geometric steps—is considered recognizable jumps between shades,
a specific tonal range, are said to same relative darkness or light- progressive if the overall effect is per- relative to the extension or volume of
express a compressed value scale. ness, regardless of saturation or ceived as one of continual lightening each shade. The result is an optical pro-
For example, the three hues at top hue. As colors approach each other or darkening within a given palette. portioning of value similar to a spatial
are compressed into the “highlight,” in value, the ability to distinguish proportion system, but dependent
or light, tonal range; the two hues their boundary is diminished. on dark-to-light difference.
at bottom are compressed into the
“mid-value” range.

A
p
a
c
T
p
Value changes in the base blue highlight important Progressive value change among modules in this website is
content and clarify navigation in this website. suggests a progression through kinds and levels of content.
SWIM DESIGN / UNITED STATES STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES

100 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 100 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 100 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 100
n

o-
l

Although there are instances of dark-value color in the spread just above shows a dramatically progressive
photograph on the left-hand page of the page spread value range, from deepest black to brightest white, in
at top, for the most part the values of most elements is both the photograph and the typography. The type adds
compressed within the mid-tone and highlight range. an additional chromatic aspect: that of a nearly comple-
The overall lightness of feeling achieved is further sup- mentary hue change .
ported by the typography to the image’s right, which VON K BRAND DESIGN STUDIO / AUSTRIA 
is set in warm, mid-value gray. In contrast, the page RESEARCH STUDIOS / UNITED KINGDOM 

101 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 101 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 101 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 101
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Temperature Relationships Designers can also establish negative associations), designers must pay close attention
relationships within a color palette based on the relative to the temperature relationships they create within the
temperatures of the hues that it comprises. Grouping colors palette of a visual language to prevent viewers from arriv-
with similar temperature together with one or two varia- ing at any negative connotation: coolness perceived in skin
tions on the same hues that are warmer or cooler—for ex- color (whether lighter or darker), for example, may suggest
ample, a cool green, blue, and violet with a warmer green— unhealthiness. Important considerations about color’s
can generate an enormous range of chromatic interactions effect on meaning is discussed in depth in this chapter’s
while maintaining a tightly controlled color environment. final section, When Color Means Something (page 118).
Because color temperature is so closely associated with
sensory, physical experience (and, therefore, to positive or

CLOSED ANALOGOUS PROGRESSIVE RHYTHMIC EXTENSION

Extremely subtle, yet still perceptible, Any sequence of colors that is An analogous grouping in which tem- Between two colors sharing intensity
analogous shifts in temperature among adjacent on the color wheel so long perature makes a markedly stepped and value, differences in volume will
a set of colors that, nonetheless, retain as they are similarly warm or cool: transition, color by color, from cooler have the effect of changing the percep-
the same hue identity. Value and satu- red/orange/yellow, for example, or to warmer or vice versa. tion of their relative temperature. If
ration changes of the same pure hue yellow/yellow-green/green, but not two colors are both relatively close T
may accomplish this relationship. orange/yellow/green. to each other in temperature, the one be
given in smaller volume will appear to a
shift temperature away from that given
in greater volume. th
d
H

T
b
s
s
b
D

Extremely limited hue and saturation conditions warm feature on the right-hand page; in the ad
in these two projects deliver specific, unifying to the right, a family of green hues that alternate
color impressions; both use temperature shifts as from warm to cool add visual interest.
a primary means of introducing rich chromatic NOT FROM HERE / UNITED STATES 
variation. The brochure above activates a gener- PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
ally cool pair of photographs with a contrasting

102 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 102 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 102 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 102
 Each stroke of the M symbol becomes
progressively cooler; the full logotype
is the coolest. As green becomes cooler
and deeper, it communicates less about
refreshment and more about economic
growth and stability.
JELENA DROBAC / SERBIA

-
This poster is printed in three ink colors, all of which could This styled product photograph concentrates the hues of
be characterized as cool if seen independently: a green-blue, props and backgrounds within a relatively narrow tempera-
a muted red violet, and a muted violet. In the context of ture range; most elements are also somewhat analogous in
n
the green-blue, however, the red violet (partly because it is value, focusing attention on the darkest element.
desaturated) is perceived as a warm color. METAKLINIKA / SERBIA
HELENA WANG / UNITED STATES

The relationship between the blue of the

blueberries and the violet field on the oppo-
site page of this book is a simple, coolward
shift, but it’s effective in exaggerating the
berries’ hue.
DAVID AIREY / NORTHERN IRELAND

103 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 103 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 103 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 103
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Color: Form and Space Colors exhibit a number of spatial values, temperatures, or saturations contrast those of the
properties: their relative temperatures, values, and satura- field will appear to advance into the foreground. The color
tions, in combination, will cause the forms to which they extension, as well as overall value and intensity relationships,
are applied to occupy an apparent foreground, middle- between a particular element and its surrounding environ-
ground, or background position in illusory space on a white ment will also affect its apparent spatial position. Consider,
field. These basic relationships will change, however, once again, that colorizing a black-and-white composition will
the field also takes on a color: the relative value, tempera- introduce no difference in the spatial relationships among
ture, and saturation of the field will appear to draw those the elements as they already exist; it is only through the
form elements of similar chromatic quality closer to a back- interaction of two hues or more that applying color will add
ground position. Conversely, those form elements whose new kinds of perceived spatial interaction.

Our optical system (eyes and

brain) perceive the three pri-
mary colors as existing at differ-
ent depths in space, a function
of how our brains interpret the
wavelengths of these colors.
Red appears stationary at a
middle distance and seems to
sit on the surface of the picture
plane, neither in front of nor be-
hind it. Blue appears to recede

A NE behind the picture plane, while

yellow appears to advance.
PL
U RE
CT
PI

The amount of color that can be

perceived—and its intensity and
value—are all affected by volume.
The orange of the narrow line
appears darker and less intense
against the white field of the page Colors of similar value will appear to cluster together into one
than either the thicker line or the
larger square. The opposite is true
form, as do the grayish and olive green areas at the upper left of
when the same elements cross this study. Because their values are similar, the boundary between
over a dark field. them appears less pronounced than those between other areas
whose values are much different, even if their intensities are also
very different. Note the relative lack of separation between the
desaturated orange and light gray at the lower right.
JROSS DESIGN / UNITED STATES

Each color—blue, red, and yellow—assumes

a place in space: blue recedes, red stays in the
middle, and yellow advances. In this case,
the application of color enhances the desired
spatial location of each element.
THOMAS CSANO / CANADA

104 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 104 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 104 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 104
s,

How color works spatially changes a lot in different contexts.

The apparent spatial position of yellow, for instance—and
what that means for visual hierarchy (discussed in greater
depth on the following pages)—varies radically among these
four projects. In each case, try to identify how near or far in
space the yellow element(s) appear to be; and evaluate why
that is, given what’s happening with other colors around it.
SEA DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM 
SELF-TITLED / AUSTRALIA 
GORRICHO / ARGENTINA 
LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY 

105 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 105 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 105 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 105
 CHROMATIC INTERACTION

Color’s Effect on Visual Hierarchy Applying color to a application of color to the ground within a composition can
composition will immediately affect its hierarchy. Color further enhance the hierarchy. A form in one color, set on
distinctions can greatly enhance the perception of spatial a field of another color, will join closely with it or separate
depth and force greater separation between hierarchic aggressively, depending on their color relationship. If the
levels. For example, if an element at the top of a hierarchy is colors of foreground and background elements are related,
set in a deep, vibrant orange-red, while secondary forms are the elements will occupy a similar spatial depth. If they are
colored a cool gray, these two levels of the hierarchy will be complementary in nature, the two will occupy very differ-
separated visually to a much greater degree. Although the ent spatial depths.
values of the colors are similar, the saturated orange form
will advance in space, and the cool gray one will recede. The

The result of color’s A black-and-white composi-

appearance at different tion showing a major, two
planar locations can have a level hierarchy—as well as
tremendous impact on the subhierarchies within—acts
perceived depth of forms in as a guidepost for a de-
space and, consequently, on signer’s application of color.
the order in which each form A strong complementary
presents itself: the visual relationship in the palette
hierarchy. In this study, each acts first to emphasize the
form element—regardless top level of the hierarchy.
of size or arrangement—is This fundamental color
made to register in the contrast exaggerates the
foreground, then the middle already dramatic distinction
ground, and then the back- accomplished by size change
ground of the composition, and, being so strong, super-
merely by alternating the el- sedes the contrasts that
ement to which each color is occur within the secondary
applied. The effect becomes level—all constrained
even more dramatic when within analogous relation-
the background also partici- ships of hue and saturation.
pates in the color swap.

It’s interesting to compare the effect

of different color combinations on the
same hierarchy in different instances.
Note how the rectangular label ele-
ment, in particular, appears to change
in both apparent spatial position and
emphasis relative to other elements in
this system of packages. T
LOUIS FILI LTD. / UNITED STATES d
te
a
n
th
TI
CO

106 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 106 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 106 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 106
n A designer, therefore, must approach the application of white. This allows the designer to understand the complexi-
color to elements within a visual hierarchy with the same ties of the hierarchic levels and the degrees of contrast
sensitivity to overall difference (contrast) between hierar- needed to separate them (as well as those contrasts that
chic levels as he or she would the basic aspects of composi- are present within each level) without having to consider
tional contrast. The greatest degree of color contrast must the wild variables that color will inevitably introduce.
be given to the elements at the top of the hierarchy, relative With the hierarchic distinctions clear in black and white,
to the kinds and degrees of color contrast applied to the the designer creates a kind of reference map for assigning
elements at the secondary and tertiary levels. The most color relationships: What kind of hue/temperature/value/
effective way of successfully ensuring that this occurs is saturation qualities, together, will add to these distinctions,
to first establish the composition’s hierarchy in black and already in place?

r.

n
ge
-

Color use in these two projects also

codes information in a meaningful way,
beyond simply ordering it spatially and
sequentially. Different hues characterize
the two major concepts in the headline
of the poster, above. In the book cover,
left, name and symbol are made meaning-
fully equivalent by the same hue; the
only contrasting hue applies to a concep-
tual—and somewhat controversial—
Two fundamental color relationships are at work to distinguish
framing of the book’s subject.
different areas and levels of content in these websites: a hue/
BRAND BROTHERS / FRANCE 
temperature relationship (yellow/warm against blue/cool);
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
and a saturation relationship (saturated = more important,
neutral = less important)—with the chief difference between
them being the reversal of the value relationships.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
CONOR & DAVID / IRELAND 

107 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C H R OM AT I C I N T E R A C T I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 107 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 107 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 107
 COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS

Defining a Palette Just as it’s important to define a clear, some unifying optical relationships. Because of the strong
unified form language and compositional idea for a project opposition of complements, palettes based on this relation-
(and one that includes contrast among these variables), ship are optically dynamic. Analogous colors, by their very
a designer must also establish an overall logic that governs similarity, create more complex, but less varied, palettes.
the color within a project. This idea of color logic is more Color, of course, can also mean something. Very often, that
commonly referred to as a palette, a specific selection of meaning is tied to associations we make between colors and
hues exhibiting equally specific relationships. One useful objects or environments; but colors also evoke intangible
direction a designer may pursue in developing a color pal- feelings that result from the biological effects of perceiving
ette for a project is that of optical interaction. A rich palette them. Further, colors carry cultural and social meanings
combines clearly distinguishable colors that yet share related to religion, art, history, and politics.

Pu

N
The process of defining a palette can Seeking a richer experience, the The addition of a neutral version of To this already complex mix, the Sa
begin very simply: choosing colors designer may shift the tempera- one of the complements expands designer lastly adds the analog
for their optical relationship—in ture of one or both complements, the palette; a second version of the of one of the base complements,
this case, a pair of complements— maintaining the essential relation- neutral, lighter in value, introduces adjusting its value and intensity to
because their interaction is so strong ship but skewing it slightly. greater variation. correspond more closely to one of
(top). Adjusting the relative values — the neutrals.
of the complements creates greater Altering the intensities of one
contrast without disturbing the clar- or both introduces yet greater
ity of the relationship (bottom). richness without sacrificing the A
fundamental logic of the palette. a

A clear palette is essential for branding the deepest and most intense. The color
programs to ensure recongizability. This contrasts in the advertising photograph
page from an identity manual (above) (one in a campaign), right, are limited to
shows how colors from the supporting two variables (temperature and value)
color palette can be combined with the while overall the hues and relative satu-
primary corporate blue in the system. The ration of its elements are very similar.
supporting colors are strictly controlled STUDIO INTERNATIONAL / CROATIA 
so that the corporate blue is always NAM / JAPAN 

108 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 108 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 108 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 108
 The Basic Optical Choices Visual logic in color is a lot three-hue palette seems too limiting, an effective strategy
- like other kinds: the simpler, the more understandable. In is to add a greater variety of hues but to constrain their
creating a palette for a project, a designer will often benefit relationships within a limited set of variables—only vary-
from limiting the number of hues and their interactions. ing intensity, for example, while other attributes remain
Grounding the palette in a fundamental hue relationship— constant. Varying just one aspect of the palette creates the
d analogous, complementary, or triadic—is a great place most clearly recognizable logic; altering two variables adds
to start. These kinds of relationships are very clear and complexity (and, of course, the possibility that the logic
g alone offer tremendous possibilties for mixing to generate will become diluted or unrecognizable).
supporting colors (especially complementary pairs, which
when combined will create neutral colors). If a two- or

With a particular green as

a starting point, different
combinations with a succes-
sion of alternate counter-
parts create a variety of in-
teresting possibilities. Each
Pure Complement Complement / Same value, Complement / Value shift Near Complement / Warm Near Complement / Cool combination’s specificity
saturation shift results in a clearly recogniz-
able visual logic, especially
useful for branding projects
where color impression
plays a dramatic role in
brand memorability.

Near Complement / Split Complement / Triad 1 / Split Complement / Triad 2 / Split Complement / Triad 2 / Split Complement / Triad 2 /
Saturation and value shifts Native value Native value Saturation shift Value and saturation shift

Analogous / Same value Analogous / Same value, Analogous / Same satura- Analogous / Analogous /
and saturation different saturation tion, different value Temperature shift: Warm Temperature shift: Cool

These two projects (a website, above, analogous to one of the secondary hues
and a book cover, right) each establish outlining the figure. In the book cover, the
complementary hues as a base palette, title/subtitle unit and the double-author
with the added tension of analogous unit show complementary pairs; each
relationships between at least one of the complement is analogous to one of the
complements. In the website, the yellow hues in the other pair.
orange background complements the SUBCOMMUNICATION / CANADA
blue-violet graphical elements; each is THINK STUDIO / UNITED STATES

109 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR L OGI C A N D S Y S T E M S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 109 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 109 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 109
 COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS

Color As a System Most designed communications are logic that can be applied across a number of parts to ensure S
part of a more extensive group of materials or are made unity among them, while at the same time allowing for
up of multiple parts: page spreads in a book or brochure, some flexibility. A palette’s hues and their relationships
for example, or a series of ads in a campaign. This means can be thought of as the “rules” of a system—using these
that the parts all must share a vsiaul language for continu- consistently to colorize images or graphical forms, as
H
ity, even though each might serve a different function or backgrounds, and so on makes it clear that all the parts of a
be a different format. The idea of a system is one that will project are part of a totality. Varying specific aspects of the
be discussed in great depth in chapter 5—but for now, the relationships allows a designer to create contrast within the
idea of a color palette as a system is a useful introduction whole, emphasize particular content, and maintain visual
to the concept. A system is a framework of visual rules or interest. Fewer rules with fewer variations ensures clarity. V

The author typically chooses a Below that is the palette for S

palette of hues that he uses to another of his books, Making and
distinguish the chapters in his Breaking the Grid, which is divided
books for quick, page-through into two major sections. Each
reference. Very often, he uses section is defined by a different,
secondary colors to systemati- saturated hue. Within respective
cally code graphical elements chapters, a desaturated, light-
or informational components value version of that hue is used T
CHAPTER 01 CHAPTER 02 CHAPTER 03 CHAPTER 04 CHAPTER 05 GENERAL within each chapter. Above, for page backgrounds, while a
left, for instance, is the palette dark-value version is used for
for this book. Each chapter’s diagram lines and callouts. The
hue is progressively warmer primary chapter color is also used
than that of the previous one; for details within diagrams,
a supersaturated orange runs and for navigational/hierarchic M
throughout, generally used for accents within the chapter.
supporting graphical elements,
like details in diagrams. Black
is used as a base for material
outside the chapters.
CHAPTER 01 CHAPTER 02
H

Working with richly colored pho- H

tography can be inspirational for
designers looking to establish a sys-
tematic palette for a project. In this
book about Scandinavian textiles,
the designer has isolated a blue
violet hue that isn’t literally to be H
found in the image, but is clearly
related to the image’s analogous
colors. The designer followed this
strategy for each section opening
spread, an example of which ap-
Te
pears to the far right.
YOO JUNG KANG / UNITED STATES

Te

A
he
re
co

110 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 110 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 110 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 110
e SINGLE-VARIABLE SYSTEMS

Hue Value, saturation, and temperature analogous

Value Hue, saturation, and temperature analogous

Saturation Hue, temperature, and value analogous

nd
ed

,
ve

d Temperature Hue, saturation, and value analogous

ed
MULTIPLE-VARIABLE SYSTEMS

Hue and Value Saturation and temperature analogous

Hue and Saturation Temperature and value analogous

Hue and Temperature Value and saturation analogous

Temperature and Value Hue and saturation analogous

Temperature and Saturation Hue and value analogous

Saturation and Value Hue and temperature analogous

A simple proportional system is shown the criteria for the coding system changes
here as the basis for different color-coding from series to series while, within a single
relationships. The intervals within the series, the color components alternate
composition remain the same throughout; position among the proportional intervals.

111 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR L OGI C A N D S Y S T E M S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 111 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 111 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 111
 COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS

The secondary palette for this brand

system is relatively extensive; it
incorporates the primary, secondary,
and tertiary hues of the spectrum,
plus a selection of neutrals. The rules
for how they’re applied, however,
is very specific. Each cover’s color
responds with an analogous hue shift
to the overall hue characterstics of
the photograph that accompanies it.
The benefit of this strategy is that
the designers can create very specific
color impressions in each commu-
nication (anticipating ones beyond
these brochures alone), creating flex-
ibility in the system. At the same
time, a clear logic becomes the color
idea of the brand, rather than a
single, repeated color relationship.
GARBETT / AUSTRALIA

The color system for the beverage packaging below is

a little freer than that used for others on these pages.
Each beverage flavor is defined by a characteristic
color, which is generally (but not always) supported
by near-complements, masked into the logo’s letters.
B&B STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM

Th
LG
as
gr
in
hu
ph
sp
ISO

A simple “rule” allows each cover in this book series its indi-
viduality, while maintaining consistency: each cover’s dark-
value background hue supports printed type and imagery in
a lighter-value version of the same hue. The system permits
a variation in which the print color may be saturated, as
happens in the two titles to the right.
CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH / UNITED KINGDOM

112 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 112 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 112 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 112
 This stationery system creates
unity (and variety) simply by
mixing six distinctive hues in
different combinations among
the components.
BANG BANG / CANADA

The designers of this campaign, focused on

LGBTQ issues, evoke the symbolic rainbow
associated with that community through
gradations of color. Each poster in the series
incorporates only two or three analogous
hues with color washes and color-filtered
photography; seen altogether, the full
spectrum becomes appreciable.
ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. / UNITED STATES

Together with manipulations of this logo’s

base form, a palette of three hues mixes in
varied combinations to produce a continu-
ally updating brand experience.
THINKMOTO / GERMANY

113 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR L OGI C A N D S Y S T E M S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 113 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 113 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 113
 COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS

Limited Color Palettes Even using only two colors can materials. This approach is particularly useful for branding,
create a surprisingly rich color language, whether literally where the interrelation of inks can be used to distinguish
by printing in only two ink colors or limiting oneself in different communications in a system while reinforcing the
CMYK or RGB color space projects—where all colors, theo- identity of the brand. When working with a limited palette,
retically, are available. While many projects call for full- choosing colors with dynamic chromatic interaction is of
color imagery, limiting the palette always creates a more greatest concern: Given limited options, the designer must
recognizable and memorable experience. In printed matter, get as much flexibility as possible from the palette’s two or
using only two spot-color inks need not be limited to small- three components. Choosing two complements as counter-
run or low-budget projects; two thoughtfully-selected parts, for example, is an intuitive first possibility—but not
colors may communicate very powerfully and clearly unify the only one.

T
li
T
em
a
co
cl
T
h
a
M
M
KI

Simply replacing black ink Each of these posters uses an individual impression, relative to the performance it
with ink of another color— selection of two analogous hues—as does promotes, and still be clearly unified with
even in a one-color job—can
give an extra punch to an each of the other posters in the series of others in the communication program.
otherwise mundane project. which they’re a part. This approach allows PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES
each poster to deliver an appropriate color

A three-color palette not only unifies

the components in this literature system,
it allows the designer to differentiate
different product offerings and still
reinforce the core identity of the brand.
The signature (logo) retains its color
identity, and the components all seem
intrinsically related to it, as well as
to each other.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

114 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 114 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 114 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 114
g, Limited Palettes and Photography One potential draw- logic among images, type, and other graphic elements.
back of using photography is that (speaking broadly, and Even when full-color photography is not only available as
e barring unique stylistic approaches), photographs all look an option, but desirable, limiting its coloration will help
, more or less the same—and they’re everywhere. Given that a it better integrate; doing so can also focus attention on
designer’s task includes differentiating the communication the most important components of an image’s subject, or
(to attract viewers’ attention), it’s worth considering the emphasize important details. If a designer is lucky enough
potential of enforcing a limited color palette to overcome to have a budget for original photography, he or she may
photography’s ubiquity to create a specific, custom experi- art direct the photographer’s use of lighting, props, back-
ence. Various techniques for toning and colorizing photo- grounds, and isolation of content in the frame to control
graphs also give a designer chances to enhance the color the image’s palette very specifically.

The various designers of these three projects all imposed

limitations on the photographic palettes of their images.
The sandwiches seen in the cookbook spread, right, were
embellished with violet flowers and green leaves and shot
against a cool, neutral, background. For the magazine
cover below, the subject of the portrait was styled with
clothing and shot against a background of specific colors.
The designer of the posters at lower right, on the other
hand, simply colorized the photographs to participate in
an established color system.
MICHELLE LIV / UNITED STATES 
MUCHO / SPAIN 
KIYOKO SHIROMASA / UNITED STATES 

115 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR L OGI C A N D S Y S T E M S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 115 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 115 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 115
 COLOR LOGIC AND SYSTEMS

Color Coding Color can very effectively help distinguish tion. If the number of items to be coded is great—within an
different kinds of information, as well as create meaningful extensive line of products, or complex levels of information
relationships among components of a system—within within a typographic hierarchy—creating analogous subsets
infographics, for instance, or among packages for a line of within a still-limited palette of hues can be effective: for
related products. Assigning specific colors to identify each example, three analogous greens for one group, three kinds
kind of informational material is called color coding. To be of violet for another, and so on. Wide-ranging sets of hues
effective, the members of a palette used for coding must be can be unified using an accent color that appears through-
easily distinguishable and, therefore, relatively simple; us- out the coded material.
ing two many colors creates confusion, because it forces the
viewer to remember which color relates to which informa-

A rich set of analogous colors is used to code three

different beverage products while maintaining a clear
unity between the products in the family. There are
three hues, and each is a specific value. In each bottle’s
wrapper, the three hues are swapped between the
background and the different text elements; as a result,
each bottle is first differentiated by the color of the
wrapper’s background color.
NINE DESIGN / SWEDEN
Colors used to code a family of Within a relatively close-in analo- Changing the relative extension of
items need to be easily distin- gous coding palette, an accent a coding palette’s component hues
guished from each other. Triads, enriches the color language. For can add needed complexity if the
as well as large jumps in value or families of more than three items number of items or levels is great.
saturation within an analogous or levels, consider joining related Reverse the proportional relation-
set, achieve this goal. palettes, especially if they will help ship between bases and accents to
identify subgroupings. double the number of items that
can be coded within the family while
maintaining a close-in family.

Groupings of analogous colors provide a flexible, yet very

consistent, system for color coding in this packaging system.
Each wrapper uses two analogous colors to identify its
specific product in the system—blue-violet and aqua, red
and yellow-orange, violet-red and orange—and each item’s
base color is also analogous in relation to each other.
A10 DESIGN / BRAZIL

116 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 116 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 116 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 116
n
n
s

s
Each series of booklets in this system is
grouped in terms of a color relationship.
The group of covers at far left is coded
as a set by intensity and temperature;
the grouping just to the left is coded as
as set based on intensity and hue.
LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY

The designers of this book code its chapters with a shown just above), the color selectively applied to a
palette of saturated, analogous hues, contrasting the component of the image and supporting typography
neutral, sepia tones of the historical photographs. corresponds with the chapter’s page listing in the
In each chapter opening spread (one of which is table of contents at top.
INFINITO / PERU

117 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR L OGI C A N D S Y S T E M S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 117 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 117 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 117
 WHEN COLOR MEANS SOMETHING

Empirical Associations The greatest power of color, aside nonpictorial, its messaging is grounded in color associa-
from its dynamic optical qualities, stems from the way we tions that permit easy access to understanding by grounding
so readily associate it with physical, real-world experiences: the visual abstraction in familiarity. And, as much as it can
Greens, browns, and other earthy hues remind us of the often be useful to alter the color of a photographic image
natural world and its organicism; icy grays and blues suggest for conceptual or stylistic purposes, the physical world
metal or glass or other industrial surfaces. Most times, the around us is beautifully and richly colorific as it is. Trading
colors with which we’re presented in images are natural- on the rich, immediately accessible, and understandable
istic, meaning that the occur in those subjects empirically; connections to subjects we encounter all the time helps
designers will sometimes use the term local color instead. viewers more readily accept the veracity of image content:
Even when a communication’s form language is completely Those colors are clearly “true.”

In attempting to identify a
form and thereby assign it
some meaning, viewers will
focus on color after they
appreicate the form’s shape,
but the two messages are
nearly simultaneous. As a
result, the color message
will exert tremendous force
on perception. Comparing
the dots at left, guess which
is being presented as a Sun,
and which as the Earth. Th
th
st
ne
hi
“fi
re
va
us
ev
an

A hazy, luminous gradation from rich

blue to intense red-orange to refreshing
aqua evokes daybreak.
PARÁMETRO STUDIO / MEXICO

The reliability and strength

of brown protect the growing
V
green plant. p
SOHYUN KIM / UNITED STATES in
a
h
gardener symbol; Designer: Sohyun Kim; Professor: Lisa Fontaine; Iowa State University it
d
in
p
a
a
w
r
e
a

Blue and blue-violet are cool and waterlike. In this An abstracted model for additive, or light-
poster, their calming quality represents the ocean based, color, forms the symbol for this media
as a contrast to the hectic movement of the red title. company’s brand signature.
GUNTER RAMBOW / GERMANY PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

118 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 118 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 118 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 118
 Emotions and Psychology With color comes a variety translates as arousal. The psychological properties of color,
g of psychological messages that can be used to influence however, also depend highly on a viewer’s culture and
content—both imagery and the verbal meaning of typogra- personal experience. Many cultures equate red with feelings
phy. This emotional component of color is deeply connected of hunger, anger, or energy because red is closely associated
to human experience at an instinctual and biological level. with meat, blood, and violence. By contrast, vegetarians
Colors of varying wavelengths have different effects on the might associate the color green with hunger. Acknowledg-
autonomic nervous system—warmer colors, such as red ing the audience’s background, then, becomes extremely
and yellows, have long wavelengths, and so more energy important for ensuring that their interpetation of color
is needed to process them as they enter the eye and brain. messages—which can be quite subjective—is likely to be a
The accompanying rise in energy level and metabolic rate little more reliable.

This vibrant color is among The power of blue to calm Associated with the Sun and The association of brown Unknowable and extreme,
the most noticeable. Red and create a sense of warmth, yellow stimulates with earth and wood creates black is the strongest color
stimulates the autonomic protection or safety results a sense of happiness. It a sense of comfort and in the visible spectrum. Its
nervous system to the from its short wavelength; appears to advance spatially safety. The solidity of the density and contrast are
highest degree, invoking the its association with the in relation to other colors color, because of its organic dominant, but it seems
“fight or flight” adrenaline ocean and sky account for and also helps to enliven connotation, evokes feelings neither to recede nor to
response, causing us to sali- its perception as solid and surrounding colors. Yellow of timelessness and lasting advance in space. Its inde-
vate with hunger, or causing dependable. Statistically, encourages clear thinking value. Brown’s natural terminate quality reminds
us to feel impulsive. Red blue is the best liked of all and memory retention. A qualities are perceived as viewers of nothingness,
evokes feelings of passion the colors. brighter, greener yellow rugged, ecological, and hard outer space, and, in Western
and arousal. can cause anxiety; deeper working; its earthy connec- culture, death. Its mystery
yellows evoke wealth. tion connotes trustworthi- is perceived as formal
ness and durability. and exclusive, suggesting
authority, superiority, and
dignity.

Violet is sometimes With the shortest wavelength, A mixture of red and yellow, The ultimate neutral, gray In a subtractive color
perceived as compromis- green is the most relaxing orange engenders feelings may be perceived as noncom- model, white represents
ing—but also as mysterious color of the spectrum. Its similar to that of its parent mittal, but can be formal, the presence of all color
and elusive. The value and association with nature and colors: vitality and arousal dignified, and authoritative. wavelengths; in an additive
hue of violet greatly affect vegetation makes it feel safe. (red), warmth and friendliness Lacking the emotion that model, it is the absence
its communication: The brighter the green, the (yellow). Orange appears chroma carries, it may seem of color. Both of these
deep violets, approach- more youthful and energetic. outgoing and adventurous but aloof or suggest untouch- models help form the basis
ing black, connote death; Deeper greens suggest reli- may be perceived as slightly able wealth. Gray may be for white’s authoritative,
pale, cooler violets, such able economic growth. More irresponsible. Deeper orange associated with technology, pure, and all-encompassing
as lavender, are dreamy neutral greens, such as olive, induces salivation and a feel- especially when presented as power. As the mixture of all
and nostalgic; violets of evoke earthiness. However, ing of luxury. Brighter orange silver. It suggests precision, colors of light, it connotes
warm temperature (more green, in the right context, connotes health, freshness, control, competence, sophis- spiritual wholeness and
red-hued), are dramatic and can connote illness or decay. quality, and strength. As tication, and industry. power. Around areas of color
energetic; plumlike hues orange becomes more neutral, activity in a composition—
are magical. its activity decreases, but it re- especially around black, its
tains a certain sophistication, ultimate contrast—white
becoming exotic. appears restful, stately,
and pure.

119 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S W H E N C OL OR M E A N S S OM E T H I N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 119 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 119 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 119
 WHEN COLOR MEANS SOMETHING

Symbolic Conventions While every client and project is communicating associations such as cleanliness, strength,
different, the color language of many business sectors often youth or maturity, heritage, comfort, and luxury. Earth
respects conventions that are symbolically tied to a given tones are traditional, black and gray are chic, blues and
color’s common psychological effects: Many financial insti- grays mean business, and fluorescent colors are playful or
tutions, for instance, use blue in their communications have to do with technology. Diverse cultures and nationali-
because of its perceived reliability. Consumer expectations ties express themselves through symbolic color, too, typically
are a driving force behind color decisions in design related through their flags, as well as through their traditional
to products or lifestyle and subculture. Although color aesthetics. Rooted in convention, symbolic color provides a
differentiation in a crowded market is paramount, designers strong basis for communication, to be combined or altered
must still respect some conventions when it comes to appropriately for more specific messages.

MOODS AND EMOTIONS CULTURAL AND TEMPORAL HISTORICAL PERIOD / MARKETING SECTORS INDUSTRY AND
CONTEXT AESTHETIC MOVEMENTS PRODUCT SECTORS

Progressive East Indian Medieval Babies [for adults] Gardening

Sinister European Renaissance Toddlers/Kids Contemporary

Home Furnishings

Refreshing African Art Nouveau Teens Bath [traditional]

Artificial South American Art Déco/Streamline Young Adults Electronics/Gaming

Organic Middle Eastern Postwar/Baby Boomer Mature Adults Eco-Friendly Laundry Products

Elegant Japanese Swinging 1960s Mod Mass-Market Cosmetics Automotive [sporting]

Romantic Spring 1960s Folk/1970s Earthy Men’s Grooming Consumer Health Care

Comical Summer New Wave Pop Women’s Luxury Apparel Pharmaceuticals

Friendly Autumn New Age Millennial Men’s Business Apparel Financial Services

Urban Winter Internet Futurism Women’s Fragrance Telecommunications

Complex moods and emo- Along with emotional ideas, Various periods in Western his- Particular color palettes are Very specific color palettes
tions are easily captured in palettes may suggest place— tory can be quickly identified often associated with, and are identified by consumers
palettes that combine the distilled from various cultures’ by colors that are related to sometimes identified as desir- as related to particular
psychological aspects of art and textiles—as well as materials that were prevalent able by, specific age groups industries, product types,
individual hues, as well as the time of day or year. or color schemes that were in and subcultures, especially and services.
manipulations of their rela- vogue, during that era. those related to fashion and
tive values and intensities. gender conventions.

120 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 120 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 120 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 120
 The dark blue field enclosing this logo feels
y stable and personable; the color accents create
a recognizable flag.
a Deep olives and browns evoke a sense of his- MADE IN SPACE, INC. / UNITED STATES
tory, especially in the context of photographs,
which were tinted brownish and sometimes
olive in the early stages of photography.
STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES

Associations of color with gender and sexuality

change over time. The book cover at left uses pink,
strictly associated with femininity during the
1950s, to evoke that time period. The rainbow has
become associated with the the notion of gender
diversity; hence its use in the online LGBTQ com-
munity resource site shown below.
RED CANOE / UNITED STATES 
ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. / UNITED STATES 

The selection of red-oranges,

pinks, and yellow-greens for this
logo evokes the farmer client’s
farmland in autumn.
MINAH KIM / UNITED STATES

ucts

Cooler hues—specifically green and blue— The elegance of black and the passion
s
are most often associated with the financial of red unite in a rhythmic branding
and scientific industries. language used on shopping bags.
DETAIL DESIGN STUDIO / IRELAND GARBETT / AUSTRALIA

121 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S W H E N C OL OR M E A N S S OM E T H I N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 121 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 121 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 121
 WHEN COLOR MEANS SOMETHING

Changing Color, Changing Meaning The perception of in a portrait from welcoming blue to an aloof or shady dark
“truth” through naturalistic color can be beneficial; but if gray, for instance. Manipulating the overall tonal balance
neither a project’s messages, nor a viewer’s need for under- of an image—warm or cool, intense or dull, greenish or
standing depends on it, who is to say a pictorial image must blueish—will usually skew an image’s feeling in one direc-
present its subject empirically colored? Radically altering tion or another. Similarly, when considering color applica-
the color of photographic images can accomplish a great tion to typography, designers must anticipate the powerful
deal, both formally and conceptually. Of course, because directness of any associations created for their relevance.
color so strongly affects meaning, how that might happen Selectively manipulating the color balance in an image,
is of great concern. Even a simple alteration can have dra- yet still maintaining naturalistic color overall, can further
matic implications—changing a corporate executive’s suit enrich an image or correct the color to be more true.

A B C D E
Manipulating the overall color black and white (B), it becomes illustrative quality; skewing the metaphorical or conceptual level,
or color balance of an image will more documentary; printed in a image’s color balance makes it as opposed to those shown in the
change a viewer’s feeling about duotone of intense colors (C), the refreshing (D) or somber (E). These sequence below.
the image’s content. When the image takes on a surreal and dramatic changes show the poten-
original image (A) is presented in tial of color alteration on a more

A B C D
This image has been manipulated yellow increased; (C) cyan increased compared side by side, nontheless
on press by raising and lowering again, yellow decreased, and improve the perception of the fruit’s
the density of the four process inks magenta increased; (D) yellow freshness, a desirable manipulation
to correct and enhance the color increased slightly, black increased. of feeling and message.
balance and saturation: (A) origi- The results, subtle enough to be
nal image; (B) cyan decreased and appreciated intellectually when

When altering the color in images

that include people, considering
the effect on skin tones becomes
extremely important. While some
color alterations will add energy
or seem fun, others may uninten-
tionally add negative connotations;
in this example, the greenish
R
toning produces a sickly feeling, qu
while the blueish toning makes a
the people seem cold and dead. n
tr
to
TH
FR

122 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 122 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 122 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 122
 Altered coloration, together with formal and compositional
manipulations of imagery, alludes to psychological and
emotional experiences in a series of informational brochures
that promote the services of a psychotherapist.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

Color forcefully changes

the feeling of words,
sometimes enhanc-

QUIET ing their meaning and

sometimes opposing the
meaning or altering it.
Subdued colors, espe-
e cially those that are cool

QUIET
or desaturated, enhance
the meaning of the word
ns; “quiet;” interestingly,
Rich sepia coloration augments the fragmented, historical the word’s meaning is in-
quality of the photograph on a promotional brochure for tensely appreciated when
a hotel (top); the deeper values add a somber, reflective set in a vibrant color.
note. In the playbill cover ( just above), greenish-blue haze
transforms the upside-down figure into one that appears QUIET
to be floating in water.
THOMAS CSANO / CANADA 
FROST DESIGN / AUSTRALIA 

123 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S W H E N C OL OR M E A N S S OM E T H I N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 123 4/6/20 10:39 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 123 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 123
 WHEN COLOR MEANS SOMETHING

Interpeting Optical Sensation It’s important to remem- tions make our eyes do similar things, or associations of
ber that color is its own thing—meaning that, even though the colors themselves with objects and materials of similar
we link it to concrete physical experiences and symbolic color, these sensations may just as easily be interpreted as
conventions, it can be meaningfully interpreted indepen- the stimuli from other senses (spicy or sweet, sharp or soft,
dent of forms or images signifying those things. Processing blaring or harmonious); or as more abstract or intangible
S
color stimuli changes neural activity and metabolic rates; ideas, like memory or romance or time. Trying to reliably bi
and the visual effects of color assimilation cause the lenses deliver such messages is challenging because color is so per- a
of our eyes to contract and expand, as though responding to sonally subjective; success often depends on the contextual ot
a change in light (which it is). Although such effects will support of form and text. Some visual thinking around the p
li
likely first remind us of experiences whose lighting condi- possibilities are shown below for consideration. th
br
PA

Students participating in a color study project

were tasked with communicating various aspects
of a chosen subject using color alone—strictly
limited to three base hues (two complements and
the analogue of one). By adjusting the attributes of
each hue to create an extensive palette, and then
combining the resulting swatches in different se-
quences and relative extensions, they were able to
achieve credible narrative experiences based solely
on the optical experience of the color fields.

Infancy
Adolescence Middle Age Death

This investigation focused on life stages.

While some of the initial choices from
among the palette options were intuitive
(infancy, for instance, with its warm,
light-value hues), others were not
(middle age required evening out relative
extensions and diminishing satura-
tion to contrast the unpredictability
of adolescence). After the palettes were
complete, this student chose to apply
them to a practical communication.
ALEXANDRA VITALE / UNITED STATES

124 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 124 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 124 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 124
 Supersaturated colors, especially in jarring com-
binations, tend to equate with artificiality; we
r- associate them with things like chemicals. On the
other hand, the unbridled energy such coloration
presents may also evoke intangible mental states,
like that of imagination or creativity—which is
the case here, used appropriately as part of the
branding for a dynamic art festival.
PARÁMETRO STUDIO / MEXICO

Most neutrals, especially those that are warm

in temperature, produce a calming sensation.
Juxtaposed in subtle gradations of value, they
suggest a kind of transition or easing, as well as
a sense of subtle infiltration or adjustment. Both
qualities are put to use in the brochure cover (far
left) and consultation counter for an aromather-
apy brand. Interestingly, the tonally graduated
bands convey different messages in each instance,
simply because of the reversal in direction. On the
cover, the increase in visual weight is relaxing; in
the interior space, it becomes uplifting.
GOÑI STUDIO / SPAIN

es.

ive
,
Similar to the project above, the cover for a
spa’s catalogue of services shown here relies on
tive
neutral hues with a limited range of value that
are further enhanced by relatively subtle shifts
in temperature. It’s generally true that most
e
people interpret combinations of colors that
exhibit lesser degrees of contrast to be soothing
or healing—especially if they’re lighter in value
and desaturated. These qualities are, of course,
supported by softly irregular dot forms and
organic textures.
MUCHO / SPAIN

125 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S W H E N C OL OR M E A N S S OM E T H I N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 125 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 125 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 125
 COLOR IN THE REAL WORLD

Calibrating Displays and Outputs At some point in the appearance between devices. Serious problems arise, how-
design process, the color choices and relationships we’ve ever, when the output is physical. Color in a layout viewed
been considering theoretically are going to live in the real on screen always appears different when printed on an inkjet
world. And there’s little more challenging about color than or laser printer for proofing (and again when commercially
getting it to do what we expect it to once ink hits paper or it’s printed). Aside from disappointing the designer, unexpected
radiating from a screen. Most design work takes place digi- color results will surprise clients (not in a good way) or
tally; we view color on a monitor. For websites and motion fail to achieve their intended effect. The first step toward
work, that’s not a huge problem because the design environ- overcoming potential nightmares is to align the studio’s
ment and the intended application are the same light-based display and output parameters—and then to test, test, test.
output. Even so, there’s likely to be some difference in color

Several print technology Th

manufacturers offer hard- ti
ware/software systems for pr
calibrating monitor color sh
relative to printer color. ad
These tend to be somewhat a
expensive; there are other m
strategies to try first. se
— ed
A computer’s system prefer- co
ences provide controls to la
calibrate its monitor for th
different output conditions, a
and to adjust the monitor’s
overall warmth or coolness
(its “gamma”). When doing
so, it’s a good idea to have
some reference: open an
image file in the background
and watch how it changes as
you test different settings,
selecting the one that
seems the truest. A printer
can be calibrated with its
own software driver, and
similar calibration profiles
sometimes exist between
computers and printers.
It’s also possible to find
free, third-party calibration
profiles online.
—
If possible, compare the
setting results with a print
of the same image. That’s
tricky: you’ll be comparing
light emission to a reflective
surface. Even out ambient
lighting conditions so the
printed image appears true
(daylight is the most evenly
colored light with which
to judge), but so that the
lighting doesn’t compromise
the screen’s brightness or
contrast. Hold the print Ultimately, color fidelity When creating swatches M
out close, away from the comes down to what’s com- for a project within page pr
screen, but so that both are ing out of one’s printer at layout or drawing software, w
in your field of vision at the any given time. Constantly physical reference is help- fo
same time. Adjust the moni- changing factors (humidity, ful—whether it’s a paint se
tor’s calibration settings and how full each color chip, an ink swatch or, better an
until the image onscreen cartridge happens to be) yet, a found, printed sample sw
looks more like the print. mean that output seen in of a color you’re trying to ed
the morning may well be achieve. Make a matrix of an
different that afternoon. variations for a particular —
When you’re getting ready swatch: copy it, change B
to do some matching, it’s its CMYK mix slightly, and th
important to set a baseline repeat. Make note of the dif- er
against which to evaluate: ferences in the CMYK mix- to
start with full toner, and ture, gang up the swatches de
print all tests at the same on a single page, and print pr
time. If you don’t have a it out to compare the varia-
printer and are using an tions to the sample.
output service, always go to
the same one (at least for a
given project’s duration).

126 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 126 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 126 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 126
 Seeing What You’re Getting Given that color in on-screen kind of standard to answer the question: Is my laser printer
communications will be reasonably consistent, the serious output going to look this way on press? For this purpose, a
t challenge is managing color in print. That usually means, process-color guide book is essential. For spot-color print-
looking at laserprinted or inkjet-printed printouts to evalu- ing, designers will have to jump through a few hoops to
d ate color that will ultimately be produced using some other make sure their in-house CMYK output matches industry-
kind of printing process. For process-color (CMYK) printing, standard ink samples, typically available from ink manufac-
differences between in-house printed proofs, professionally turers as a book of swatches. If matching color among spot-
produced high-resolution proofs, and final press results and process-color printed materials becomes necessary (for
will exhibit closer color fidelity, because all are CMYK. Still, instance, when designing different applications in a brand
it’s necessary to compare one’s own CMYK output to some system), things get trickier.

The individual separa- Designers and printers can

tions of each ink layer of a judge separations in any
process-printed image are combination to pinpoint ar-
shown here. Designers can eas of concern, but process
adjust the overall density of separations are typically
a particular separation, or viewed in the order in which
make precise adjustments to the inks are printed: yellow
selected areas using image- first, then magenta, then
editing software. The image cyan, and finally, black.
comes together as each ink
layer successively overlays
the previous, what is called
a progressive separation.

In a spot-color project, one

separation exists for each ink
color to be used. This example
uses only two spot colors;
its separations are shown
at left. The composite of the
two ink separations is shown
simulated on screen (right),
together with the tool palettes
for creating overprints and
viewing the separations. Page
layout software allows design-
ers to preview the separations
individually, as well as the
effects of printing one ink on
top of the other (surprinting or
overprinting), whether at full
density or in tints.

Most printers use ink formulas they’ll also use to show clients Finding a CMYK equivalent
produced by manufacturers for approval) against the to a spot color ink also can be
whose ink systems are standard swatches. A similar strategy notoriously difficult. Although
for the industry. There are as described on the opposite software does a relatively good
several such manufacturers, page is useful for doing so: job converting spot inks to
and each produces a book of adjusting the CMYK color mix process, the only reliable way
swatches (shown above) print- of the swatch in the layout to achieve a close match is to
ed with the actual ink colors software and testing the results compare a spot ink swatch to
and numbered for reference. until the CMYK print output a process color guide (like the
— is as close to a given spot-ink one shown to the right)—which
Because the ink swatches swatch as possible. A lot of presents combinations of differ-
themselves are reliable (print- spot-ink colors are difficult ent percentages of the four
ers must mix specific formulas to match with CMYK printing process colors in a matrix.
to match them exactly), the because their pigments are so
designer must evaluate laser pure—so when showing clients
printer or inkjet proofs (which proofs, it’s always a good idea
to also show them the ink
swatch so they can compare
the difference.

127 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR I N T H E R E A L W OR L D

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 127 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 127 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 127
 COLOR IN THE REAL WORLD
VA

Color Production in Print Media After calibrating soft- possibilities) that can allow for or prevent certain kinds of
ware, display monitors, and printers (as well as different color manipulation from even being possible. Even digital
kinds of print reference for any given project), a designer printing processes vary in the way their inks interact with
must also consider the physical properties of ink and, paper and other substrates. It can be overwhelming, but it’s
further, the processes involved in different kinds of printing critically important that designers understand basic print-
techniques. Not all inks are made using the same chemicals ing mechanics to ensure quality results (in general); and,
(water-based, soy-based, oil-based, rubber-based, resin- more to the point here—that they can maximize the pros
based); some printing techniques use similar kinds of ink and minimize the cons of a particular printing process to
and others entirely different ones; and every kind of printing best achieve the most accurate and effective use of color
process one might consider presents both limitations (and for any given project.

Overlapping spot colors creates a rich color

interaction among typographic and graphic A
im
elements in this detail of a financial report. in
The two ink colors are a brown and a blue, ha
both relatively dark in value (the brown is pr
visible in the upper left-hand corner of the fi
th
image; the blue appears at the image’s far cr
right). Carefully controlling tints, reverses, co
and overprints of each results in a huge range ap
of possible contrasts. co
UNA [AMSTERDAM] DESIGNERS / NETHERLANDS

The inks used in the above. Surprinted colors

most common, com- will generally be darker
mercial printing method and less saturated than
(offset lithography) are the pure ones. Choos-
translucent: Elements ing ink colors thatare
may be printed in one deeper and more
ink color or another, saturated to begin with
at different densities, allows for a wider range
and separated from one of possible combina-
another; and they may tions and contrasts.
be “surprinted,” (on top
of each other) to create
new colors, as shown

Given that offset inks Boldly colored stocks, Speaking of paper stocks: as well as papers that are Printing matte, spot-color inks on a metallic
are transparent, consid- of course, will radically They’re all different, and not coated, or that have latex or paper stock produces the interesting effect of
ering the paper stock on change the appearance just in their look and feel, but other chemicals mixed into
which they’re printed of any ink: A blue logo, in their formation. How a pa- their fibers (what’s called the inks themselves appearing metallic. On this
becomes important— printed on yellow paper, per’s fibers are distributed, “sizing”), keep ink on their media kit folder, the desaturated blue-violet ink
because it will change will become green. That and how densely, affects surfaces for greater vibrancy, accompanies a warm silver ink whose metallic
the appearance of said, mixing papers of the paper’s absorbency; the or “holdout.” The latter will
those inks’ color. Even a different colors for the looser the formation (top), also hold sharper detail.
content sits on the paper’s surface for an even
light-colored stock (one very purpose of altering the more ink will be absorbed more dimensional effect.
that is cream-colored, a single ink color is an from the surface—and the PETTIS DESIGN / UNITED STATES
or a cool, light gray) exciting possibility. duller the result. Tightly
will perceptibly alter formed papers (bottom),
a color’s temperature.

128 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 128 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 128 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 128
 VARIETIES OF IMAGE TONING

olor
aphic Also called a monotone, an When an image is printed By using image-manipula- Similar to duotoning or tritoning in spot-color
image printed using a single using two ink colors, the tion software, the amount printing, an image might be colorized or toned
port. ink color is called a color result is a duotone. The of a given ink color applied overall in four-color process, or CMYK, print-
lue, halftone. The top image is image at the top is printed to specific tonal ranges in an ing—called quadtoning. Because the image is
n is printed directly on a white using two similar color inks image can be adjusted. In being produced using the four process colors
the field; in the bottom image, to enhance its overall tonal this example, the two colors (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black), the possible
the color halftone is shown range; in the lower example, used in the duotone are color variation within a single image is endless, as
far crossing over a supporting the image is printed using distributed differently. In indicated in this example. Different images within
rses, color, which changes the two ink colors that are very the top image, color one has the same project, of course, can be quadtoned in
e range appearance of the halftone’s different. Similar to a duo- been pushed toward the different ways.
color. tone, a tritone (no example shadow range; in the bottom
shown) results from printing image, color one has been
NDS an image using three differ- pushed toward the highlight
ent ink colors. range.

The two projects at far left take ad-

vantage of opaque inks used in their
printing processes by printing light
colors onto dark-colored paper stocks.
The envelopes (top) screenprint white
ink onto a green stock; the invitation
uses engraving to print a copper ink
on a deep blue-black stock.
—
Surprinting a field of red ink on top
of found, make-ready sheets means
budget-conscious production with
interesting visual effects in the poster
(near left), produced using offset
lithography. The ink’s transparency
allows a haze of the surprinted image
to show through. The result is that
positive and negative space become
more ambiguous. The red bar becomes
flat against the photographs, but
the reversed-out type seems to come
forward in space, as does its positive
repetition, below.
BR/BAUEN / BRAZIL 
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
BRETT YASKO / UNITED STATES 

129 CO LO R FUN D A MEN TA L S C OL OR I N T H E R E A L W OR L D

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 129 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 129 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 129
 COLOR IN THE REAL WORLD

Considering Fabrication Materials Physical materials copper, and brass may be used for fabricating kiosks, signs,
contibute visual and tactile interest to a form language and trade show displays; these, along with glass, wood,
throught their surface qualities (see chapter 1, page 44); and stone, concrete, textiles, and plastics all carry intrinsic col-
they offer a similarly exciting potential in terms of color. ors in their unadulterated forms that can readily integrate
There’s no requirement for a designer to choose a white as part of a planned palette. On the other hand, materials
paper for print projects—papers are available in all hues, tell stories and carry associations; if they’re used for fabri-
and there are even options preprinted with different colors cating a box or sign because their meaning is conceptually
on each side of the sheet. There are metallic papers as well, relevant, their intrinsic color can become the basis of a
and actual metal sheets that may be printed on or used to palette. In any case, a designer simply has to consider each
fabricate packaging. Industrial metals like steel, aluminum, material’s color attributes as they would any others.

A tiny sampling of various

paper stocks suggests the
overwhelming number of
exciting options available
for introducing color
beyond the use of ink into
printed projects. Choos-
ing papers that already
carry significant color is
one way of minimizing
printing costs (because
fewer inks may be neces-
sary for visual interest,
or to achieve a particular
palette, because of the
material itself). On the
other hand, integrating
color with papers or other
materials is just fun.

WOOD METAL STONE

In day-to-day practice,
many designers overlook
the rich color variations in
different species of wood
or other kinds of natural The projects shown to the right showcase the
Walnut Steel Slate materials—until they potential of using found materials (whether
find themselves working paper stocks, fixtures, or accessories) with
on a three-dimensional their as-is coloration as an integral part of a
project like storefront
displays, wayfinding or project’s color concept. Choosing a naturally
architectural signage, or colored craft paper to wrap a catalogue of
interior finishes as part of flooring materials, shown at near right (and
a graphics program. Very
often, fabrication in such
further, crumpling it) conveys the product
Oak Copper Bluestone
projects will focus on less line’s concept, “Nature, refined,” in two
expensive, industrially ways: a transition from rough to smooth;
produced materials (like and a comparison of brown (natural, de-
plastic veneers) that can
be had in any color or saturated orange) to bright, elegantly shiny
pattern. When a project copper (the logo). At far right, vivid green
calls for it, however, and utensil holders, dishes, and other containers
Bamboo Aluminum Marble its budget allows, con- were selected for a restaurant’s interior in
sidering the authenticity
and associated narratives tandem with choosing its equally saturated
of more architectural brand color to enhance synergy between
materials also means printed and environmental messaging.
contemplating how their
FUMAN / NEW ZEALAND 
natural coloration will
integrate with other ele- MIRELDY / CROATIA 
ments throughout.
Ash Brass Granite

130 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 130 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 130 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 12/6/20 1:12 PM
Text Page: 130
,

Graphic designers are often called upon

to extend brand languages developed for
print and online applications into their
clients’ physical locations. These three
projects—a gym (above), a theater (left),
and a product showroom (right)—all
show the imaginative use of not only
materials, but lighting, to translate the
color of brand messages into captivating
spatial experiences.
VBAT / NETHERLANDS 
TOORMIX / SPAIN 
PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

he
er

a
lly

nd

ny

rs

C OL OR I N T H E R E A L W OR L D

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 131 4/6/20 10:40 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_084-131.indd 131 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 10:38 AM
Text Page: 131
 The typographer’s one essential task is to
interpret and communicate the text. Its tone,
its tempo, its logical structure, its physical
size, all determine the possibilities of typo-
graphic form. The typographer is to the text
as the theatrical director to the script, or
the musician to the score.

ROBERT BRINGHURST/ Typographer and poet; from his book,

The Elements of Typographic Style, Hartley & Marks Publishers

CHOOSING AND
USING TYPE

132

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 132 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 132 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 132
 IN THIS CHAPTER:

134
STRUCTURE AND OPTICS
Type is fascinating—and really complicated—simply because it’s simultane-
ously visual and verbal. Before getting deep into that complexity, best to start
with the basics: the anatomy of letters; visual distinctions between typeface
(font) structure; and basic considerations of size and spacing in text.

140
ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE
The most common question about type is “What font should I use?”—
and there’s no single answer. A font’s style may be more legible than that of
another; it may carry historical or cultural associations; and its abstract
qualities themselves may convey ideas. This section unpacks those issues.

150
THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING
So, you’ve got some text and picked a font. Now what? Making text easy to
read (and beautiful!) requires obsessive attention to details that you’ll discover
here: different options for aligning text lines; how long they should be and how
much space between them; and the intracacies of paragraphs and punctuation.

164
TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO
It’s super important to keep in mind that type is an abstract visual language,
not just a verbal one. The relative scale, mass, density, proportion, and shaping
of text, as this section shows, must be considered in the same way that one
does images—to transform writing into a dynamic expression of meaning.

174
TYPE AS INFORMATION
Ultimately, the visual qualities of type—alone, or in tandem with accompa-
nying images—contribute to a viewer’s ability to navigate a text: What kinds
of information am I looking at? What is most important? How do I get from
there to the next part? This section explores the complexities of hierarchy.

133 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S C H OOS I N G A N D U S I N G T Y P E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 133 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 133 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 133
 STRUCTURE AND OPTICS

The Nuts and Bolts The letters of the Western (or Roman) are the other part. Over the past 2,000 years, the compo-
alphabet are built from a system of vertical, horizontal, nents of the characters (including those of the numerals,
diagonal, and curved lines called strokes. They’re all similar or numbers) have acquired standard names. These terms
enough in their shapes, proportions, and the ways they’re for the anatomy of character parts are general; they apply
combined into letters to create a recognizable, consistent, to instances in every character that incorporates them
visual logic (which is crucial for undistracted reading)— into its structure. We identify each character—an A versus
but just different enough so that every letter, or character, a B or C—by the specific parts that form its anatomical
is easily distinguishable from the others. The strokes are structure, its basic character “skeleton,” or archetype. And
only one part of a character’s form: the negative spaces, or we can do that, even when the individual style of a letter
counters, between and around the strokes of each character or alphabet changes, because the archetypes are so simple.

C
STEM or SHOULDER BEAK THICK STROKE APEX STEM or SHOULDER LOBE (UPPER STOREY)
MAIN STROKE or THICK MAIN STROKE
COUNTER COUNTER
Ascent Line
Cap Line
COUNTER JOINT
ARM COUNTER
CAP HEIGHT

Mean Line WAIST

Baseline
SPUR AXIS COUNTER LOBE (LOWER STOREY)

Descent Line
CROSS BAR BOWL VERTEX THIN STROKE BOWL CROSS BAR LEG SPINE
or THIN
TERMINAL SERIF

Ascent Line
TITTLE ASCENDER TERMINAL
BRANCH E
a
Cap Line CROTCH
SHEAR fo
ARM EYE ARC or ARM EYE EAR
u
m
Mean Line COUNTER ca
X-HEIGHT

ARM ARM a
APERTURE
to
T
Baseline LINK a
JOINT
TAIL LEG BOWL SPUR RETURN
in
Descent Line
LOOP DESCENDER

FONT FAMILY CUT

Most typefaces (fonts) Type designers will often or regular, weight at the
are designed in different refer to what they call the same point size. Even a Adobe Garamond Pro
variations to provide Regular or Roman Italic “cut” of a font or face: a quick comparison reveals
options for styling text specific interpretation of significant differences
to suit various purposes. a font style as created by among these three cuts:
These variations are one designer or another. heavier or lighter weight; ITC Garamond
called a “family,” and The three fonts at right larger or smaller lowercase;
most families consist are all based on the style and relative sharpness or
of four basic variations. Bold Bold Italic known as Garamond, and softness in the shape of the
all are set in the Roman, terminals, among others. Stempel Garamond

Being conscious of letters’ individual parts,

and how they relate to each other, allows
for striking combinations of form, as seen
in these two logos.
SELFTITLED / AUSTRALIA 
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE 

134 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 134 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 134 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 134
 Visual Variations The characters in all typefaces vary from some typefaces feel “modern,” “revolutionary,” or “French.”
their archetypes in only six aspects: case, weight, contrast, More important, every typeface exhibits its own rhythm, or
width, posture, and style. Type designers alter and combine cadence, and a distinct physical presence that may connote
the variables in these six aspects to create individual type feelings—quick, aggressive, elegant, cheap, or reliable. Not
styles that, although appearing remarkably different, all all viewers will perceive the same associations in a given
convey the same information about the letterforms in the typeface; designers must carefully evaluate their typeface
alphabet. Different type design approaches have become choices in the context of both subject and audience. Further,
popular (then unpopular) over time; as a result, particular a typeface’s drawing affects its functionality, making some
type styles are often associated with specific historical more legible at certain sizes, or better suited to certain uses
periods, cultural movements, and geographic locations— than others might be.

CASE WEIGHT CONTRAST WIDTH POSTURE STYLE

REY)

TER LIGHT REGULAR UNIFORM CONTRAST CONDENSED ROMAN ITALIC 1 / SERIF AND SANS SERIF

ROMAN
PROPORTION

BOLD BLACK CONTRAST EXTREME MEDIUM ROMAN ITALIC 2 / PERIOD CLASSIFICATION

CONTRAST

MODERN
PROPORTION
E

REGULAR BOLD MODULATION EXTENDED REVERSE OBLIQUE 3 / RELATIVE NEUTRALITY

Every letter in the Western The overall thickness of The strokes within the letters Letter-widths were originally Roman letters are those This term is used to describe
alphabet occurs in a large the strokes, relative to the of a typeface may be uniform based on the proportions of whose vertical axis is 90° to (1) the two major classes of
form (the capitals, or the height of the uppercase, in weight or may vary signifi- a square. Contemporary width the baseline; they stand type—serif (having little feet
uppercase) and a smaller, might change. Light, cantly; the more they do so, proportion is slightly more upright. Italic letters, devel- at the ends of the strokes)
more casual form (lower- regular, bold, and black the more contrast the face condensed overall, and letters oped by humanist scholars and sans serif (having no such
case. The uppercase requires weights (increasing in stroke is said to exhibit. Contrast in a given font are designed during the Renaissance, feet); (2) the historical period
added space between letters thickness) for a single type within a stroke (such as flaring to be visually equivalent in slant 12° to 15° to the right, in which the typeface was
to permit easier reading. style define a type family. from thin to thick) is called width—generally, about 80% mimicking the slant drawn; and (3) the relative
The lowercase is more varied Variation in weight helps to modulation; the rate at which of their height. A font's width of handwriting. neutrality or decorative quality
and more quickly recognized add visual contrast as well this occurs is referred to as may be narrower (condensed) of a typeface. Typefaces that
in text. as to distinguish between the typeface’s ductus. or wider (extended) compared are neutral are closest to the
informational components to this medium width. basic structure, while those
within a hierarchy. with exaggerated character-
istics are said to be stylized,
idiosyncratic, or decorative.

The designer of this book uses letterform vari-

ation to achieve extraordinary contrast—a
difference in weight (light and extra bold)
and a difference in style (serif and sans serif ).
ASTRID STAVRO STUDIO / SPAIN

135 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E S T R U C T U R E A N D OP T I C S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 135 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 135 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 135
 STRUCTURE AND OPTICS

What Size Should I Use? This question is probably the for reading extensive, long-form text, as one finds in a book,
most common among designers; as basic a question as it is, magazine, or website. Historically (yet again), type sizes
there’s no formula. Type size is measured in points, a hold- between 9 and 14 points are considered “text sizes,”—and
over from when type was set in metal for letterpress printing. even though that range is useful as a start, a lot of impor-
Equally anachronistic, current design software programs tant variables come into play: the style of the type; how
offer historical point-size options because metal type sets much information is involved; how many kinds of infor-
were cast in specific, standard sizes. Designers can set type mation are present; the purpose of the text; the size of the
at any point size they like: 9.35 points or 87 points, and so given format; the predominant age of the audience; how
on; sticking to the standard options isn’t necessary. Most much contrast between text and background; the color of
often, the question about type size concerns what’s best type and background; and the delivery medium.

Note the disparity in

size between sans-serif
examples (left column)
and serif examples
(right column) of the
same point size.

72

The same word is set here two does the serif text. Always Garamond, for example, will
different faces, but both at evaluate the size of a text, set be difficult to read when set at
45 points in size. Because the in the font you’ve decided to 9 points, while the sans serif
sans-serif lowercase letters are use, to determine whether it’s Helvetica will seem gigantic.
60 larger in proportion to the caps legible—rather than assuming
(having a larger x-height), that a 9-point “text size” will
that text appears larger than be legible. The oldstyle face

SANS-SERIF FONT SAMPLES SERIF FONT SAMPLES

48
HELVETICA STAG BOOK

UNIVERS 55 BASKERVILLE

36
GOTHAM BOOK CENTURY
SCHOOLBOOK

AVENIR NEXT 55 MINION PRO

30

GILL SANS MERCURY

REGULAR TEXT G2

24 DISPLAY
VERDANA ARCHER
SIZES MEDIUM

18 AUTO 1 VERDIGRIS
REGULAR OLDSTYLE

14 HURME BAUER BODONI

GEOMETRIC SANS

12 APPLE SD GOTHIC DOLLY ROMAN

NEO REGULAR
TEXT SIZES
10 Th
SCALA SANS FF SCALA fa
w
9 di
ty
7 CAPTION Still, having a model for sizing you’d like to use, compare it to above are comparisons of on
SIZES against which to compare is a sample set in a transitional Times Roman (to the left in an
6 pretty helpful. Many publica- serif, like Times Roman, and each pair) set at a size of ba
tions with extensive text (like adjust its size until its x-height 9 points, with a selection of a
magazine or newspapers) use a matches that of the Times’ various other, popular fonts, sm
transitional serif set at 9 points lowercase. You’re pretty much also set 9 points in size. re
in size—and it seems like most guaranteed that your text will fi
people find that comfortable. be legible in the font you’ve
Why fight it? Whatever font chosen. For reference, shown

136 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 136 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 136 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 136
 In a spatial environment, like the exhibition
at left, the size of the space and the relative
distance between viewers and the type both
play a role. But, given how large the space is,
as well as how viewers can approach surfaces,
greater leeway for size contrasts is possible.
The two projects below present an intimate
reading scale, so the text sizes used can be
much smaller. Still, the text sizes in each are
a little larger than is typical. The brochure
spread, just below, uses a size of roughly 11
points to help the text activate space. The
website, at bottom, also uses larger point sizes
than might be typical for print media, simply
to account for the screen’s lower resolution.
L2M3 / GERMANY 
C+G PARTNERS / UNITED STATES 
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES 

Type changes when

printed positive or
reversed from color.

Use a face with uniform

stroke weights for knock-
outs when possible.

Especially if it’s small! You might also

want to beef up the weights of small,
knockout elements.

Type changes when

printed positive or
reversed from color.

Use a face with uniform

stroke weights for knock-
outs when possible.

Especially if it’s small! You might also

want to beef up the weights of small,
knockout elements.

The strength of a type- small x-heights, extreme

face’s stroke weights contrast, or extremely
will present optical size thin strokes overall usu-
disparities between ally need to be enlarged
type printed positive, slightly to ensure their
on a light background, strokes are robust enough
and in reverse, on a dark to hold up against ink
background. Generally, gain that might affect
a typeface will appear their legibility.
smaller and denser if
reversed from a solid
field. Typefaces with

137 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E S T R U C T U R E A N D OP T I C S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 137 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 137 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 137
 STRUCTURE AND OPTICS

Spacing: Loose and Tight One important goal when set- like titles, even spacing helps hold the letters together as a
ting text is to create the appearance of a regular texture: unit (sometimes, it prevents readers from separating smaller
a consistent, rhythmic alternation of strokes and counters words embedded in larger ones). Spacing type evenly is
repeating at the same rate, from beginning to end. The challenging because letters are of different densities (over-
primary purpose is to prevent distracting readers with all darker or lighter), are made of very different shapes, and
dark spots (where strokes are closer) or gaps (where they’re the directional thrusts of their strokes are highly varied.
further apart) that will interrupt their reading. Even spacing Digital typefaces are programmed to add or subtract space
between letters, or kerning, and overall among words and from between different kerning pairs of letters to provide for In
phrases, or tracking, creates a uniform gray value out of a most circumstances of letterform combination, but not all. ti
field of extensive text; in shorter-length, larger elements Invariably, a designer will need to do some correcting. ca
h
ex
PA

Mathematical spacing
Default spacing
A

Optically normal spacing

Corrected spacing
B

Uppercase letters are more uniform in width

and shape than lowercase letters, as well as
optically more dense; to enhance their look and
Overly tight spacing legibility, all-uppercase setting must always be
spaced a little more loosely than normal.

Overly loose spacing C A

C

Optical spacing for the Univers closer together between letters Tightening or loosening the A
regular weight is shown, compared than within them. Compare the spacing between these pairs of of
to mathematically spaced or normal spacing of these faces to B letters corrects for the awkward ca
overly tight or loose spacing. The those of the bold condensed style counterspaces inherent in their ul
optimally spaced lines (second of Univers (A), the italic serif (B), forms. Shifting the lowercase y to so
line) show a consistent rhythmic and the high-contrast modern serif the right, under the right crossbar of
alternation between dark (the (C); note how the internal logic of of the T, for example, allows the co
strokes) and light (the counter- the stroke-to-counter relationship spacing between them to become pr
forms), both within characters in each provides the clues to their optically similar to that of subse- of
and between them. Dark spots are optimal spacing. C quent letters. to
evident in the examples spaced ba
too tightly, where the strokes are In
do
Spacing between words is also an important consid- fo
eration. Too little space (A), and readers will have
difficulty separating the words for easy comprehension.
Too much, on the other hand (B), will create distracting
gaps that destroy the evenness of stroke/counter alter-
nation; and the wordspaces may visually connect from
line to line, disrupting the horizontal sequencing. The
rule of thumb is that the spaces between words should
appear as though one set a lowercase i in between
them and then removed it (C).

138 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 138 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 138 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 138
r

In this logotype, loose letterspacing makes a more dis-

tinct rhythm, improves the legibility of the all-upper-
case setting, and obviates spacing problems that might
have occurred among certain letter combinations (for
example, X and P) if they had been spaced normally.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

Default spacing

The rhythmic relationship between strokes and counters

in letters are consciously overlooked in text, they are
called out in bold relief when type becomes very large,
as seen in this dynamic poster.
2X GOLDSTEIN / GERMANY

14 points / Default spacing

6 points / Default spacing

Corrected spacing 6 points / Adjusted spacing

Always evaluate the spacing needs doesn’t make more of itself than it
of a type component on a case-by- needs to, the remainder of the line
case basis. Some letters in a partic- was spaced more loosely (still in
ular word are going to cause unre- the “normal” range) to minimize
solvable problems, either because the effect of the L counter.
of their dramatic asymmetry, deep
counters, or overall density. When
presented with a word (or phrase
of reasonable length), take time
to correct the spacing throughout
based on this worst-case scenario. The same words, set first at 14 Printing exacerbates the inkjet printer creates some
In this word, nothing really can be points in size and again at issue of space between bloating in the type but
done about the enormous counter 6 points (top). Uncorrected, letters, especially at smaller not nearly as much as will
following the L. To make sure it the spacing in the smaller type sizes. Ink bleeds when it hits happen on press.
is inadequate for good charac- paper; as a result, the space A designer’s prior printing
ter recognition. Adding space between and within letters experience will help him
between letters in the bottom is made smaller. Trying to or her judge these spacing
line greatly improves their judge proper spacing on issues.
legibility and their look. a monitor, with its coarse
resolution, is nearly impos-
sible; a laser printer or an

139 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E S T R U C T U R E A N D OP T I C S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 139 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 139 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 139
 ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE

Classification Classifying type styles helps designers grasp The typeface Meta, for example, drawn in 1994, shares
the subtle differences among them so they can more easily characteristics associated with oldstyle serif types of the
select appropriate typefaces for a particular project. A given 17th century: contrast in the stroke weights, modulation of
font’s abstract drawing qualities (as embodied by its style weight within major strokes, an oblique axis, and a bowl-
classification), as well as its historical or cultural context, formed lowercase g. Various systems for classifying type
plays a significant role in the readability of a text as much as have appeared during the past couple of centuries. Today,
it contributes relevant narrative and tone to a typographic as then, these classifications often change—but a few basic
design. Classifying type styles is by no means easy, however, categories remain constant. It’s important for a designer to
because every generation of type designers incorporates be familiar with style classifications to make informed deci-
historical stylistic ideas into the styles of their own times. sions—plus, it’s fun and geeky, and good for trivia contests.

OLDSTYLE TRANSITIONAL MODERN SANS SERIF SLAB SERIF GRAPHIC

SERIF SERIF (NEOCLASSICAL)
SERIF

T
f
im
t
M

Characterized by organic These types show an evolu- Stroke contrast is ex- These typefaces are an Another outgrowth of dis- These typefaces are the
contrast of weight in the tion in structure. Stroke treme—the thin strokes are outgrowth of “display play types, slab serif faces experimental, decorative
strokes—from brush or contrast is greatly increased reduced to hairlines, and the types” of the 19th century, hybridize the bold presenta- children of the display
pen drawing; an angled, or and more rationally applied: thick strokes made bolder. designed to be bold and tion of a sans serif and the types. Their visual qualities
oblique, axis in the curved its rhythm is greatly pro- The axis of the curved forms stripped of nonessential horizontal stress of a serif are expressive but not con-
forms; and a notably small nounced. The x-height of is completely upright, and details. They are defined by face, characterized by an ducive to reading in a long
x-height defining the lower- the lowercase is larger; the brackets connecting a lack of serifs; the terminals overall consistency in stroke text. This category includes
case letters. The terminals the axis is more upright; the serifs to the stems have end sharply without adorn- weight. The serifs are the specimens such as script
are pear shaped and the and the serifs are sharper been removed, creating a ment. Their stroke weight same weight as the stems, faces, fancy and complex
apertures in the lowercase and more defined, their stark and elegant juncture. is uniform, and their axis hence, “slabs;” the body of faces inspired by handwrit-
letters are small. brackets curving quickly The serifs in a number of is completely upright. the slab serif is often wider ing, and idiosyncratic
into the stems. the lowercase characters Sans-serif types set tighter than what is considered faces that are illustrative
have become completely in text and are legible at normal. or conceptual.
rounded, reflecting the logic small sizes; during the
of contrast and circularity. past fifty years, they have
become acceptable for
extended reading.

Bembo Baskerville Bodoni Avenir Archer Baby Teeth

Cochin Caslon Dala Floda Bank Gothic Clarendon Barnum
Fournier Century Schoolbook Didot Franklin Gothic Glypha Linoscript
Galliard Mercury Walbaum Futura Museo Stencil
Garamond Sentinel Gotham Quadra Umbra
Requiem Times Roman Helvetica Vitesse
Sabon Meta
Verdigris Univers

140 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 140 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 140 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 140
 In the flyer just to the right, stylistic
differences in a selection of typefaces
give voice to the varied writing styles of
Irish authors in this festival program.
A combination of Victorian wood
types emphasizes the visual contrasts
of weight, width, mass, and line in
the book cover at far right, as well as
conveys relevant time and context.
AAD / IRELAND 

- LOUISE FILI LTD. / UNITED STATES 

The designer of this book uses a bold sans serif

face for dramatic contrast against the textural
image, but also a modern serif whose thicks and
thins echo the image’s textural qualities.
MUCHO / MEXICO

All of the typefaces in this poster are contem-

porary designs, even the serifs. The mix of styles
adds dynamic contrast, but because the serif is
recognizably nonhistorical, there’s no distraction
from the overall modern feeling of the layout.
TOORMIX / SPAIN

141 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E I S S U E S R E L AT E D T O S T Y L E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 141 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 141 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 141
 ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE
E
ex
Style Is in the Details The visual, functional, and aesthetic that strokes join within a given individual character can d
qualities of every typeface (making it one style or another) also vary tremendously, face to face, as well as among the p
involve intricate contruction relationships and details that characters’ joints within the same typeface. Things get yet
Co
are nearly invisible when type is set at small text sizes. Blow more complicated among the curves, whose radii may vary
M
up the characters of a few type styles to compare them— between being exceptionally circular and tightly pinched; G
even ones from the same stylistic category—and their tiny and further, the rotational axes of circular forms, like shoul- M
differences become shockingly pronounced. The shapes of ders and bowls, is individual to every style. Looking at and Co
strokes, and even of their terminals, change from face to appreciating these details helps think about how to choose H

face. Especially in older typefaces, these differences express and combine faces to achieve both stylistic unity and con- M
JE
evidence of the tool used to draw them. Similarly, the way trast—if you know what you’re looking for.
Co
D
PH
M

STRUCTURAL PROPORTIONS The body widths of alphabetic their legibility. At the same time, a J
characters—how tall they are larger x-height means the lower-
compared to their height—vary case is expanding to decrease the
from typeface to typeface, creat- amount of space between lines, re-
ing a specific rhythm between sulting in an appearance of greater
strokes and counters. The density and a larger point size.
counters in condensed typefaces
become similar to the weight of
the strokes as the overall letter
width decreases, creating a
rapid alternation of positive and
negative that may seem to speed
up the reading rhythm, adding
increased energy or tension.
Conversely, the counters in
extended faces tend to slow the
reading rhythm.
—
The ratio of the lowercase
letters to the uppercase letters,
or their x-height, is extremely
important to consider. The larger
the x-height is in relation to the
cap height, the more open and
inviting the counters of the low-
ercase letters will be, increasing

BOWLS / SHOULDERS / AXES APERTURES AND EYES ASCENDERS AND DESCENDERS

The lower part of such large be very different compared to The entry into the counters of The movement and extension of tend to be, creating greater den- A
circular forms as O, D, and G (the another typeface, even within the letters such as the lowercase E and these strokes above and below sity. The height and depth of these a
bowls), and the upper part of same class. The axis of the curved A, what is called the “aperture,” the body of the lowercase are strokes influence how tightly lines le
such curves, as well as the upper forms changes also, being slanted may be tight or more open. Small, important details. Some ascend- of a given typeface must be leaded, s
curves on the uppercase R, or the in older styles and completely closed-off counters, or “eyes,” ers strike the capline, while others as well as on feeling or character. fe
lowercase P and F (shoulders)— upright in more modern ones. appearing in letters such as the rise above it; descenders, too, fa
might be rounder or elliptical or lowercase E and G, also vary con- may be deep or shallow compared g
squared off. Comparing these siderably in shape and proportion. to the body of the text. The larger
forms within the same face will the x-height, the more shallow
reveal subtle variations, but these the ascenders and descenders
curves will share a logic that will

142 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 142 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 142 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 142
 Even more so than in the setting of
extended texts, the graphical details of
different type styles become especially
pronounced in logotypes.

Column 01
MOLTOBUREAU / UKRAINE
GRAPEFRUIT / ROMANIA
l- MUBIEN / SPAIN
Column 02
HELMUT SCHMID DESIGN / JAPAN
MADE IN SPACE, INC. / UNITED STATES
JELENA DROBAC / SERBIA
Column 03
DAVID AIREY / NORTHERN IRELAND
PHILIPPE APELOIG / FRANCE
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN

a JOINTS AND BRANCHES STROKE FORMATION GRAPHIC DETAILS

- Many faces are distinguished

r by decorative details whose
qualities often carry specific
associations. There’s no way
to compare these typefaces
since they vary so much, other
than to appraise the effect of
the graphic details on legibility
(stylized face are likely useful
only for larger-sized display
applications); on their ability
to visually relate to other kinds
of elements in a layout; and to
evoke visceral emotional and
conceptual responses that are
relative to the content.

TERMINALS / SERIFS / SPURS

A great deal of a typeface’s char- Letters of uniform stroke - terminals. This feature, called The shapes of a typeface’s angled or perpendicular, softer or
e acter is found where the strokes of weight produce a consistent, “modulation,” is typical of terminals affect its apparent more sharply cut, and even round.
letters meet: when these joints are less energetic, rhythm across older styles. The “speed” of the sharpness and rigidity, causing Spurs (terminals that extend away
d, smooth and fluid, the typeface may a line; letters with contrasting transitions between thicks and it to seem casual or elegant, from a stroke’s expected cutoff)
feel organic, relaxed, or casual; stroke weights will seem to thins is called the face’s “duc- older or newer, or comforting are vestiges of older, brush-drawn
faces with abrupt joints may seem pulse or move across the line tus.” Pronounced modulation, or more austere. Terminals styles—but also are found in sans
geometric or formal. with greater energy. Some faces and quicker ductus, also impart might end perpendicular to the serif faces. The lowercase A is
show contrast within a single a more vigorous feeling; less angle of a stroke or might be often the site of a spur, as is the
stroke—usually a flaring in modulation, and more passive angled against it. Serifs vary lowercase G and B.
thickness from the midpoint ductus, result in the opposite. in shape as well; they might be
of the stem outward to the

143 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E I S S U E S R E L AT E D T O S T Y L E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 143 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 143 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 143
 ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE

The Right Face for the Right Function Whatever other signers often refer to as “workhorses” for their reliably
goals a designer may have when deciding on the typeface(s) utilitarian, time-tested quality of construction. In addition
to use for text elements, his or her first consideration must to basic ease of character recognition, designers also must
be its legibility. Of the 500,000 fonts available, a relative few consider: the type’s purpose (extensive reading or short
are considered useful for continuous text—500, perhaps. bursts?); where the type is doing its job (up close, in a book,
Of those, even fewer are thought of as well constructed and or on road signs, from varied distances and under extremely
aesthetically pleasing. The subjective nature of “pleasing” different lighting conditions?); and how many different
means that there can be some allowance for individual taste jobs the type must do in a given space (how flexible does the
but, typically, one must repress stylistic biases in favor of typeface have to be?).
functionality. There are a small number of typefaces that de-

All of the details within a

typeface, working together,
render it as useful (or not)
for extended reading. The
overly stylized nature of
the typefaces applied to the
text specimens at top pre-
vent serious consideration
of them for anything but
headlines or, perhaps, short
callouts. Still, startling dis-
tinctions in tone and energy
accompany typefaces that
initially appear far more
neutral and are, therefore,
functional for extended
reading: compare the dra-
matic differences each time
in the feeling of the same
text, set in comparatively
neutral, “workhorse” faces.

In
th
d
ou
ch
d
T
co
le
fo
A custom, sans-serif face of exaggerated su
angularity is appropriate for the titling in su
this poster that promotes a performance of st
a Soviet-era symphony, riffing as it does on fr
Cyrillic type forms—but it’s far from ideal a
for detailed information at a small size. to
For secondary information, the designer TI
deploys more neutral forms (shown larger
in the detail at right); clearly legible, these
font styles create specific relationships of
contrast with the title’s features.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES

144 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 144 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 144 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 144
 The designers of this website made a
wise decision when choosing to style
the navigation links, at top, in a sans
serif. Compared to print, digital dis-
plays are low resolution, and are able
, to support only a certain amount
y of detail. The serif used for the head-
line is fine for a larger-sized setting;
but to achieve the kind of size contrast
e
between content text and navigation
necessitated a font that would remain
visually intact when set very small—
one with a uniform stroke weight.
Setting the navigation links all
uppercase further ensures that they’ll
be easy to read at their small size.
ESIETE / MEXICO

Information has different levels

that each need to be visually
distinguished so readers can figure
out what’s what. Too many style
changes, however, can create a
distracting, disunified hodgepodge.
The book shown here has a very
complex hierarchy of informational
levels (see page 174). Each type of in-
formational component—headline,
subhead, deck, text, caption, and
subcaption—is given its own unique
style, but all the styles are selected
from related families: a sans serif
and a serif that have been designed
to work with each other.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

145 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E I S S U E S R E L AT E D T O S T Y L E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 145 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 145 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 145
 ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE

The Right Face for the Right Tone Selecting a typeface the text or think about objects or places related to the text’s
for its feeling or mood is a tricky endeavor based on a subject matter as inspiration. Cultural, historical, and
designer’s gut reaction to the rhythm or shapes inherent scientific subjects, for instance, may point the way toward
in a particular style. Every typeface, whether neutral or typeface options that capture similarities in relevant artistic
stylized, will feel either fast or slow, heavy or light, sharp or architectural expression, diagramming, notation, and
or soft; these qualities, too, are attributed to the interplay so on. Many typefaces also conjure associations with pop-
of counterspaces, stroke weights and contrasts, joints, and culture motifs because of their common use in advertising.
so on. The drawn details of a typeface may evoke physical Being conscious of all these conceptual and stylistic pos-
or natural experiences. When thinking about choosing an sibilities will help narrow the choices and result in the most
appropriate typeface, look at the images that accompany appropriate decision.

Three different words,

each loaded with different
potential meanings, are set
in a selection of typefaces—
the same faces every time.
It’s interesting to note how
each typeface affects the
perception of a given word,
calling attention to a par-
ticular meaning or sense…
and how the same typeface
affects each of the other
words, as well.

Magnificent

Display faces often are dra-

matically styled; they attract
attention and convey ideas about
context and feelings precisely
because they’re not neutral. The
design of the book cover, above,
integrates a decorative uppercase
Dastardly serif whose proportions and
serif details are characteristic of
faces designed during the period
in question, and which suggest
Cyrillic letters. In the poster at
left, a mash-up of exaggerated
font styles conveys a fun, casual
atmosphere; the letters’ varied
proportions and details helps
them integrate with the image
elements, which share a similar
visual langauge.
JANET HANSEN / UNITED STATES 
HUNGRY STUDIO / SLOVAKIA 

Alone

146 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 146 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 146 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 146
 c

The publications above and below (a financial report and

a history of the auto maker Mercedes-Benz, respectively)
strike an elegant, authoratative tone through restrained
use of well-crafted text faces. The financial report’s serif is
evenly proportioned, exhibits even textural value, and sug-
gests careful, factual analysis. The history book’s sans serif,
similarly even in texture, recalls similar fonts debuted at
the time the company formed; its industrial quality is both
scholarly and metaphorical.
UNA (AMSTERDAM) DESIGNERS / NETHERLANDS 
L2M3 / GERMANY 

ut

ase

f
d

A combination of relatively stylized text

faces in this sample magazine page retains
al editorial seriousness and permits detailed
differentiation of hierarchic components,
but carries the right amount of edginess to
be appropriate for its subject matter.
r FINEST MAGMA / GERMANY

147 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E I S S U E S R E L AT E D T O S T Y L E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 147 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 147 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 147
 ISSUES RELATED TO STYLE

Combining Type Styles The conventional wisdom is to faces to communicate appropriately, so be it—but choose
employ no more than two type families for a given job. This wisely. The only reasons to add a typeface are to clarify the
rule aims to promote clear hierarchy: the greater the variety distinctions in a hierarchy or to gain an effect of contrast,
of typefaces, it is reasoned, the more difficult it will be for and so the contrast achieved by the combination should
readers to categorize and remember the meanings of differ- be relevant and clearly recognizable. But somewhere in the
ent treatments among informational components. This rule, mix, a formal relationship must exist between the contrast-
however, is also about aesthetic unity in the visual language. ing fonts to enrich their visual dialogue. Robust contrast
Context, of course, plays an important role in deciding in one characteristic that’s counterbalanced by equally
whether or not to stick to such a limitation. If a project’s appreciable similarities in other characteristics creates a
complexity or expressiveness requires seven or eight type- sophisticated tension.

Within a single family, varia- Combining two typefaces

tions on weight, width, and of the same style classifi-
posture lend an extraor- cation typically results in
dinary range of textural stylistic confusion. The
and rhythmic changes that two transitional serifs seen
might have an effect on here, for example, aren’t
communication. Note how different enough to be
the word “dynamic”—set appreciated as different.
in members of the Univers
family—changes in pres-
ence, cadence, and spatial
location (foreground or Replacing one of the tran-
background) as width, sitional serifs above with a
weight, and posture are slab serif delivers recogniz-
changed in each. able contrast; another slab
serif with more uniform
stroke weight, but dot-
like serifs, creates a differ-
ent, more subtle contrast.

The geometric slab serif

above is paired, this time,
Sometimes, the reason for with a modern or Neoclas-
mixing faces is functional: sical serif for an extreme
The bold weight of this text contrast.
face isn’t much different
from the regular weight; a
bold face from an alternate,
yet similar, family can e sub-
stituted. Note the similarity
of the spurs, terminals, and This combination of two
other details between the sans serifs—the stylistic
two faces. differences of which are
even more subtle than those
of serifs—is almost point-
less: it seems as though the
In choosing to mix type- designer couldn’t decide on
faces, select counterparts one, or couldn’t tell the dif-
with enough contrast, but ference between them.
be aware of their similarities
as well. In this example, the
serif and the sans serif are The roundness and heavi-
radically different in stroke ness of the geometric sans
contrast and detail, but their serif, paired here with a
construction is similar— more graceful, condensed
take note of the slight sans serif, establishes a
angularity of the curves; stark dot-to-line contrast as
the oblique emphasis in the well as one of weight. Ad-
O’s; the joint angle in the justing the sizes of each face
lowercase a; the abrupt joint to more closely match each
in the lowercase b. other’s weights maintains
this formal relationship (and
its contrast) while creating a
more quiet impression.

148 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 148 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 148 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 148
 RUNNING TEXT

PULL-QUOTE
-

CALLOUT

CAPTION [TITLE AND TEXT]

TITLING

The designer of this book selected one typeface style (whether a

singular font or a family) for each kind of information—running
text, image captions, callouts, and titling. Each face shares some
attribute of proportion or detail while contrasting others.
VERA GORBUNOVA / UNITED STATES

e
n

d
a
All of the typefaces combined in this logo share pro- A popular—and decisive—approach to combining type styles is to
nounced contrast in stroke weight, which helps unify choose a sans serif and a serif. In the book design above, a bold sans
them given their radically different stylistic traits and serif for headings is supported by a lighter weight of the same sans,
proportions. Each element has been scaled, relative to and text is set in a serif with which it shares some structural qualities.
the others, to standardize the weights of the thin and ASTRID STAVRO STUDIO / SPAIN
thick strokes among the varied forms.
C. HARVEY GRAPHIC DESIGN / UNITED STATES

149 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E I S S U E S R E L AT E D T O S T Y L E

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 149 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 149 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 149
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING
T
Legibility and Readability Setting “good type” is an art It probably won’t be surprising to discover that (like all the
and a craft that addresses concrete, optical considerations rest of typography) that crafting an agreeable—and more Te
by
(how we see) and almost unquantifiable, intangible quali- so, beautiful—reading experience through textsetting
ties related to habit and convention (what’s comfortable to requires intensive attention to detail: the number of charac-
read). The term legibility concerns the first part: the aspects ters in a line of text; the spaces between lines; the distribu-
of typesetting that allow us to easily recognize characters tion of phrases from line to line; the shapes that lines of text
and distinguish them from a backgound. In contrast, has make; and even the smallest details of punctuation within.
to do with the ease with which we’re able to focus on the Appreciated all together, readers experience reading as an
act of reading, how we make sense of the bits and parts of engaging, fluidly seamless, stimulating experience, the
language, maintain a sense of order, and so on. result of the designer’s relentless tooling of a text.

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50 In
of
re
fo
ra
in
50 br

50

A comparison of character count for a selection Comfortable interline space, or leading, varies
of typefaces, at varying sizes, is shown set on the according to several characteristics in typeface style
same paragraph width. As with all typographic and size; but generally, the interline space should
rules, there is a range to what is comfortable for the seem a point or two larger than the height of the
average reader. Given a fifty- to eighty-character lowercase running as text. Because the x-height
comfort range, it is easy to see that a paragraph varies so much among faces, a designer will need to
must widen as the type size increases and judge the leading appropriate to the appearance of
narrow as it decreases, to maintain the optimal the lowercase, rather than try to assign a leading to
number of characters on a line. a point size by way of a specific formula.

150 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 150 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 150 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 150
 In this study of a paragraph, the variables of choose one as a standard for the publica-
The Optimal Paragraph type size, spacing, leading, and paragraph tion. The choice that the designer makes has
width are tested to arrive at a text setting implications for the page size, the number of
Text excerpted from The Elements of Typographic Style that results in the most comfortable spac- columns of text that might fit on it, and op-
by Robert Bringhurst ing, the least hyphenation, and a decisive timal sizes for other text groupings, such as
rag. During this study, it might become clear captions, callouts, introductory paragraphs,
that several options for width and leading and so on.
- are optimal, but a designer will need to

Initial Setting (top) Set solid; the activity Second Setting (bottom) Same Third Setting (top) A slight increase Final Setting (bottom) Another slight
of the ascenders and descenders, and a leading; adjusting the size to 8 points in size, and narrowing the paragraph, decrease in the paragraph width, an added
relatively large x-height, create an uncom- alleviates the density and somewhat regains legibility, optimizes the character point of leading, and decisive rebreaking of
fortably dense setting. Furthermore, the improves the rag shape; however, count (to sixty-five per line) and creates a the lines yields a paragraph with a comfort-
rag shows indecisive lengths, as well as the size is too small for the width of more active rag. The leading still seems able texture, an optimal line count, minimal
inclusions, and there are two hyphenated the paragraph to be optimal (fifty to a bit dense, and there are problems with hyphenation, and a beautiful rag. From this
breaks in sequence. seventy characters on each line). the rag and excessive hyphenation. ultimate paragraph, the typographer is ready
to consider how to structure columns and
supporting treatments for elements such as
callouts and captions.

A quick glance at the text blocks in this book cover re-

veals an enviably even texture—and this, in justified
setting (see pages 152 and 156), which is notoriously
difficult to achieve. As with the final ragged setting
above, right (see the next page), the point size of the
text has been optimized relative to the width of the
column. Because this text is set in Polish, the ideal
character count/width ratio is different, because
Polish words and grammatical rhythm are different
than those of English. Every language has its own
optimal setting characteristics.
PODPUNKT / POLAND

151 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 151 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 151 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 151
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING

Text Alignment Lines of text in a grouping, or text block sides); or, they may be arranged so that shorter and longer
(whether a single paragraph, or several, vertically stacked to lines are centered over each other, creating a symmetrical
create a column) can be arranged to line up (or not) in dif- rag on both the left and right. All text alignment strategies
ferent ways; these kinds of alignment, shown below, create establish axes that helps designers relate text blocks to each
characteristic shapes: A hard edge created where lines of other, as well as to other elements—an alignment logic that
different length begin at the same point (either on the left contributes to, and interacts with, the overall composition-
side of a block, or on the right) is called the flush; the soft al structure and rhythm in the space around them. Because
shape on the side where they don’t align is called a rag (or, each kind of alignment creates visual conditions that em-
range in the UK and Europe). Alternatively, lines may be phasize different aspects of a text block (and, sometimes,
arranged so that they’re the same length (aligning on both its internal spacing), they all affect a text’s readability.

W
FLUSH LEFT, RAGGED RIGHT FLUSH RIGHT, RAGGED LEFT CENTERED AXIS, OR CENTERED JUSTIFIED
is
fo
fl
CO

FLUSH RAG RAG FLUSH AXIS

T
in
This is the most common (and the most This alignment is never appropriate for This alignment is also inappropriate for Text is also commonly set in this alignment
contemporary) form of alignment for more than 10–15 words of text because setting more than 10–15 words of text. structure, which dates back to antiquity. sl
setting extensive volumes of text. It’s the reversal of the aligned edge to the right The problem is that its outer contour’s The word spaces in a justified paragraph, p
considered ideal because the flush of the paragraph (opposite that which is shape visually overpowers the perception however, vary because the width of the SI
edge anchors the presumed beginnings considered the starting point of reading of the internal lines’ linearity, and the eye paragraph is mathematically fixed, and the
of lines, and the longer and shorter sequence in Western languages) creates is continually distracted from following words on any given line must align on both
ines of the ragged edge create a “map” a disturbing verbal disconnect for readers the sequence of text line by line—which sides—no matter how many words or how
that helps the eye maintain reading (for readers of non-Western languages, the can become annoying after a while. long they are. This characteristic can create
sequence; the word spaces are also opposite is true). a number of challenges a designer will need
uniform, contributing to even texture. to address.

Centered-axis and flush-left alignments

are mixed to great effect in this classically
influenced page spread design. The mar-
gins of the flush-left, asymmetrical
text set on the right-hand page are sym-
metrical and optically balanced with
the material on the left.
CHK DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM

152 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 152 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 152 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 152
h

While the title element in this brochure spread

is broken into syllables and staggered back and
forth, the narrow column of text above it is set
flush right, ragged left.
COBRA / NORWAY

The classical quality of centered textsetting

in this website is an elegant counterpoint to the
ent
. sleek, modern quality of its type styles and
, product photography.
SIMPLE / AUSTRALIA
the
oth
ow
ate
eed

Both of these projects set their text flush left, ragged

right (the common convention for most text). In the
book page spread at top, individual paragraphs of
text set this way also stagger, creating internal align-
ment relationships from top to bottom; in the web
page just above, the text alignments create a series of
columns, differentiated by width and function.
MARTA GAWIN / POLAND 
STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO / SPAIN 

153 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 153 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 153 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 153
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING

Exploring the Ragged Edge Creating “good,” or desirable, because language is organic—the words are what they
rags in asymmetrical text blocks (flush left or flush right) are—and alongside its visual quality, a designer must take
is an unavoidable headache. The goal is consistency in the the sense and mechanics of the text into account. Not every
rhythm of shorter and longer line lengths from the top of word may be hyphenated (and so, broken from one line
a paragraph to the bottom: an organic, unforced “ripple” to the next) just anywhere; sometimes phrases of related
or “fringe”, without pronounced indents or bulges, makes thoughts really have to remain together on a line to not
reading more fluid by minimizing distraction—the reader seem awkward or confusing. Using hyphens to break long
never becomes aware of lines ending at their natural con- words that way is possible (and can help improve a rag’s
clusions. Overly active rags, therefore, are generally to be rhythm); but doing so too often, and in particular ways,
avoided. Ragging a text block well is painfully challenging can add yet another distracting obstacle to readability.

Example of a paragraph
showing a desirable rag
(left), and two paragraphs
whose rags are fraught
with problems: the rag is
either too deep or active;
shows sharp inclusions of
negative space and protru-
sions of long lines; a
contour with a noticeable
shape; or irregular width
overall from top to bottom.

Hyphenated word breaks a more active rag but

are a constant source of no hyphens—a toss-up
frustration for a designer. between desired goals. The
Too many hyphens in a row third shows a slightly wider
are considered undesirable, paragraph and a more even
and a slight adjustment in rag; the only hyphen ap-
text size or paragraph width pears in the second line. One
might correct the problem. hyphen every ten lines or so
The three paragraphs shown is optimal.
here are set in the same size
text, with subtle differences.
The first paragraph shows
uncorrected hyphenation
and rag. The second shows

A ragged edge is considered the difference between

appropriate for a given short and long lines—the
paragraph setting if it varies more attention is due the
within a fifth to a seventh rag of both the exterior edge
of the paragraph’s width. formed by the long lines and
A much more active rag, the interior edge formed by
however, also is visually the short lines. T
interesting; the designer sh
must, however, ensure that p
the rag throughout the
project remains consistent
te
in its activity, rather than le
changing from page to page a
or even from column to of
column. The more active the
rag—meaning, the greater

154 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 154 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 154 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 154
 Sometimes, there’s almost In most online textsetting,
nothing to be done about there’s no way to ensure
a bad rag. The rag of a list consistent rags—simply
formation, for example, is because a browser’s chang-
impossible to control (top). ing width and the user’s
Even though a list isn’t con- view settings obviate any
tinuous text, its rag is still a decisions a designer might
point of concern. One useful make about line breaks.
strategy to counteract this Wider paragraph widths
problem is to introduce aren’t usually ideal because
graphical line dividers of they mean greater than
even length between list optimal character counts,
items to optically fill out the but they also tend to exhibit
column they occupy. more even rags because they
— accommodate more variety.
In long-form text with In a web layout, setting
unusually long words, text in wider paragraphs or
sequences that disrupt aver- columns can help a lot.
age character counts, or text —
set in very narrow columns, In a device-specific layout
purposely exaggerating a (a smartphone app or strictly
rag’s activity can help hide mobile site), a designer is
unavoidable, undesirable better able to enforce line
rag shapes by making them breaks as they like because
appear more naturally a the paragraph width won’t
part of the rag’s rhythm change responsively.
(bottom).

ne
o

e
d
The page spread from a book on genetic engineering alternation of long and short line-lengths, the
shown here shows exquisitely consistent, well- relative absence of hyphenated word breaks, and
proportioned text rags—not only in the running the continuity of the columns’ overall width are
text throughout, but also in the differently styled evidence of an optimal relationship between the
lead lines that begin major paragraph sequences text’s point-size (and resulting character count)
at the top of the left-hand page and in the middle and the columns’ measure (see The Optimal Para-
of the right-hand page. The remarkably regular graph, page 151).
LUCY XÌN / UNITED STATES

155 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 155 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 155 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 155
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING

Intricacies of Justification Setting text justified creates This condition creates three problems: the first is rivers
a super clean, geometric text presentation. It introduces (chains of word spaces that join from line to line); distract-
its own wicked problems, however, in terms of readability ing changes in the visual density of lines (some appearing
and aesthetics. Well-justified text is sublimely beautiful, open and light, and others, compressed and dark); and
stark, and austere; achieving the sublime requires that all excessive hyphenation, more than one typically finds in
the text’s internal spacing is absolutely consistent, pro- ragged text. And, then, there are aesthetic issues. Justified
ducing an uninterrupted stroke/counter rhythm and gray setting is considered truly beautiful only when all of its
value. Let the pain begin: Inconsistent spacing is a given components align cleanly in every way possible, and the
with justification because it forces different numbers of unpredictability of text makes that a difficult struggle. The
words, of different lengths, to fit within a fixed width. reward, of course, is beauty: elegant, crisp, and controlled.

The specimen of justified

text at far left exhibits all
the hallmarks of exquisitely
well-justified text: lines
that are consistently spaced
and that appear the same in
overall density (none tighter
and darker, nor looser and
lighter); the word spaces are
normal (not relatively tight
or loose compared to the
letterspacing for this type
style); there are no rivers;
and the presence of hyphens
is minimal.
—
The specimen of poorly
justified text just to the left
displays wildly varied word
spaces and rivers, lines
whose density alternates
between very dark and
very light, and excessive
hyphenation. To correct
these problems, a designer
must continually adjust text
size and paragraph width,
move text from line to line,
and selectively tighten
and loosen spacing. Short
version: If you set justified
text and it looks anything Ti
like the example above, it ar
needs fixing. ju
an
Text excerpted from The Elements of Typographic Style ge
by Robert Bringhurst W
th
st
WELL-JUSTIFIED TEXT POORLY-JUSTIFIED TEXT nu
br
qu
si
or
of
on
The goal of justified setting justifies with everything w

“
is absolute, geometric else. Further, such annoying be
cleanliness—and so rigor- details as quotation marks, or
ous control of its external commas, periods, and other re
shape has historically been punctuationthat disturb the ch
considered important. The perfection of the aligned at
baselines of lines of text in edges must be spaced—and
one paragraph, or column, sometimes hanged outside

(
are typically made to align the aligned edges—to “
with others in paragraphs prevent them from creating
or columns to the left and holes that appear to “bite”
right—across a page or into the text block.
spread; the upper and lower
edges of paragraphs and
columns are made to align
with each other: everything

156 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 156 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 156 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 156
y

d
n
er

ns

The tightly justified columns of text in this

asymmetrical layout reinforce the geometry
of the page. Weight changes within the text
add contrast, and the spacing is consistent.
t BRETT YASKO / UNITED STATES

Titles and short phrases As with all texts, how one

are good candidates for breaks the individual words
justification when the goal is of a title or short phrase—
an exceptionally “clean” or and what that means for
geometric presentation. each line’s visual emphasis,
Within the proportional area based on size and space
that defines the justified THE ELEMENTS OF attributes—must account
structure, a designer will find for the text’s linguistic

T Y P O
numerous options for word characteristics by emphasiz-
breaks, and these will present ing those parts that are
questions about internal meaningfully important
sizing and spacing logic: In (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
order to meet the outer edges G R A P H I C over those that are mere
of the text block, will words grammatical connective
on each line grow in size or
weight? Or will the spaces
between their letters expand
STYLE tissue (conjunctions). In the
top example, the emphasis
is on the unimportant
or compress? Or both? The e d i t i o n 6.0 (meaningless) words in the
resulting rhythmic weight title; the opposite is true in
changes also bear consider- the lower example.
ation for the composition. BRINGHURST

W I T H A N E W P R E F A C E B Y

LORRAI N E WI L D

157 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 157 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 157 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 157
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING

The Column Discovering the optimal characteristics for reading direction, top-to-bottom and from column to
main text (as discussed on the previous page spread) leads column. Simultaneously, columns of contiguous, sequen-
to the next step: determining how many paragraphs can tial text must be situated somewhat close together so that
be stacked on top of each other within the height of a given readers’ eyes will move effortlessly from one to the next.
format space to create a column—the primary structure for To some degree, a designer must consider the number of
extensive text—and how many columns might fit side-by- columns that can be presented on a page in relation to how
side on a page, based on the optimal width. As with so much much text can fit there. That condition has implications
in typography, space is a critical factor. Columns of text for meeting a printed publication’s specified page count;
need ample room around them, or margins, to help focus as well as how much room remains available for other kinds
attention on their content and establish a clear, intuitive of typographic information and imagery.

In

Le
These three projects all show different kinds of column activity
( justified to margins, at top; rising and falling, just above; and
hanging from a specified guide, at right). At the same time,
they all designate different column widths for different kinds
of information as part of their textsetting structures.
CHENG DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
ANDREAS ORTAG / AUSTRIA 
TOORMIX / SPAIN 

Fu

158 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 158 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 158 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 158
 Separating Paragraphs The conception of a paragraph in justified setting. Its depth is subjective but must be
as an informational nugget emerged in the 1600s. Initially, noticeable: deeper if column is wider, or if the leading is
a paragraph change was indicated by a larger space after a loose (which both require a bigger “cut” to be appreciated.
period following its concluding sentence; a later innovation A designer may exaggerate the indent for style, or to help
introduced graphic marks, like bullets, as paragraph sepa- break up a “wall” of dense text by introducing a rhythm of
rators—but the paragraphs still ran together. Later still, cuts into the column. Indents are usually not a great idea
a new paragraph was made to begin on a new line (a line if the text is set flush right because the line lengths on the
return), but without space before it; instead, it was signaled left edge are already changing. Beyond indents and returns,
s by an indent—where text starts a few character-widths in however, a designer’s options for distinguishing paragraphs
from the left alignment. Indents work particularly well from each other in a column are nearly endless.

One-Em Indent Full Leaded Return No Return: Multiple-Line Deep Indent

Deep Indent Proportional Leaded Return Ascending Cap: Full Return

Indent with Graphical Embellishment Bold Subhead: Full Return Drop Cap: Full Return

Lead Line: Style Change Proportional Return: Reversed Hanging Indent

Lead Line Bold subheads with a slight indent, along with
a full leaded return, distinguish the paragraphs
within the columns of this layout.
CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER / AUSTRIA

Full Return: Dingbat Divider Full Return: Rule Divider Full Return: Rule Divider

159 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 159 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 159 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 159
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING
S
Okay, Now Deal with It: The Finer Points Many tuned textsetting: it’s not really needed in emails; text in a
designers,even if they’ve actively addressed orthographic responsive context is constantly shifting in proportion; the
detailing—which, despite being a bit obsessive, is a majority of web layout platforms lack the controls needed
pronounced part of basic text structure—further neglect to enable subtle spacing and sizing decisions; and so, people
a huge number of other textsetting details in their work. form bad habits. Far from being wonkish, geeky, or overly
Usually, the problemis one of time: there’s only so much, compulsive, finessing one’s text attributes actually aids
and getting into the minutae of really fine textsetting takes readability by clarifying text relationships and preventing
a while. On the otherhand, the predominance of digital type distracting visual characteristics. Plus, it looks better! So—
use, in email writing, social media posting, and website build a couple of days into your project schedule to take
text has contributed to widespread ignorance of fine- care of the nitty-gritty items considered here.

TO INDENT OR NOT TO INDENT? DON’T CROSS THE CHANNELS. CARE FOR THE WIDOWS.

In setting text in which paragraphs run together, When possible, avoid hard returns between paragraphs Never allow a single word (a widow) to end a paragraph. Fo
separated by indenting the first line, the first paragraph aligning (or nearly aligning) between adjacent columns. If widows constantly appear in the rough setting of a body w
on the page should have no indent. Every paragraph As the horizontal negative channels created by the of text, the column width should be adjusted. Ideally, sh
thereafter is then indented—until the next major returns approach each other, not only do they become the last line of a paragraph should be more than half co
sequential break or subheaded paragraph, which should distracting, but they also tend to redirect the eye the paragraph’s width, but three words (no matter their a
not be indented. across the columns and break reading sequence. length) are acceptable. ti
ti
be

WATCH THE BREAKS! MIND THE GAPS. SAVE THE ORPHANS! A

Avoid breaking words across lines (hyphenating) so that A single word space, never two, follows a period before Don’t allow the last line of a paragraph to begin the top Li
short or incomplete stubs begin the line following: -ed, the initial cap of the next sentence. Furthermore, the of a column. This “orphan” is especially distracting if sp
-er, -ing, -tion, -al, -ly. Make sure there are at least four space before a comma or a quotation mark should be there is a space separating the paragraph that follows B
letters in the word ending the line before a break. Try reduced; these marks “carry” additional space above and really irritating if it occurs at the very beginning of “fi
to avoid breaking names from one line to another. If or below them. Similarly, the word space following a the left-hand page. Run the text back so that the new th
absolutely necessary, however, break right before the comma, apostrophe, or quotation mark should also be page starts a paragraph, or space out the preceding text of
last name—never in the middle of a name and never slightly reduced. so that the paragraph continues with at least three lines be
before an initial. after the page break. th

160 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 160 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 160 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 160
 SCALE YOUR SPACES. TOO MUCH IS JUST TOO MUCH. KEEP ’EM UPRIGHT.

In justified setting, adjusting the letterspacing to avoid Use upright parentheses and brackets, even if the text in
rivers is inevitable, but don’t adjust too much. Like rivers, which they appear is italic. These marks, in their sloped
overly tight (and therefore very dark) lines of text are versions, appear weak and usually exacerbate the spacing
distracting—and so are appreciably loose (and therefore problems associated with them.
very light) lines of text. Most often, the need to continually
tighten and loosen line after line indicates that the ratio of
character count to column width isn’t ideal: so, rethink it.

ITALICS NEED SPACING, TOO. UH-OH … SMALL CAPS!

Letterspace

Wordspace

Interline space

Paragraph separation

Column gutter

For continuity, as well as distinction (and beauty, while Italic used for emphasis within text sometimes appear Small caps used for acronyms, although smaller than
we’re at it), the spaces between different text components smaller and tighter than its roman counterpart. Always uppercase letters, still need additional space around them
should be proportionally related to the needs of those evaluate the italic and adjust its size or spacing to fit most to improve their recognition. The small caps of many fonts
components, and harmonically to each other. It’s said that seamlessly with its surrounding text. are too small and appear lighter in weight than surround-
a picture is worth 1,000 words, so above is a demonstra- ing text. Adjust their point size up by as much as two
tion of spacing relationships considered desirable—from points to achieve uniform weight and spacing, but not so
tightest (between letters within words) to loosest (spaces much as to confuse them with the uppercase.
between columns of text).

A CLUE TO OPTIMAL SPACING. AVOID A SERIOUS CRASH. LOOK AT THE FIGURES.

Ligatures are specially drawn characters that correct for The content within parentheses and brackets usually will Oldstyle, or text, numerals (designed for setting within
spacing difficulties in particular combinations of letters. benefit from additional space to separate it from these lowercase text) are comparatively irregular in proportion;
Because their counters are fixed spaces (for example, an marks, especially italic forms with ascenders that are their spacing typically needs adjustment to ensure seam-
“fi”), one must assume that the font’s creator determined likely to crash into the marks if left at the default spacing. lessness. Lining numerals, which extend from baseline
them based on their feeling for optimal spacing in the rest In particular, lowercase italic f, l, k, h, and many of the to cap height, usually require extra letterspacing, just as
of the font. If the ligatures within running text appear to uppercase letters will need this adjustment. uppercase letters do. Tabulated numerals are generally
be spaced differently than the nonfixed characters around arranged flush right or around a decimal point in vertical
them, the text should be respaced accordingly. columns; lining figures are preferred to ensure vertical
alignment for making calculations.

161 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 161 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 161 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 161
 THE MECHANICS OF TEXTSETTING

STYLE YOUR BULLETS. GET YOUR CAPS IN LINE. LEAD WITH STRENGTH AND CLARITY. A

The default bullet is usually enormous and distracting com- Fun text inclusions like initial caps should be positioned and Lead lines distinguish the beginning of a paragraph (or, Ev
pared to the typeface in which it appears. The bullet needs sized in relation to the text they accompany. Set them on a the beginning of a sequence of related paragraphs). To do w
to be noticeable but not stick out; slightly heavier than the baseline three, four, five, or more lines from the top of the that well, they should be clearly different enough from the or
text’s vertical stroke weight is enough. Feel free to change column, and indent the text lines adjacent at a comfortable text that follows them (whether that’s a subtle distinction by
the bullet’s typeface (or use a dingbat or even a period, measure. Every initial cap is likely to be a different letter (of or not is an aesthetic preference). However they’re styled, it
shifted off the baseline) to bring it stylistically closer to the differing width), so find an indent measure that will consis- they should be consistently applied: to the first three A
surrounding text. tently accommodate the narrowest and the widest. words in the line, for instance, or the entire line, or follow- ei
ing some other, equally clear formula. it

BANISH THE UNCLEAN SPIRIT. PUSH AND PULL. ABOUT THOSE SUBHEADS. H

It’s generally reasoned that the purpose of setting a Colons and semicolons need additional space preceding Like lead lines, subheads in text introduce paragraphs— M
line of text all uppercase, or in small caps, is to achieve them and less space following them. Exclamation points and so, also denote the end of the ideas in the paragraph qu
a sharp, clean, line that lacks the distracting up/down and question marks often benefit from being separated from that precedes them. Subheads, therefore, should be more te
activity associated with the ascenders and descenders of their sentences by an extra bit of space. A full word space closely spaced to the text that they introduce, and carry ni
lowercase letters. Great! Let them be—don’t initial cap is too much, as is half a word space; but +20 tracking, is more space above them, so that this relationship is clear. ed
the caps. Doing so pretty much kills the cleanliness you usually sufficient. Otherwise, the subhead appears to float as an independent w
were after in the first place. thought between paragraphs. m
pu
to

SO IT’S NOT A LETTER. FIND A GOOD FORMULA. JUST DO THE MATH. H

The appearance of analphabetic symbols, such as the @, Subscript and superscript characters (used to indicate foot- Fractions and other mathematical or scientific symbols mean W
#, $, and %, and some linear punctuation marks, such notes or in chemical formulas) must be sized, spaced, and something, and the way they look tells us that they do—and te
as the forward slash, /, are improved by slight sizing and vertically positioned so that they flow seamlessly with the what they do. Always set fractions using the proper glyph ed
spatial adjustments. The @ usually appears too high surrounding text, but stand out enough to perform their no- in a font’s character set (rather than simply setting a slash tw
on the line; the # and % display a diagonal thrust akin tational functions clearly. The examples above show typical between regular numbers e.g., “1/2”). The multiplication an
to italic forms; and often, these glyphs don’t match the size/position relationships, relative to the base-, cap-, and symbol (which is also used to separate dimensions) is not a ra
weight of the text around them. So look closely when mean lines—but by all means, find a way that works for you. letterform X. Make sure you set the right symbols. fo
they appear, and do what you gotta do. ed

162 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 162 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 162 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 162
 AND NOW, THIS… YO! USE THE RIGHT MARKS! KNOW YOUR DASHES.

Hyphen Combines
words or breaks them
between lines

En-Dash Separates
ranges of figures or
durations in time

Em-Dash Separates
evolutionary phrases
within text

Every now and then, an author omits some superfluous There is no quicker giveaway that a designer is a total There are three horizontal punctuation lines: Use the correct
words in a cited quotation; or wants a though to trail off, amateur than the use of prime marks (or “hatch marks”) one for its intended function, and adjust the spaces around
or to create a suspensful pause…Those events are marked in place of apostrophes and quotation marks, of which it so that it flows optically within text. A full word space
by the three-dot punctuation form called an ellipsis, and there are two kinds: an open quote and a closed quote. on either side is too much, although there are times when
it’s an actual character—not three periods in succession. One is used to indicate the beginning of a quotation (called this might be appropriate. The default lengths and baseline
An ellipsis typically is set with a small amount of space on “66” because of their shape), and the other is used to end orientation of each mark might need some tweaking: the hy-
either side (but not a full word space) to further enhance a quotation (called “99”). Please use accordingly. phen often sits low, and the em dash is sometimes too long.
its quality of denoting a linguistic gap.

HANG YOUR PUNCTUATION. INVENT YOUR OWN PUNCTUATION. OR, JUST GET RID OF YOUR PUNCTUATION.

Most punctuation marks—parentheses, brackets, bullets, Language is meant to be flexible (it’s possible to make a Stylistically differentiating text elements that are sepa-
quotation marks, and so on—should hang outside the verb out of a noun, and vice versa, for instance). So too is rated by punctuation (a title and subtitle divided by
text in which they’re embedded if they occur at the begin- punctuation. There can be many ways of treating punctua- a colon, for example) visually accomplishes what the
ning of a line. Doing so creates a cleaner flush (aligned tion to counter weird visual distractions or add a custom, punctuation does—which makes it redundant, and
edge); in the case of bullets, it accentuates their function, imaginative quality to the micro-level of text—so long as that means it can be removed if one likes.
which is to highlight certain text items. Building a little the treatment accomplishes the same purpose, or per-
more gutter space between columns allows hanging forms the same function, as the conventional punctuation
punctuation to sit in them without interfering with text it replaces. This detailing is called “orthographic style.”
to the left.

This close-up detail of a table of

HAVE A GOOD WRAP SESSION.
contents shows how imaginatively
something as mundane as page
numbering a list can be when its
orthographic style is considered and
customized, rather than defaulting
to the usual conventions.
PODPUNKT / POLAND

n When “wrapping” text around an image (or, around other

d text), the space that the text leaves around the image’s
edges should be approximately that of the gutter space be-
tween columns. Wrapped text along the right-hand edge of
an image maintains a clean flush; but on the left-hand side,
ragged text leaves often leaves a messy irregularity. The cure
for that is to select the text between the upper and lower
edges of the image and set it to justify only in that area.

163 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T H E M E C H A N I C S OF T E X T S E TTI N G

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 163 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 163 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 163
 TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO

The Dot/Line/Plane of Type Type doesn’t stop being were simply the fact of the text, it would be as simple as
abstract form material simply because it says something. setting text all at one size, spread from margin to margin,
Many designers use type in a way that visually disonnects or “writing.” To become typography, the neutral fact of
it from other material, like images and graphic shapes— the text must be transformed into an expression of what it
as though it’s anything but dots, lines, planes, and fields means, configured into a beautiful form. There’s a saying
of texture—because it is just that. Recognizing this truth is among architects (the analogy is telling): “All architecture is
challenging because one constantly struggles to stop reading building; but not all building is architecture.” Type always
a text to focus on what it looks like. But that’s exactly what has to be legible and readable; but it must also be expressive
must happen to generate not just functional reading, but and integrate with its surroundings. Seeing type for its for-
an optical experience that gives text added meaning. If type mal qualities helps type and imagery become equal players.

T
sp
or
fo
so
a
LU

The white and black text on the left-hand side of the poster at
top create a visual rhythm of lines, while literal lines on the
right-hand side do the same, contrasting the planar quality
of the large titling. In the brochure spread just above, loosly
spaced text forms horizontal configurations of dots as a counter
to the vertical lines of the word “vision.” The rotated, red title
on the book cover at upper right reverses its usual, orthogonal
structure, resulting in three vertical bands of horizontal lines.
The publication at right integrates dynamic contrasts between
rectilinearity, circularity, diaonality, and a variety of weights.
MARTA GAWIN / POLAND 
ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. / UNITED STATES 
PODPUNKT / POLAND 
TRIBORO DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

164 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 164 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 164 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 164
 Typographic Color The way a designer places text ele- chromatic color in that it describes changes in spatial
ments within a field establishes basic compositional order rhythm (looseness/tightness). Changing the relative color of
and structure that are fundamental to navigating a text. typographic components separates them from the surface;
It’s just as important (for the same reason, as well as for it introduces the illusions of spatial depth and movement;
creating a dynamic optical experience) to enforce a variety and, more importantly, it helps viewers identify and catego-
s of visual contrasts among the text elements. Called simply rize the parts of a text—creating hierarchy (discussed in
typographic color, the notion is similar to chromatic color— depth in the next section, beginning on page 174). Designers
e like red, blue, or orange—but refers only to changes in will approvingly describe type as being colorful (even if only
value (light/dark) and mass (plane, versus texture). More- levels of black, gray, and white are present) when it exhibits
. over, typographic color is different from the qualities of a lot of change in its basic formal attributes.

The material in this poster is organized intuitively and

spontaneously in an almost collage-like or painterly fashion to
orchestrate a colorful mix of dark and light, linear and dot-like
forms. This spontaneity is tempered by the influence of an illu-
sory cube that helps create dimensional breaks in space through
a series of alignments among internal elements.
LUDOVIC BALLAND / SWITZERLAND

This web page is typographically very colorful, even though it

uses only black and tints of gray. The callout of the word “One,”
by setting it in solid black, reinforces the brand image and idea
of singularity. The deeper density of the second paragraph makes
the call to action more pronounced; secondary information is set
smaller and in lighter tints of gray to help clarify the hierarchy.
RESEARCH STUDIOS / UNITED KINGDOM

165 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E I S V I S U A L , T OO

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 165 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 165 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 165
 TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO

The designers of this foldout brochure have focused on

textural density, the proportions of columns and nega-
tive spaces, and contrasts between dot-like and linear
formations (achieved through spacing changes). The
linearity and textural qualities of the text are a stark
contrast to the giant image dots.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN

A A A

B B B

C C C

D D D
[A] Changes in size create differ- [A] Extremely tight spacing, and
ences in perceived density and the resulting overlap of strokes,
weight change, despite all the creates pronounced dark spots;
elements being regular weight. the individuality of the letters is
compromised in favor of overall
[B] This strategy is enhanced linearity and mass.
by changing the weights of
selected type elements as well. [B] In normal spacing, the
linearity of the word dominates
[C] The application of bold the individuality of the letters,
weight has been swapped but the alternation of stroke and
among the various components counter is more regular.
for a different spatial effect. E
[C] Loose letterspacing causes
[D] This example shows the use [A–C] These examples show the dotlike individuality
of width changes, rather than of the letters to dominate. To
a progressive increase in lead-
weight changes, to achieve ing—from very tight (A) to very tex
similar spatial color in a sample loose (C). When the leading is [D] A word set in a condensed de
of running text. tight, the type is more texture face (top) is visually darker than sti
than line; the block is optically one set in an extended face
dark and seems planar. As (middle), if spaced normally bro
the interline spacing increases, for that typeface. Bolding the TR
linearity comes to dominate, extended setting regains a dark
and the block visually lightens. value and suggests vertical
compression, in tension with
[D, E] The planar proportion of the extended face’s lateral
a text block alters its directional expansion.
thrust, as well as its perceived
color. The horizontal block (D)
seems darker and more linear,
as compared to the vertical one.

166 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 166 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 166 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 166
 Punctuation and ornaments (often called dingbats) have the
potential to introduce a tremendous amount of typographic
color, as seen in the typographic branding approach used for
the on-air graphics of a cable programming channel, shown at
left. Even when used sparingly, as in the web pages below, ele-
ments like small bullets and larger quotation marks, as well as
other graphical forms like lines and tonal bands, will enliven
typography without sacrificng its seriousness.
GRETEL / UNITED STATES 
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES 

Tonal changes between background and

text forms, together with geometric, linear
detailing, creates an elegantly subtle, yet
still dynamically colorful experience in this
brochure for a photographers’ agency.
TRIBORO DESIGN / UNITED STATES

167 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E I S V I S U A L , T OO

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 167 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 167 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 167
 TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO

Alignments, Masses, and Voids Because text elements Type does a lot of tricky things to our eyes, but the interplay
are so geometric (essentially lines and rectangles) and of positive and negative, of mass and void, discussed in the
usually orthogonal (vertical/horizontal) in nature, their first chapter is actually much easier to appreciate with type
individual beginning and ending points, and their shapes’ because its geometry is so glaringly specific. Alignments
edges, call exceptional attention to their axes. We’re hyper- among type-mass axes connect them compositionally, as
aware of how these axes line up (or don’t), the directions well as meaningfully. The voids between masses similarly
they move our eyes, and how close together they are— group related informational chunks (if smaller) or distin-
which makes us even more aware of the relative shapes and guish them as unrelated (if larger); at the same time, the
weights (or masses) of the text are located and, even more relative compression or expansion of the voids adds vitality,
critically, where they are not (the negative spaces, or voids). activating them as dynamic compositional components.

Visual structure, relative to

the format, is created when
the elements are positioned
decisively to subdivide
it and, thereby, create
differentiated shapes of
negative space. Still, the
type elements exhibit no
structural difference to help
distinguish them. Massing
some elements and separat-
ing others creates focus and
movement. The alignment
of particular elements
establishes a similarity of
meaning among them; sepa-
rating an element from the
primary alignment creates
distinction or emphasis.

T
p
t
s
v
t
t
a
t
e
t
s
s

The tension between positive and negative space—and the

invisible linear connections between elements—is what
drives typography. Here, the proportions of the negative
spaces are created by the positive type elements, alternately
contrasting and restating them. Alignments between the
edges of positive forms establish potentially meaningful re-
lationships and help activate spaces across the composition.

The flush, or aligned, edge of the paragraphs on the right-hand

side of this brochure spread create decisively proportioned
channels of space and opportunities for strong contrast (the
curve of the bird icon against the top left corner of the text), as
well as a color change in the title across the axis.
VOICE / AUSTRALIA

168 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 168 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 168 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 168
y

y,

t-
d

a-

These posters demonstrate the visual (between the dates at upper right and
power a designer commands with regard the small, secondary text below them),
to creating rigorous compositional while most other elements decisively
structure and activating space—using avoid alignment, creating a fluid move-
very few elements. In the poster above, ment that contrasts the noted vertical
the three heavy elements optically splice flush. A subtle wave pattern exaggerates
the format into an upper and lower area this movement, further activates space,
and create a triangular axis, but it is and creates a division between two
the very light column of text that most informational zones.
emphatically establishes a set of propor- ASTRID STAVRO STUDIO / SPAIN 
tionally related rectangles of negative STUDIO MARVIL / CZECH REPUBLIC 
space. In the concert poster to the right,
some alignments are sharp and rigorous

Novice typographers often breaking space and creat-

gravitate toward a strategy ing clear structure: try to
of flushing text items left position them away from
when they appear on the format edges to make them
left-hand side of a format, appreciable. A second
y and flushing them right problem that sometimes
when they appear toward arises is that ragged edges
the right of the format. One (on either side) will come
n. problem with this strategy into quasialignment with
is that it pushes the aligned flush edges; but the indeter-
edge of the text outward minate quality of a ragged
from the central area of edge can never be decisively
focus and positions it close aligned with something
to the format’s edge— that’s sharply defined.
effectively destroying its
presence. Aligned text
edges are one of the most
potent compositional
devices a designer has for

169 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E I S V I S U A L , T OO

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 169 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 169 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 169
 TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO

The respective designers of the website, right, and the book,

below, take liberties with the internal text spacing of vari-
ous elements. Justified blocks of text, under the influence of
the browser’s variable width, reflow the text within their
containers to create unusual (and, sometimes, challenging)
configurations that create new shapes of space and positive
texture. The irregular spacing of the book spread’s titling
element—not only between words, but between baselines
and mean lines among them—plays off the geometry and
axes established by the inset image, by-line, paragraph, and
graphical element at lower left.
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE 
PODPUNKT / POLAND 

T
(o
a
a
a
in
M

170 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 170 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 170 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 170
 The edges of letter strokes
in the gigantic title are used
as alignment points for text
and for intrusions of geometric
negative space into the column;
this spatial area is activated
by the large red callout.
FROST DESIGN / AUSTRALIA

In the page spread below, alignments

among groups of text rotate around the
outer edges of the format: that of the
title against the left edge; that of the two
columns below it, against the bottom
edge; and that of the two columns on the
left-hand page, against the top edge. The
result is a mimicking of irregular voids on
the opposing sides of each grouping.
MARTIN OOSTRA / NETHERLANDS

The central axis of the circular logotype on this sticker

(one component of a branded stationery suite) provides
a structural anchor for text elements of different sizes
and weights; as these elements pivot back and forth
across the axis, they carve up the surrounding spaces
into a variety of interesting shapes and proportions.
MOLTOBUREAU / GERMANY

171 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E I S V I S U A L , T OO

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 171 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 171 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 171
 TYPE IS VISUAL, TOO

The Verbal Is the Visual More than simply a tool for text (even in individual words) dramatically characterizes
clarifying hierarchy, typographic color naturally grows a text, improves understanding, and enhances readability.
from the way we write: the order of nouns, verbs, adverbs A bold type element is visually “loud”; words of similar
and adjectives; the repetition or alternation of particular meaning, made visually similar, reinforce each other. It’s
sentence structures; the cadence of wordplay; and the about giving the reader the chance to find something of in-
changing emphasis in tone of voice. These verbal qualities terest or heightened importance. Strategically approaching
are the ultimate source for typographic color, not just to typographic material in a sensory way, giving it the visual
provide intriguing eye candy, but to help an audience feel quality of its sounds and cadence, is a powerful means of
the conceptual and emotional import of an author’s words. creating a more vivid verbal experience of a text; further,
Changing sizes, weight, or posture within lines of running doing so can rapidly help clarify an appropriate hierarchy.

The text in these examples is

powerfully altered by changing
the typographic color of its
internal parts. In the first
version (top), a strategy of T
overall size change affects the a
sense of the text’s loudness,
creating a crescendo. In the a
second version (middle), calling m
out specific parts through (s
changes in weight, posture,
B
width, and spacing produces
a rhythmic journey—slowing A
down, speeding up—for the LS
reader. In the bottom version,
color changes are applied to
distinguish linguistic and con-
ceptual relationships among
different parts of the text; the
result is rhythmically dynamic
and supports the interrelation-
ships of the author’s ideas. This
approach provides the added
bonus of giving the reader a
snapshot of the content before
fully engaging the text.

The performative quality of a text

is a great source for typographic
style. In the poster at right, weight
and size change reflect changes in
volume and emphasis in the text.
The sound and the meaning of
words are often connected; in the
examples at lower right, sound
and meaning are linked through
visual expression.
MAREK OKON / CANADA 
CHRISTINE CHUO / UNITED STATES 
TAMMY CHANG / UNITED STATES 

172 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 172 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 172 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 172
g

The meanings of individual words—on the shopping bag,

above; the logo, just below; and the poster, at bottom—
are the sources of their respective, clever typographic treat-
ments. In effect, each one becomes an image of what it says
(see more about type as imagery on page 216, in chapter 4).
BR/BAUEN / BRAZIL 
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM 
LSD SPACE / SPAIN 

“Meaning” can refer to what a text says, as

well as to ontext and written structure. In
the book spread, above, the dialogue of each
speaker in a conversation is characterized by
a different font treatment, while notations
and marginalia are highlighted in color.
The overlap of the type in the package to the
left refers to the action of “pressing.” On the
business card shown below, the accent mark
over the E in “metrica” becomes a branding
device when it’s highlighted as a measured
interruption in the bold graphic line above
the word.
EARSAY / UNITED STATES 
SABOTAGE PKG / UNITED KINGDOM 
INFINITO / SPAIN 

173 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E I S V I S U A L , T OO

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 173 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 173 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 173
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

What Means What? Information is systematic. It’s a are; and by seeing how these parts interact in a consistent
collection of parts, each having a different meaning (the way, come to understand how the sequence, and relative
idea conveyed by what each one says). Each part also serves importance, of the ideas all fit together—so they can move
a different function: some parts introduce a general idea, through texts efficiently and accurately comprehend them.
others expand on it in greater depth and detail, and still One of a designer’s most important tasks is to give informa-
others may qualify it, evolve it toward a related idea, or tion an order that allows the viewer to navigate it. And—you
even reinterpret it. These various parts repeat in different guessed it—just like the ordering and emphasizing of pure
combinations from one space or area of a communication abstract form (page 80), this ordering is called a hierarchy,
to another. Viewers need to be able to rapidly identify and it’s simultaneously visual and verbal. A designer’s first
these parts and visually understand what their functions step, then, is to identify a text’s parts and what they do.

INFORMATION GENERAL
KIND FUNCTION

Titling Conveys major subject of a communica-

tion; includes subtitles, headlines, and
introductions (decks)

Primary text Main content; dominant, extensive

volume of text

Secondary text Supporting information within, or

derived from, the primary text: callouts
or pull quotes

Tertiary text Supporting information that supple-

ments a primary text; usually relatively
extensive: sidebars, glosses, commen-
taries, and testimonials

Notations Detail elements that describe or qualify

primary or other texts, or sometimes
act as headings or titles for sidebars or
diagrams: labels, folios, runners,
list numbering, annotations, margin
notes, footnotes.

Tables Presents information in a matrix (grid),

sometimes in list form; typically used
for locating content (like a table of
contents), but may present numerical,
financial, or statistical data (graphs).

Lists A number of related names or cat-

egories written consecutively, one
below the other; includes indexes and
bibliographies

Infographics Charts, graphs, and diagrams that typi-

cally present statistical data or special-
ized illustrations of complex materials
often of a scientific nature (anatomy,
engine parts, etc.)

Instructions Step-by-step descriptions of a proce-

dure for accomplishing a task
Strict alignment relationships (horizontal and vertical), column
measure differences, and graphical lines work in concert with
typographic color and style treatments to order a variety of
informational components and give them distinct characters in
these two projects.
GARBETT / AUSTRALIA 
STRUKTUR DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM 

174 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 174 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 174 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 174
 Editorial Conventions Designers and printers have been of informational parts they used to organize text and began
exploring ways to visually order and distinguish the parts to use them consistently for specific functions (verbally, as
of text from the time moveable-type printing first appeared well as visually). Designers, editors, and publishers alike are
in the 15th century and throughout the explosion of mass oddly obsessed with jargon, so it shouldn’t surprise anyone
- media that followed. Most of the approaches they developed that they eventually named all these hierarchic text parts,
for doing so responded to specific kinds of informational which makes it easier to discuss them while working with
levels that writers gradually introduced themselves. Over them. Every designer needs to know what they are…and to
time, especially as some forms of mass media (newspapers be aware that sometimes people working as editors in book
and magazines, for instance) became commonplace, writers, publishing, versus in magazine or web publishing, will use
designers, printers, and publishers standardized the kinds some terms a little differently.

publication title | section title 142 folio (page number)

running head (or header)

A Headline Is the Major Titling of a Story

A subheadline or subtitle concisely corroborates a headline timothy samara / the author noted
in this byline

A caption is
a secondary
text treatment
that provides
information
about an image.

A deck is an introductory paragraph Body copy (or, sometimes, simply “copy”) times, simply “copy”) is the term given to the
or text lines that further support the is the term given to the primary, running primary, running text of a story or article.
headline and provide a snapshot of text of a story or article. Body copy (or, Body copy (or, sometimes, simply “copy”) is
the story content. A deck is an intro- sometimes, simply “copy”) is the term given the term given to the primary
ductory paragraph or text lines that to the primary, running text of a story or ——
further support the headline and article. Body copy (or, sometimes, simply A sub-subhead differentiates more granular
“copy”) is the term given to the primary, paragraphs within a sequence.
provide a snapshot of the story content. Body copy (or, sometimes, simply “copy”)
running text of a story or article. Body copy
(or, sometimes, simply “copy”) is the term is the term given to the primary, running
given to the primary, running text of a story text of a story or article. Body copy (or, some-
A sidebar is a supplemental text that supports or article. Body copy (or, sometimes, simply times, simply “copy”) is the term given
information provided in the body copy. Side- “copy”) is the term given to the primary,
bars may be prose, like a sub-article, or consist running text of a story or article. Body copy A callout is text extracted from the
of other kinds of information, like commentar- (or, sometimes, simply “copy”) is the term body copy and treated differently
ies or diagrams. A sidebar is a supplemental
given to the primary, running text of a story (bolder, larger, a different typeface,
text that supports information provided in the
or article. Body copy (or, sometimes, simply and so on) to give it emphasis and
body copy. Sidebars may be prose, like a sub-
article, or consist of other kinds of information, “copy”) is the term given. make it prominent in the page hier-
like commentaries or diagrams. A sidebar is a archy. Pull quotes are callouts that
supplemental text that supports information A TEXT SUBHEAD INTRODUCES A NEW happen to be quotations, spoken by
provided in the body copy. Sidebars may be PARAGRAPH SEQUENCE someone to which the copy refers.
prose, like a sub-article, or consist of other Body copy (or, sometimes, simply “copy”) is —
kinds of information, like commentaries or citation this element attributes
the term given to the primary, running text a pull quote to a speaker
diagrams. A sidebar is a supplemental text that of a story or article. Body copy (or, some-
supports information provided in the body. times, simply “copy”) is the term given to the
primary, running text of a story or article. to the primary, running text of a story or
Body copy (or, sometimes, simply “copy”) is article. Body copy (or, sometimes, simply
the term given to the primary, running text “copy”) is the term given to the primary,
of a story or article. Body copy (or, some- running text of a story or article. Body copy

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 175 4/6/20 2:18 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 175 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 2:18 PM
Text Page: 175
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

Hierarchic Strategies: Structure All text, of every kind, spatially. A designer might group the majority of elements
looks equally important in raw form. Placing it as is creates together, but separate a specific element—the headline, for
a uniform field of texture. Contradicting some previously instance. Spatial relationships between text elements also
discussed ideas, the uniformity that is desirable to keep a establish a sense of meaningful relationship between them:
reader moving through extensive, continuous text must As noted, those that are close together will be perceived as
purposely be broken. The goal here is the same as that for similar or corroborative in meaning, while those further
“straight” visual hierarchy: differentiating elements to apart will be appreciated as less so. Changing the relative
create fixation points that will be interpreted as deserving density (tightening or loosening interline spaces), aligning
attention and, therefore, important. The most immediately or not aligning axes, and altering the rotational orientation
effective strategy for doing so is to separate text chunks of text blocks all accomplish similar results.

Major changes in structure

between individual ele-
ments or groupings of text
are first step in helping
readers distinguish the
Lorem ipsum dolor sit ametu, Lorem ipsum dolor sit ametu, Lorem ipsum dolor sit ametu,
basic levels of a layout's
consect etur adipiscing elit.
enean dignissim aliquam sapien.
Donec maximus erat risus, et
consect etur adipiscing elit.
enean dignissim aliquam sapien.
Donec maximus erat risus, et
consect etur adipiscing elit.
enean dignissim aliquam sapien.
Donec maximus erat risus, et
hierarchy: what the parts
ullamcorper neque tempor quis.
Cras libero exea, tempor vitae
odio in, tempor consectetur lec
ullamcorper neque tempor quis.
Cras libero exea, tempor vitae
odio in, tempor consectetur lec
ullamcorper neque tempor quis.
Cras libero exea, tempor vitae
odio in, tempor consectetur lec
are, how many, and which
are made to be appreciated
tus. In portatel lus lectus, ac tus. In portatel lus lectus, ac tus. In portatel lus lectus, ac
vestibulum arcuvolutpat. Sed vestibulum arcuvolutpat. Sed vestibulum arcuvolutpat. Sed
ex ut lorem suscipit condimen ex ut lorem suscipit condimen ex ut lorem suscipit condimen

as more important because

tum non at turpis. Aenean et tum non at turpis. Aenean et tum non at turpis. Aenean et
verbumdignissim magina, sed verbumdignissim magina, sed verbumdignissim magina, sed
molestie sapien. In eget eleife molestie sapien. In eget eleife molestie sapien. In eget eleife

of how dissimilar they are

nderos. Mauris suscipit quam nderos. Mauris suscipit quam nderos. Mauris suscipit quam
maximus telluscongue, at sdales maximus telluscongue, at sdales maximus telluscongue, at sdales
enim vulputate summa est. enim vulputate summa est. enim vulputate summa est.

from the others. In compar-

ing the general strategies
shown here, it will probably
become apparent that try-
ing to effect one kind of
change in isolation is nearly
impossible; most often,
several kinds of structural
Proximities (near/far, group/isolate) Alignment deviation Axis change change will corroborate
each other simultaneously
(for example, alignment
deviation may also intrinsi-
cally entail a change in
proportion or proximity).
And, of course, each kind of
structural change will mutu-
ally influence the effects of
the others.
—
Of particular interest is the
way that rotating a text ele-
ment (Orientation change,
in the second row at left) can
either make it less important Li
(because it interferes with w
character recognition) or ov
more important (when the p
rotation is applied to an ele-
ment within a group). This st
ambiguity exemplifies how a
the effect of any given ap- fo
proach is highly dependent
Orientation change (readability) Orientation change (deviation) Shape or proportion change
on the context in which it's
ca
applied—as with so many ca
things, the "rules" are never in
hard and fast. sm
M
/

Page division change (row versus column) Interline rhythm change Containment change

176 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 176 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 176 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 176
:

In each of the alternate studies for a CD insert page,

above, the designer examines the interplay between
vertical and horizontal alignment divisions of the
space, and their effects on which informational
elements rise to importance over others, as well as
which kinds of information seem to become more,
or less, meaningfully related or sequenced. All three
structural approaches create dynamic, and equally
navigable, compositions. Similarly, the designer
of the book cover studies at left—while also explor-
-
ing the potential of formal contrasts like weight
y (discussed on the next pages)—focuses primarily on
the effects of alignment deviation and rotation. It’s
y interesting to note that, in the cover at far left, the
very bold title positioned in the lower-right corner
reads after almost every other text element, despite
its size and darkness.
HELMUT SCHMID / JAPAN 
JROSS DESIGN / UNITED STATES 

f
-

an
nt Limited formal contrasts in size and weight,
while still appreciable, are secondary to the
overall structural gestures that define this
page spread’s hierarchy. The most pronounced
-
structural deviation is that of the rhythmic-
ally bouncing, loosely spaced word, “blue,”
followed by a contrast between asymmetri-
cal columnar groupings and centered-axis
callouts. Rotated elements, further diminished
r in their relative importance because of their
smaller point sizes, provide editorial notation.
MARIELLE VAN GENDEREN+ADRIAAN MELLEGERS
/ NETHERLANDS

177 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 177 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 177 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 177
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

Hierarchic Strategies: Formal Contrast Similar to the all work to add visual interest and differentiate the various
way that viewers rely on comparisons of spatial proximity text components. To establish similarities of relationship, a
and alignment to identify hierarchic levels, so too do they designer must assign treatments to specific kinds of infor-
make assumptions about the roles of informational compo- mation and use them consistently. Text elements set in the
nents because of their appearance. Here’s where typographic same font, at the same size, will be assumed to mean similar
color acts to make a hierarchy abundantly clear and visu- things or be closely related in function—and vice versa.
ally dynamic at the same time: Using fonts of contrasting There are two kinds of caption in this book, for example,
weight and style; setting some elements all uppercase while and they are each styled differently to denote what they do
others remain set in lowercase, or some roman while others (describe diagrams or describe designed project images)
are italic; underlining or boxing text elements, and so on— so that you, the reader, can easily pick out each kind.

While structural hierarchies

tend to distinguish major
informational groups from
each other, formal or sty-
listic (color) changes most S
often account for secondary in
distinctions within groups of
(like the difference between
running text, subheads, of
and callouts within text). m
That said, formal changes a
also often distinguish major
informational components
fo
(title versus subtitle, for gr
instance). The same treat- on
ment, oddly, can emphasize si
or de-emphasize informa-
tion depending on how it’s a
used: a good example is that bo
of posture change, at left. (f
Size change Weight change Posture change
— li
Formal contrasts work
both visually to distinguish TO
text parts and verbally to
link related functions or
meanings embodied by text
elements. Being specific
about assigning a particular
kind of contrast to a certain
level or kind of informa-
tion—and then applying
that treatment consistently
to like kinds of content—
helps readers navigate
material by systematically
coding it throughout.
—
Further, in the examples
on the opposite page (as
with those on the previous
pages), you'll appreciate
several kinds of formal con-
trast working in concert to
Case change Spacing change Font style change enhance hierarchic distinc-
tions among elements.

Rag activity Value (or color) change Relative field value change

178 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 178 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 178 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 178
a

This website uses a structural contrast—a change from horizontal

field to vertical, and asymmetrical setting to centered, to distin-
guish content area from menu flyout—and within each field,
changes in weight, case, and value to create secondary levels.
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM

Some list configurations are very complicated, containing several

y internal hierarchies—parts within parts within parts. This detail
of a concert calendar, for example, shows the mutlitier hierarchy
n
of information for each calendar date (the date itself, with perfor-
mance time and venue; the featured repertoire, ensemble, soloist,
and musical director; and then a listing of other works to be per-
r
formed). The designers apply several kinds of contrast within each
group to define its parts; those contrasts decrease in presence from
one group to the other: All uppercase, bold and regular, at a larger
e size, combined with bold and regular, set upper- and lowercase at
a slightly smaller size (the repertoire/ensemble grouping); and then
at bold and regular, upper- and lowercase, punctuated by heavy bullets
(for the supporting works grouping). The calendar date heads the
listing at a much larger size, set in a high-contrast, bold serif face.
TOORMIX / SPAIN

r
n

y
Changes in spatial position and proportion distin-
guish two major levels in the hierarchy of the layout
at far left. But, it takes the added formal contrasts
in size and color to successfully make readable the
overlap that results between the two text blocks. In
the newspaper design, near left, extreme contrasts in
size and weight distinguish issue number, title, and
- main content list from a horizontal band of smaller,
lighter-weight, secondary information. The bold sim-
plicity of this strategy is needed to ensure adequate
hierarchic focus and ease of entry as a counterpoint
to the complex, multilayered image material.
CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER / AUSTRIA 
BACHGARDE DESIGN / SWEDEN 

179 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 179 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 179 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 179
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

Unity and Distinction Contrast in typographic color (font tion, curve radius, and so on. Minute changes are easily
style, posture, rhythm, and so on) is super helpful for creat- recognized, and so readers need not be hit over the head
ing a clear hierarchy. Too much difference, however, will with an optical baseball bat every time the content requires
create a visual disconnect: The danger of pushing stylistic differentiation. Most simply: If everything is visually dif-
differences between informational components is that, as a ferent, all of it is equivalent in value. Limiting stylistic
totality, the project will appear busy and lack a fundamental differences to just what is needed to signal informational
cohesion or “visual voice.” This is one reason why designers change allows the reader to understand such changes
are admonished to employ only two or three type styles in while maintaining visual unity. It’s always best to first ask
a project and, as often as possible, to combine styles that “What’s the least amount or kind of change needed?” and
share substantially similar qualities in width, stroke forma- then, if necessary, incrementally amp it up.

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

Same family, different weights Same family, different widths Same family, different weights In the first version (top) of a composition, informational
and widths components are distinguished through radically differ-
ent treatments. While this makes for very clear recogni-
tion of the hierarchic elements, nothing unifies them
1 1 1 stylistically—each element has its own quality. In the
second version (bottom), the treatments are stylistically
related—through proportion, style, weight, spacing,
2 2 2 rhythm, and so on—without losing the basic visual
qualities that helped distinguish the type elements in
the first place.
3 3 3

Sans-serif bold and roman; serif roman Sans serif bold and roman; serif roman Sans serif bold and roman; serif italic
(similar structure and details) (contrasting structure and details) (similar structure and details)

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

Bold, angled sans serif; slab-serif Angled sans serif; slab serif; rounded Angled sans serif; sans serif and serif
roman and light (squared-off curves) sans serif (similar weights) (both geometric, sharp, rounded)

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

Extra-bold sans serif and slab serif, Extra-bold sans serif and geometric Bold slab serif and roman sans serif;
both similar proportions and dot-like (neoclassical) serif (round); condensed, oldstyle italic (line/dot, curve/angle,
characteristics (weight/posture) light sans-serif italic (linear, diagonal) geometric/organic, sharp/soft)

Considering stylistic options for a type Like the strategy outlined for basic ette, a typographic palette need not
hierarchy can be much like that for optical combinations of color, the be limited to the relationships shown;
developing a color palette (see pages diagram above shows basic stylistic and several kinds of relationship, or
108 and 109 in the second chapter). relationships to consider, but within even several individual “palettes,”
It’s an apt analogy: one is, essentially, a neutral three-level hierarchy that’s may be combined to address the needs
formulating a palette of typographic independent of function (meaning, of more complex information.
effects that will be applied to various these could represent headline, text,
elements. In this case, those effects and caption, or some other combina-
will create an informational form tion of informational parts). Here,
language as well as an optical one; therefore, the understanding is that
visual contrasts will mean something each kind of style will signal a specific
on a verbal level. kind of information. As with color pal-

180 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 180 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 180 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 180
 The respective designers of the maga-
zine (top) and the book (bottom) each
approach how their “palettes” of
typographic style and color serve to
distinguish informational levels and
provide visual interest—while still
creating a sense of unity—from very
different standpoints.
al —
The vast majority of the hierarchy
- in the magazine presents itself in
a single serif family, set only in a
ly variety of weights and sizes. That
strategy clearly unifies everything;
the designers achieve contrast by
combining the more extreme weight
variants (extra bold and light), and
by forcing a similarly extreme size
change between upper-level titling/
intro groups and the running text.
A supporting sans-serif family (of
multiple weights) appears only at
a reduced scale, as labeling in the
infographics. The sans serif is slightly
condensed and, so, of similar propor-
tion to the serif.
—
In the book, three font families
appear: a high-contrast serif for
text (and its bold italic, set in a
large point size, for quotations); a
monospaced “typewriter” font, for
margin notations; and a sans serif,
for text subheads, titling (not shown
here, but on page 141), and folios.
The fonts are highly differentiated in
style, weight, size, and spacing, but
they share body proportion. As the
reader encounters them in continual
alternation, they’ll appreciate a
consistency in rhythm throughout
that counteracts the fonts’ visual
differences to create a different kind
of unity in the whole.
STUDIO MARVIL / CZECH REPUBLIC 
MUCHO / MEXICO 

181 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 181 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 181 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 181
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

Scales of Contrast To consider hierarchic levels for how visually “proportional”; and in which more subtle differ-
separate in emphasis they might be, it’s useful again to think ences distinguish sublevels within them. A designer
about a song: Its melody, harmonies, supporting instrumen- confronts a different kind and complexity of hierarchy
tation, and percussion are each a level in a hierarchy. Each in every project, so any scale considerations must grow
level can be appreciated through a degree of sonic difference; from its specific attributes: How many levels are there?
the separation between melody and harmony is relatively Do all of them need to be differentiated by color or style,
little, while the separation between those and the instru- or can some share traits and be differentiated only through
ments is pretty big. A type hierarchy can work the same spatial relationships for a simpler appearance? How differ-
way, using a “scale” of color difference among hierarchic ent must each level appear so as to be easily distinguished?
levels—in which the degree of difference between each is Do the “jumps” between each level appear equal or not?

SIZE SCALE WEIGHT SCALE WIDTH SCALE S

MODERATE / RATIO 5:3:2 MODERATE / EVEN MODERATE / COMPRESSED MODERATE / EVEN MODERATE / COMPRESSED

EXTREME / RATIO 3:2:1 EXTREME / EVEN EXTREME / COMPRESSED EXTREME / EVEN EXTREME / COMPRESSED

The notion a typographic contrast scale is first illustrated Typographic weights, unlike point sizes, can’t be scaled Similar to those of weight, scales of width depend on the
here by two sets of text specimens (each representing three mathematically: the weights available in a given font are availability of condensed and extended variants within a
levels in a hierarchy) to demonstrate a scale based solely what they are, and so font choice is a determining factor given font family. If a width scale seems especially relevant
on point size. A moderate and extreme scale are shown for in how pronounced the scale differences might be. Jumps for a project, choose a font family with a wide range of
comparison, along with their respective ratios of change. between levels may be even, or they may be uneven: less widths; most families that comprise multiple widths also
Degrees of differentiation may be defined mathematically difference between two, and more between those two and happen to include as many weights.
but, most often, they are established intuitively. another. Such compression can also be applied to size.

VALUE SCALE CHROMATIC SCALE STYLE SCALE

Duisautem
Duisautem
Duisautem
MODERATE / POSITIVE MODERATE / NEGATIVE ANALOGOUS SATURATION CLASSIFICATION CURVE RADIUS

Duisautem
Duisautem
Duisautem
EXTREME / POSITIVE EXTREME / NEGATIVE TRIADIC EXTENSION GEOMETRICITY TEXTURAL DETAIL

A scale of relative darkness and lightness in tonal value A chromatic scale, like one of value, will be independent of The notion of a style scale can be interpreted in any number
can be applied regardless of any other contrast scale whatever stylistic variation is applied. Its parameters will be of ways: Classification from older period to newer; more
used, and it may also incorporate relative opacity and defined by the project palette’s hue relationships, but the organic in form to more geometric; generous curve radii to
transparency. Because value relationships affect type extension of the palette’s hues can be considered in relation those that are pinched or squared off; stenciled, to thick/
so dramatically (especially with regard to legibility), to how the hues are applied to larger/heavier and smaller/ thin, to uniform stroke weight; a dot-patterned font to one
keep an eye on how extreme the scale becomes. lighter type. Relative saturation offers another variable. with dot-like ball serifs. Those possibilities are shown here,
but they’re not the only ones.

182 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 182 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 182 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 12/6/20 2:00 PM
Text Page: 182
 The answers to these last two questions, “how much differ- levels are distinguished by less contrast, and others more so:
ent?” and “proportionally equal in difference or not?” often in a poster, for example, a designer may intuit that the top-
depends on three factors: the complexity of a text’s hierarchy, and mid-levels are more effective with less contrast between
the speed of information delivery, and the size of the project’s them, with the lowest level exhibiting more contrast against
format. A quick rule of thumb: The less complex the text, the two together. As a starting point, it can be helpful to
the faster the delivery, and the greater the amount of format explore mathematical ratios of proportion (especially for
space (compared to text volume), the more dramatic the type size): top level set at 60 points; mid-level at 30 points;
scale of contrast; generally, the opposite will also be true. and lowest level at 15—a ratio of 2:1. Sometimes, this strategy
The visually proportional contrast difference between each works as is but, typically, a designer will need to deviate
level in the scale may appear equal, or it may be that some from the math as font weight and style are also considered.

SCALE COMPLEXITY

ED

nt

m
m The quality of a contrast scale
depends on how many levels
A book, on the other hand,
usually presents a greater
might be present in a project’s number and variety of hier-
hierarchy, which means that it’s archic levels. Unlike a poster,
somewhat tied to the nature of in which a size scale is domi-
a given project. Posters, for nant, a book is small; size
example, often embody three differences among elements
levels of hierarchic interaction: are sure to play a role, but
one seen from a distance, a scales of case, weight, spac-
second negotiated at a middle ing, value, and style will do
range, and a third encountered the serious work of identify-
up close. The contrast scale in ing each scale level. Further,
most posters, therefore, also because reading a book is a
tends to be somewhat extreme. more intimate experience, its
contrast scales need not be
very extreme to be appreci-
ated—if they are, they may
er
be very distracting.

e
e,

183 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 183 4/6/20 11:06 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 183 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 183
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

KINDS OF NUMBER OF SCALE KINDS OF NUMBER OF SCALE

CONTRAST CONTRAST LEVELS RATIO CONTRAST CONTRAST LEVELS RATIO

WEIGHT 3 3:2 WEIGHT 4 2:1

SIZE 4 8:1:3 SIZE 2 10:4:0.5
VALUE 2 REV VALUE 2 REV
WIDTH 1 NA WIDTH 1 NA

The dramatic visual activity in this poster obscures the simplicity of its The design of this exhibition distinguishes two physical hierarchic B
contrast scale. Like many posters, there are three levels overall, and the levels: the walls, which present headlines and factoids; and mounted s
predominant scale in use is that of size: big, medium, and small, where cases that present more complex, detailed information of varied kinds. t
the medium and smaller levels in the scale are compressed. This major Hence, there are two scales working together: Extreme scales of size and a
scale is supported by a style scale that transitions from textural to solid weight on the walls (distinguishing four levels of information), and c
(both condensed) to regular width. another relatively extreme scale of sizes and weights within the cases. t
STUDIO LESBEAUXJOURS / FRANCE POULIN+MORRIS / UNITED STATES D
I

184 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 184 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 184 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 184
 KINDS OF NUMBER OF SCALE KINDS OF NUMBER OF SCALE
CONTRAST CONTRAST LEVELS RATIO CONTRAST CONTRAST LEVELS RATIO

WEIGHT 3 2:1 WEIGHT 6 5:4:2:1

SIZE 2 3:2 SIZE 10 6 : 4 : 1 : 0.5
VALUE 2 2:1 VALUE 2 2:1
WIDTH 2 NA WIDTH 2 5 : 2 : 0.5

Both of these websites present relatively moderate scales of Because this poster’s information is so dense, the designer
size, weight, and value. While the site at top uses a single decided to break it into discrete units, resolving busyness
type family, the one just above integrates a slab serif and by alternating between positive and negative blocks.
a sans serif. Mixing bolder and lighter weights, as well as Each unit also needed to be treated with extreme contrast;
changes in value, provides adequate typographic color even otherwise, the information would have been overly textural
though the largest and smallest sizes used differ by 10 points. and, therefore, would have disintegrated against the bold-
DIANO / SLOVENIA  ness of the black-and-white upper level.
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES  KIM FOSTER / UNITED STATES

185 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 185 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 185 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 185
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

Graphic Detail and Navigation As we have seen, a type ments, activate spaces, and separate informational chunks,
layout’s axis alignments, together with positions of masses like an exaggerated form of punctuation. Graphical lines
and voids, helps readers locate, separate, or connect pieces (which are visually similar to lines of type) are really useful
of information... to “navigate” them. It’s important to keep for achieving similar goals. Geometric shapes, too, can act
in mind that the very building blocks of type (dots, lines, as inclusions or details among letters or words—as well as
and geometric planes) are fundamentally typographic, too; support clusters of text, helping separate them from back-
integrating these forms can enhance hierarchy and clarify grounds for greater legibility, grouping them for meaning,
navigational flow. The focal power of a dot can indicate the or better distinguishing hierarchic levels. Because geometric
beginning or ending point of a text element (for example, forms retain their image-like quality, they can also create
using bullets to call out items in a list), correspond to align- visual links between type and other pictorial elements.

In this first version of a menu, dots perform a variety of Lines, which share an inherent visual quality with typogra- In the third version of the menu, planar geometric forms
functions. The large dot acts as a focal point, bringing its as- phy, offer an immediate formal relationship in addition to relate visually to the geometry of letterforms, but contrast
sociated type element to the top of the hierarchy. A system whatever functions they serve. In this version of the menu, with the texture and linearity of type. As fields, or contain-
of smaller dots is used to highlight structural alignments and heavy lines separate clusters of information that are unre- ers for informational elements, they can help reinforce
to denote a specific sublevel in the hierarchy. Still other dots lated, while lighter lines help distinguish clusters that share hierarchic distinctions among groupings of content; in this
activate negative spaces in the format. a relationship. In addition, the lines also activate space and particular case, they also create a visual link between the
help add movement to the composition. type and the imagery while honoring the layout structure.

In this website, dots serve as focal points in a

company timeline and as containers for featured
products. At a smaller scale, lightweight vertical
lines separate major navigation links, while a
downward-pointing triangular marker denotes
the user’s location within the site.
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES

186 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 186 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 186 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 186
, In these three projects, graphical the lightweight squares anchor the
elements direct the eye from point numbers they enclose to the page
to point. The bold, colored lines in corner; becayse the sides of the square
the brochure (top) lead readers to are tensely close to the page’s edges,
the paragraph and the fact callouts they act as connective tissue between
below it. The large, red dot in the bold headings at top and middle of
newspaper spread (middle) calls the pages, with further help from the
attention to the diagonal structure horizontal line dividers.
that leads from large name at upper METAKLINIKA / SERBIA 
c left to quotation at lower right (and ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM 
also links the quote to the figure in BACHGARDE DESIGN / SWEDEN 
the image). In the program at bottom,

Lines (yet again!) feature as navigational details. In the

theater schedule at top, color fields distinguish major
informational categories, while thin horizontal lines create
connections between them, from left to right. The timeline
shown just above uses lines to connect text blocks to dates
highlighted by bold, reversed, cross forms.
RESEARCH STUDIOS / UNITED KINGDOM 
PODPUNKT / POLAND 

187 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 187 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 187 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 187
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

Color and Type Hierarchy All the qualities of chromatic any background on which it sits so that the type remains
color have a pronounced effect on hierarchy because of the not merely visible, but effortlessly readable. Color can also
way they change the apparent spatial depth and prominence be used for coding, much as it may be applied in pictorial
of the typographic elements to which colors are applied. or abstract forms or textures (see chapter 2, page 116). Such
Therefore, it’s important to understand how a hierarchy color coding is exceptionally useful for labels in charts and
works in grayscale first: consider chromatic color an added graphs, to create links with supporting text, and for those
bonus, making sure the hierarchy is clear by virtue of its in complex infographics or diagrams. And last, but not
structure and typographic color. However chromatic color least, it bears repeating that color can radically alter the
works hierarchically, it’s absolutely imperative that there feeling or connotation of text—this too, is a kind of coding
be considerable contrast between the color of type and or hierarchic relationship that may be defined.

Once a clear hierarchy and

dynamic layout have been
developed in black and white
(top), a designer can then
make more specific choices
about how a palette might
be applied.
—
An intuitive, and typical, ap-
proach is to use color’s various
attributes (especially value) to
exaggerate distinctions in hi-
erarchic level that are already Th
appreciable (middle). The is
relative values of forms and to
field remain the same as they co
are in the black-and-white ba
original; warm colors are ap- ca
plied to those elements that w
appear to advance, and cool sh
colors to those that recede; re
and saturation is similarly fl
concentrated on elements at pe
the top of the hierarchy. of
— th
Of course, there are other se
possibilities (bottom). In this it
version, the overall light/dark th
value relationship of figure —
and ground is reversed, which Pr
allows for a different kind of of
relationship to be imposed on ho
the largest type elements— pr
reordering the hierarchy to ba
privilege text elements that to
are much smaller. Similarly, se
temperature and saturation ad
decisions in this version a
emphasize different ideas. The al
hierarchy is no less clear; it’s pr
just slightly different in focus on
and order. Unless a client’s a
brief explicitly directs that co
the content must be read in a si
specific sequence, designers in
are free to alter a hierarchy, so lig
long as common sense and the pr
viewers’ needs prevail in the ca
decision making. ce
K
sa
la
an
m
The gradual value increase of this rainbow-like palette, alternating in ba
poster’s background from top to bottom temperature; within each name, a cool- se
creates enough density for the orchestra to-warm gradation further enhances the
logotype to reverse white, yet is light dimensionality perceived through the
enough for darker-value text to surprint hue changes, and relates to the tonality
it. The overall neutral gray field empha- of the background.
sizes the color in the composers’ names. PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES
The names themselves appear in a

188 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 188 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 188 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 188
 Two versions of a composition is the next most-similar thing
of numbers demonstrate the to be seen and rapidly linked
effect of chromatic color on to the 3. In the second version
hierarchy, showing the layout of the composition (right),
in the same set of colors, but the numbers read in the
with the colors distributed dif- correct sequence. This time,
ferently among the numbers the stark hue/value contrast
in each version. In both, hue, occurs in the 1, and each
intensity, and value contrasts subsequent number shows a
overcome relative type size or diminishing degree of contrast
weight as the determining fac- (whether in saturation, value,
tor for entering the layout and or temperature) relative to
navigating. In the first version the background.
(left), the numbers read out of
sequence (5, 3, 4, 2, 1): the 5
shows the greatest value and
hue contrast with the field; the
3, although similar in value to
the background, is large and
of the same hue as the 5; the 4

The digital environment

is forgiving when it comes
to legibility issues in the
context of type and its
background color. Not only
can one immediately see
whether that color relation-
ship is yielding a legible
result (and change it, on the
fly, if it isn’t), but the screen
permits a far greater range
of color contrasts, such
that relatively subtle visual
separation between text and
its background will allow for
the text to be read.
—
Print out such an instance
of onscreen subtlety,
however, and the type will
probably disappear into its
background. When trying
to evaluate whether text,
set in a particular color, is
adequately legible against
a colored background, it’s
always best to refer to some
printed reference, like this
one, to the right. It shows
a type sample in a set of
colors, in different weights,
situated on a range of hues
in a value progression from
light to dark. It’s not com-
prehensive, of course, but it
can give you an idea of how
certain hues will interact.
Keep in mind that the type
sample itself is relatively
large (16 points in size),
and that smaller sized text
may not visually contrast a
background as robustly as
ol- seen here.
the

ty

189 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 189 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 189 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 189
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

One of the most important

concepts to grasp in relation to
color and hierarchy is that of
diminishing contrast between
figure and field, foreground
to background. Elements
that are most different from
the field (in relative value,
saturation, or temperature)
will visually separate, advance
in space, and dominate the A
hierarchy. Each degree of
less-pronounced contrast will
appear as another “layer” that
is optically “further away” or,
“closer” to the background.
This stepped perceptual logic
applies in either direction: if
the field is dark, the lightest
element will appear to be in
the foreground; if the field is
light, the darkest will; if the
B
field is cool in temperature, the
warmest element will appear
to be in the foreground. The
striking exception to the rule
occurs with saturation relation-
ships, especially if type and
field are of the same value: a
more saturated type element
will always advance over a less
saturated one.

VALUE TEMPERATURE (HUE) SATURATION

F
Both of these layouts show the principle of diminishing
figure/ground contrast in action. In the screen presen-
tation page, above, the gray text exists in a midground
position between the orange callout at top left and the
blue field. In the book spread at right, the lighter value
letters do the same, relative to the light field of the
paper color.
LOEWY / UNITED KINGDOM 
LSD SPACE / SPAIN  G

190 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 190 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 190 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 190
 It can be challenging to posi-
o tion a text element to straddle
two different color fields and
keep it uniformly legible. As is
often the case, value relation-
ships are the first consideration:
the text element must be of a
value that is different enough
from those of both fields to
visually separate from them
A such that it appears continuous,
rather than segmented.
—
t If one field is very dark and the
other very light in value, that
goal will only be achievable if
the text element is of a middle
value, or if the text’s value is
reversed, what is sometimes
called “checkerboarding” (A).
While this strategy technically
works, it also tends to introduce
B
e a jarring disconnect within the
word, because the visual pres-
ence of the positive element
will change dramatically as it
- crosses from one field to the
other; the text won’t quite hold
up as a totality, and will need to
be reread.
s —
Generally, the two areas must
be of similar value to each
C
other, whether dark (B) or light,
(C); and, together, significantly
different in value from that of
the type. This logic also some-
what follows with regard to hue
(temperature) and saturation.
Value aside, legibility will
improve if both fields are some-
what analogous in hue, whether
cool (D) or warm (E), and the
type more or less complemen-
tary; and, if both fields are
D generally either saturated (F) or
desaturated (G), and the type is
of opposing saturation.

Interesting foreground/background condi- crosses from background over the photo-

tions in these two projects highlight the graph at lower right, even though smaller
odd dimensionality that color brings to in size than the headline at top, appears
F type. In the website (top), the cool charcoal to float closer in space. In the posters, just
gray of the background is of a value that above, the alternate distribution of blue,
allows elements in inset photographs (like red, and white calls attention to how much
those at the bottom of the page area) to be apparent variation in spatial depth can
both darker and lighter than its own. It’s occur simply by altering color application
a detail, but the copper-colored type that to figure or ground.
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE 
PODPUNKT / POLAND 

191 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 191 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 191 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 191
 TYPE AS INFORMATION

The preeminence of value relationships use of diminishing contrast strategies

over those of hue and saturation are positions the greatest saturation and
laid bare in these three projects; infor- value contrasts in the names of featured
mation is also coded in various ways composers and performance dates.
as a result. In the event program just VCU QATAR / QATAR 
below, contrast in value between Ara- BRAND BROTHERS / FRANCE 
bic and English privileges the former for TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
local spreakers. In the poster, below, the
secondary title, “More than technol-
ogy” occupies an ambiguous space that
supports its forward-looking message.
In the website at right, more complex

B
co
v
p
p
m
it
to
fu
th
ro
br
co
PE
CO

192 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 192 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 192 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 192
 Color acts as information in these map locations with associated text,
book spreads about New York City as well as the time of a visit to that
neighborhoods. In the overview location displayed in the chronologi-
map, each location’s color is made cal list at the right.
different enough to clearly separate MYUNG HA CHANG / UNITED STATES
them; in subsequent detail maps,
the specific coloration of a location
indicates that this is the subject
currently in focus. Color connects

Both brochures here use saturated color as an emphatic

coding device within neutral environments. By using the
vivid green of the photograph to highlight important
product features, the designers of the brochure above tie
product quality to the content or meaning of the image. A
medium-value gray offers a calming, contemplative qual-
ity to the brochure at right while causing the red accents
to link visually, coding the information they carry as
fundamentally related and, in the case of the gradation in
the large, rotated headline, emphasizing the meaningful
root words in the phrase. Compared to the gray in the
brochure above (also warm), the gray used here has a red
component that helps unify it with the saturated reds.
PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
COBRA / NORWAY 

193 CHO O SIN G A N D U SIN G T Y P E T Y P E A S I N F OR M AT I ON

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 193 4/6/20 11:07 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_132-193.indd 193 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:04 AM
Text Page: 193
 Images are no longer just representations
or interpreters of human actions. They have
become central to every action that connects
humans to each other...as much reference
points for information and knowledge as
visualizations of human creativity.

RON BURNETT/ Design educator and author; from How Images Think,
The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 1993

THE WORLD OF
IMAGERY

194

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 194 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 194 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 194
 IN THIS CHAPTER:

196
THE NATURE OF IMAGES
Pictures have enthralled people for 50,000 years. And no wonder: they capture
complex experiences (empirical, conceptual, spiritual) in flat, two-dimensional
form. This section illuminates how that happens, for both pictorial and abstract
images, in a discussion of semiotics—the study of visual signs.

206
MEDIA AND METHODS
Whatever the subject an image might depict, designers have myriad options
for rendering it. From photography to painting, collage to digital processing,
every kind of image-making medium offers a particular visual language to
consider in relation to its subject matter and for a project overall.

220
CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT
This section focuses on ways of thinking about the content that an image
presents: how a designer visualizes an idea through the selection of its
subject elements and, further, hones its conceptual value—manipulating
its context, composition, cropping, and otherwise visually adjusting it.

234
NARRATIVE MASSAGE
Images tell stories (or, present “narratives”) but they rarely do so alone.
Juxtaposed with text or other images, whether simultaneously in a given
space or in a sequence, a single image takes on new meanings—ones a
designer may exploit for deeper engagement and metaphorical value.

195 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S T H E W OR L D OF I M A GE R Y

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 195 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 195 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 195
 THE NATURE OF IMAGES

What Images Are Image making is the most complex and it shows only a reality someone wants you to see. Images are
human of activities, and the most profound communica- a visual counterpoint to text: they offer a visceral connec-
tion tool available. An image is more than a simple depictor tion to experiences described by writing; they can clarify
of objects or places or people. It is a symbolic, emotional complex information “at-a-glance,” and add interpretive
space that replaces physical experience in a viewer’s mind. This overlay. It’s foolish to think that a beautiful photograph or
is true of images that are abstract and those that purportedly illustration alone will solve a communication problem. An
show “real” things. It’s challenging, but critical, to realize image’s power isn’t solely wrapped up in its subject matter;
that all images are contrived and embody an agenda (most it becomes relevant when its composition and production
notably in the context of design, where images are used to technique, as well as its subject matter, act in concert with
not only inform but to persuade): No image depicts reality— other material to create an integrated message.

THE SPECTRUM OF REPRESENTATION

LITERAL CONCRETE ICONIC DIAGRAMMATIC CONNOTATIVE SYMBOLIC

< pictorial nonpictorial >

The presentation of images boundaries are fluid and mutable: shows something real is an sic messaging of abstract form appropriate imagery for an
falls on a spectrum that ranges The aspects of any image are abstraction on some level—it described in chapter 1 to influence intended communicative purpose
between two major territories: likely to cross from one territory depicts a state of activity that is a photograph’s composition will necessitates understanding how
they either depict some subject to another or exhibit character- no longer happening and flattens enhance its messaging potential. images work: what their parts
or content that corresponds to istics from several, depending on it into a two-dimensional form. Similarly, suggesting concrete lit- are, how we identify those parts
observable experience (pictorial); the designer’s goal. In the right Portions of it might not even be eral experience within an abstract and assign meaning to them and,
or they are made up of graphic context, a simple yellow circle real, but instead, contrivances set composition will help ground the further, how those parts can be
forms that don’t appear to have becomes the Sun. A composition up by the photographer or by the message in reality for a viewer, manipulated to assure a reliable
a source in physical reality (non- of lines in dynamic rhythms might designer directing the creation of making it more accessible without interpretation and a compelling
pictorial). Both major territories communicate a subtler message the photograph. Using the intrin- sacrificing the abstraction’s experience.
contain subterritories, and their about movement or energy, not simplicity and visceral evocative
necessarily referring to some power. Creating or selecting
literal object or experience. Even
a photograph that presumably

A
in
li
be
in
ri
sk
m
th
a
O
CO
ZI

The images shown here (an illustration, SEAN RYAN / UNITED STATES 
two logos, and a book’s collage) capture the MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN 
essence of the representational spectrum, TEN-DO-TEN / JAPAN 
from empirically pictorial (left) to nonpic- ANDREAS ORTAG / AUSTRIA 
torial (right).

196 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 196 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 196 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 196
 How Images Communicate Perception and cognition viewer has some basis for comparison. But a viewer may
(what the brain does with pictures to understand them) are have no such basis, relying instead on bottom-up processing:
the focus of semiology: the study of signs (visual stimuli). A comparing features against different experiences to find
sign consists of two parts: the signifier (its visual form), and commonality and infer a possible identity. Template matches
its signified (the concept it calls up). In the simplest terms, are essentially literal images: useful as basic information,
a viewer perceives the syntax of a sign and then attempts but not especially interesting. With prototype matches and,
to identify it: by template matching it against memories of more so, images requiring bottom-up processing, designers
past experience; or by protoype matching, averaging features more effectively engage viewers: the viewer’s added effort
to arrive at a generalization, rather than a perfect match. forces them to draw upon varied associations and experi-
These are examples of top-down processing, meaning that the ences—analysis, reinvention, and metaphor come into play.

Upon encountering the poster at far

left, viewers will quickly template-
match the subjects “human figure,”
and “praying gesture,” but the
replacement of the head with that
of an animal, and juxtapositions of
incongruous elements, will require
the viewer to process from the bottom
up to gain deeper understanding.
The simple, clear visual form of the
type’s arrangement in the poster at
near left, however, creates an easy
template match for the viewer, that
of a flag.
ZOVECK ESTUDIO / MEXICO 
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN 

A hybrid of two iconic, easily recognized subjects

in the book cover immediately to the right estab-
lishes causality and/or equivalence, or parity,
between their identities—and all the meanings
inherent in them. In the two book covers further
right, the specific syntax of each one’s pattern
skews its signification: that of the one in the
middle is recognized as Art Déco ornament, while
that of the one furthest to the right is interpreted
as a psychedelic experience.
OLIVER MUNDAY GROUP / UNITED STATES 
CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH / UNITED KINGDOM 
ZIPENG ZHU / UNITED STATES 

197 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y T H E N AT U R E OF I M A GE S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 197 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 197 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 197
 THE NATURE OF IMAGES

Pictorial Images One clear option is to represent an idea include less, and fewer kinds. Expansiveness and reduction
pictorially by using photographs, illustrations (drawings somewhat correlate to an image’s perceived naturalism (dis-
or paintings), or a combination of these. Deciding which cussed on the following pages). A designer must consider
really depends on evaluating a project’s content and its a number of things in choosing how much visual informa-
conceptual needs. Pictorial images provide informational tion an image ought to include: the evocative, emotional
clarity, but evoke emotional, associational, and branded qualities of the project’s content; what is needed to convey
messages as well. A pictorial image’s form may be expan- specific kinds of messages; and the viewing audience’s
sive—intricate, detailed, and made up of many kinds of expectation for certain image experiences over others,
syntax, as is that of a photograph or detailed rendering; because of social or historical contexts. And then, one must
alternatively, it may be reductive—editing the syntax to consider how an image points to, or signifies, its meaning.

Identifying a pictorial form in-

cludes assessing its abstract syn-
tax, which underscores the more
complex, specific understanding
acquired via further template
matching: the circularity of the
flower supports the understand-
ing of its organic nature. Greater
complexity confronts a viewer
when two recognizably different
signifieds, or concepts, share a
form identity: Both the flower
and the car wheel are circular ...
so now, what interrelationship
exists in their presumedly differ-
ent meanings?

It doesn’t take much information for a ralistic (like the photograph in the website
viewer to be able to recognize the subject above, right) or relatively naturalistic, as
of a pictorial image, as shown by the in the illustration at right.
reductive depiction of watermelon slices HUNGRY STUDIO / SLOVAKIA 
above. On the other hand, viewers often ISHAN KHOSLA DESIGN / INDIA 
benefit from extremely detailed, expansive CYR STUDIO / UNITED STATES 
depictions, which may be absolutely natu-

198 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 198 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 198 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 198
n Modes of Signification In semiotic terms, a pictorial image whose form is visually unrelated to its signified is a
s- image may embody any of three modes. The first mode, symbol; it derives its power from an arbitrary agreement
icon, has several meanings that can cause some confusion. that this particular image will mean that particular idea among
- Technically, an icon is an image whose syntax shares a members of a specific group: the image of a white dove
structural similarity with the object it signifies: it looks is a symbol of peace in Western culture. Interestingly (but,
like what it is. Descriptive drawings and photographs are maybe not surprisingly), a nonpictorial (abstract) image
both iconic in their modality. Images that are representation- may just as easily be a symbol as a pictorial one. The context
al, but not pictures of the signified itself, are called indexical in which an image appears will immediately qualify or alter
t signs, and refer to their subjects indirectly through associa- its mode—an iconic image may suddenly index another
tion: An image of an egg or nest indexes a bird. A pictorial idea; an index may become symbolic.

An icon is a visual sign that The reductive, graphical simplicity of the images in the
shares a structural similarity
with the object it signifies.
book cover ( just above) and the poster (to the right) is
Usually, icons are devoid of deceptive. Both use icon supersigns to deliver extremely
detail and are literal repre- deep and complex narratives.
sentations of their signified LESLEY MOORE / NETHERLANDS 
object.
JANET HANSEN / UNITED STATES 

An indexical sign, or index, is

a visual sign that points to its
signified object indirectly,
or “indexes” it—for example,
a nest indexes a bird.

A symbol is a pictorial or
nonpictorial image whose
form is unrelated to its signi-
fied object or idea; it derives
its power from the arbitrary
agreement of the culture
that uses the symbol. Both
of these symbols signify the
same concept.

The context in which a

symbol appears (culturally
or subculturally) will alter its
symbolic meaning: consider A supersign combines representational
the difference in meaning modes, as do these four logos: The top
between the same symbol
element in these various two integrate icons (a snake and bundled
environments. wires, respectively) with letters, which
are symbols; the lower two both integrate
icons with symbols (the caution stripes
and the star form, respectively).
LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
RAIDY PRINTING GROUP / LEBANON 
THOMAS CSANO / CANADA 
DAVID AIREY / NORTHERN IRELAND 

199 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y T H E N AT U R E OF I M A GE S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 199 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 199 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 199
 THE NATURE OF IMAGES
W
th
Stylization Pictorial images that render their subjects as interpretation. Effective stylization depends on identifying
th
they accurately appear in the real world, as observed, are universally recognizable elements in a given subject and d
described as naturalistic. Of course, that’s not the only way simplifying, exaggerating, and otherwise altering them to ot
to depict a physical object or scene: one might choose to invent a specific visual language that lives as its own idea, by
stylize it—which means to purposely alter or edit the visual rather than simply reproducing its likeness. A stylized im- le
u
language used to represent its subject (to mediate it) away age may intend to communicate objectively and neutrally k
from the way it looks in real life toward one that is more by distilling its subject’s features to their fundamental LS
abstract. Stylization emphasizes awareness of the image “truth”; at the other extreme, a designer may interfere with M

as a contrivance, as intellectually calculated, even though this semiotic purity, skewing the communication toward
its imposed form language may evoke a more emotional being interpreted one way or another.

One of the decisions a

designer must make is the
degree to which evidence
of the means of the image’s
creation will be explicit or
downplayed. A designer may
decide in favor of a “clean” S
presentation: An imposed
imperceptibility of the im- iz
age’s creation that suggests v
“realism” or objectivity. A
— fu
Works in which the image-
making process is visible ra
start down the road of co
stylization. This may be O
purposely exaggerated, and
the designer may further TO
impose a contrived form
language; both carry subjec-
tive or emotive qualities.
When form language itself
becomes a purposeful
component of an image,
it takes on a dual role—
acting as a vehicle for view-
ers to recongize the subject
it represents, and as an
independent experience that
adds some other knowledge
about the subject.
—
The form language used to
stylize may directly refer
Images that are stylized encourage
to observed elements in viewers to explore interpretation of
the subject: short, tufted their subject matters simply because
marks, for example, may it’s immediately clear that such images
texturally represent leaves
or trees themselves, rather are not intended to convey objective
than be used as secondary information—and, people being the
components to construct a curious creatures they are, will want
naturalistic illusion of leaves to know why. The syntax and medium,
or trees—effectively refer-
ring to them in shorthand. as well as specific contrivances, like
The degree of stylization distortion, will help direct viewers’
within an image alters a intepretation, whether it’s one of
viewer’s intellectual focus.
Toward the realistic end of
humanistic expression, contemplation
the spectrum, the subject’s of discipline, or humorous character-
literal meaning takes on ization of a profession—to which these
more importance; as it images respectively allude.
becomes more stylized, the
gesture, the quality of the VCU QATAR / QATAR 
marks, and associations or MUNDA GRAPHICS / AUSTRALIA 
symbolic messaging that ANDREW GORKOVENKO / RUSSIA 
these impart become more
important.

200 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 200 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 200 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 200
 When many people hear the word “stylization,” they first
think of simplified, reductive, hard-edged graphics like those in
g
the logo, below, and the poster to the right (both by the same
designers, for different clients). But stylization may also involve
other kinds of media and more organic approaches, as shown
by the translation of the water bottle at far right. It’s no more or
less abstract than the images that precede it; it’s simply made
using a different medium. The medium itself, in this case adds
knowledge about the subject as part of the stylization.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN  
MIN SHAO / UNITED STATES 

Stylization is a powerful tool for custom-

izing imagery to help communicate a client’s
visual identity as part of a brand program.
As much as such stylization might add
further meaning, its most pronounced nar-
rative becomes one of identification with the
company, product, or service in question.
ORDER / UNITED STATES  
TOORMIX / SPAIN 

es
It’s easy to identify stylization in a
drawn or painted image; to a certain
degree, the fact of the medium, if visible
m, in the image’s execution, already alerts
a viewer to its stylized nature. Stylization
in photographic images is more subtle,
usually embodied in consciously unnatural
n lighting or coloration, more extreme
viewing angle or cropping, and clearly
se artificial propping or presence of materials
that are out of context.
ANDREW GORKOVENKO / RUSSIA 
LA BOCA / UNITED KINGDOM 

201 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y T H E N AT U R E OF I M A GE S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 201 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 201 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 201
 THE NATURE OF IMAGES

Nonpictorial Images All forms carry meaning, no versely, a square means the opposite (artificial, intel-
matter how apparently simple or elemental they appear. lectual, architectural); its equivalent angles and parallel
We rely on the analysis of visual stimuli, relative to prior sides occur only in the works of humanity. Further, forms
experience, to identify meaning accordingly. The shape, become significantly more meaningful when they can be
size, linearity, or mass of a perceived form tells us what it compared. If they exhibit parity (are similar), they must
might be: our knowledge of forms allows us to project that be equivalent in meaning; if not, they must be different,
understanding onto a form in a new context. For example, and the quality of this difference will contribute addi-
we know from experience that the Sun, Moon, cells, water tional meaning. All of this information is acquired just
droplets, and other such things are round: confronted from a form itself, never mind its apparent behavior.
with a circular plane, we identify it as “natural.” Con-

Si
Rage Comfort po

TEMPORAL

INDIVIDUAL

FA M I L I A L

S U B C U LT U R A L

C U LT U R A L Anders Mission
Research Areas
Search
Resources

BIOLOGICAL Biophysics Partnering

Team Leaders
News
Va
D

Recent discoveries by paleo- By way of illustration, above the certainty of repetition,

Group Publications

anthropologists provide is a characteristic sample of softness and curvilinearity,

evidence that nonpictorial nonpictorial visual responses and the completeness of
drawing appeared about by students to two prompts, singular forms, sometimes
90,000 years ago, one of the “rage,” shown to the left, made up of similar ones
first indicators of symbolic and “comfort,” to the right— in aggregate. The simple
thought. Abstract imagery from among hundreds gath- schematic diagram portrays
resonates with us very deep- ered over 15 years. “Rage” the relative level of resonant
ly; and it may bypass the elicits a nearly identical form depth each sample reaches.
intellectual barriers created language of heavy, jagged,
by temporal (circumstantial) multidirectional and disor-
and personal experience, and dered marks: evidence of the M
cultural upbringing, to affect emotion's universality. In
us on a nearly biological level. “Comfort,” being dependent
on individual experience,
results in gestures of greater
Images that merge the pictorial and literally describing them. In the B
variety (and more so than nonpictorial have an abstract life web page just above, nonpictorial w
shown here) that, nonethe- of their own while still serving a forms similarly capture the essence th
less, are variations on several gr
depictive function. In the drawing at of molecular transformation. si
themes: restful horizontality,
top, media and gesture represent tree EVA SURANY / UNITED STATES  si
branches in wind and rain without TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 

202 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 202 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 202 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 202
 Signification Through Visual Grammar Forms acquire group or part more subtly and exaggerating differences
new meanings when they participate in spatial relation- between others. Tiny adjustments in form are easily per-
s ships: because of their rotation, singularity or repetition, ceived, so differences between each group can be precisely
alignment, clustering, or separation from each other. Each controlled. There are numerous strategies for creating
state tells the viewer something new about the forms and such interplay. Of course, which strategy to employ will
their respective meanings. Forms that appear to be moving, depend on the messages a designer determines are most
or energetic, mean something very different from those appropriate andrelevant for his or her particular project.
that are arranged statically. The degree of difference be- And, let’s not forget that the messages conveyed by the
tween elements can be subtle or dramatic, and the designer logic of organization apply equally to pictorial forms and
can imply different degrees of meaning by isolating one image elements.

This brochure uses very simple spatial and color interaction

among dots and lines to communicate simple, but abstract,
concepts expressed in large-size quotations. The first spread
( just below) is concerned with persuasion, and so the dots
Distance / Isolation Progressive separation / Reordering / overlap to share a common spatial area. In the second spread
Breaking out or leaving Disharmony or disorder
(bottom), the issue is planning; the green dot is “captured”
by the horizontal line and appears to be pulled from right
(the future) to left (the present).
AND PARTNERS / UNITED STATES

Size change / Increased im- Progressive size change / Orientation change /

portance; implied relationship Increased importance; growth Movement or energy

rch
ources
ws
Value change / Differentiated shape / Contour complexity /
Distinction, confrontation Specificity, individual identity Aggression or complication

Movement inward, overlap / Interval change / Interval and grouping /

Interference, assembly Enclosure or protection Unity and opposition

By differentiating elements (or groups thereof) from others

within an overall grouping, a designer instigates comparisons
ce that elicit several questions: “What is the nature of each
grouping? How are they different? What does this difference
signify?” Shown here are a number of examples that illustrate
simple comparative formal interactions.


203 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y T H E N AT U R E OF I M A GE S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 203 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 203 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 203
 THE NATURE OF IMAGES

Complex Abstract Messaging The seemingly generic audience—and vice versa. While interpretations of abstract
and intangible qualities of abstraction belie its profound imagery are often emotional (a quality designers may use
capacity to convey messages on a universal perceptual level to subliminally manipulate more concrete imagery)
that viewers very rarely are able to acknowledge. Ever more abstract form languages may be used to communicate any
specific interpretations deriving from cultural context, number of concrete subjects, not only intangible ones.
individual experience, and emotional life compound the Through a combination of form language, compositional
common and universal; every level of interpretive response structure, and positive/negative interaction, abstract imag-
mutually colors the others. As we have seen, the more ery may represent a physical activity, natural force, or scien-
primal an intended message, the more common its form tific discipline; it may connote a historical time or place, or
language and its reliability in communicating to a diverse allude to processes both intellectual and experiential.

Winter Evolution Monumental

Unity Ephemeral Sensuous R

d
v
co
R

Technology Effervescence Traffic

Conflict Mapping Dissolution

Elegantly swirling curves—whose fluid move-

ment, precision weight contrasts, and surface
sheen all communicate notions of luxury—are
applied to the walls of a home furnishings shop to
enhance the appeal of the products on display.
A10 DESIGN / BRAZIL

204 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 204 4/6/20 11:14 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 204 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 204
t Introducing abstract imagery into compositions that also from other, competing ones—supercritical in branding—
include pictorial subjects invites speculation about the abstraction, being profoundly unique, offers a completely
juxtaposition. Used as fields or backgrounds, such imagery custom experience for a client’s audience. Further, it’s pos-
creates a new context in which to frame understanding of sible for designers who can’t draw or illustrate (or who don’t
a naturalistic subject; used within, or on top of, pictorial have the time or budget to commission custom imagery) to
images—even photographic ones, whose typically eviden- invent compelling, relevant graphical experiences using
- tiary literalness is difficult to dismiss outright—can have drawing and image manipulation software without having
n- dramatic consequences on that image’s presumed meaning. to master Renaissance-quality drawing or other image-
r And given that one important task for a designer often is to making techniques—and, being thus empowered, create
clearly, and memorably, differentiate a visual experience new and aesthetically fulfilling project solutions.

Vigorous, gestural painted marks suggest a physical landscape

while evoking a sense of the rising wind that accompanies the
transition from summer to autumn. These natural forces contrast
the clean geometry of technology, represented both abstractly (dots
and diagrammatic elements) and pictorially.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

Repeated patterns of lines create vibration and the illusion of three-

dimensional planes that may be interpreted as printed surfaces,
video texture, and ideas related to transmission associated with
communication design.
RESEARCH STUDIOS / UNITED KINGDOM

Nonpictorial imagery brings added value to any any client’s project

by being proprietary and specific to their communications. Dynamic
linear and tonal compositions such as that shown in this postcard
are the basis for an entire branding program. And, even though the
imagery conveys an appropriately scientific quality, it doesn’t limit
itself by suggesting any one science in particular—which means all
the disciplines to be found in the site are generally represented.
CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER / AUSTRIA

205 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y T H E N AT U R E OF I M A GE S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 205 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 205 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 205
 MEDIA AND METHODS

The Notion of Mediation Most generally, to mediate less, conspicuously visible. Mediation implicates images’
means to intercede (to get involved). Designing is itself an apparent naturalism (less mediated) or stylization (more
act of mediation: raw information is visually altered for a mediated); and, how obvious is the medium itself. A seam-
purpose. Here, the term describes a designer’s perceived lessly realistic painting, lacking noticeable brushstrokes
involvement in presenting images’ subjects: Do they appear (less mediated) hides how it was made, but one with readily
simply chosen and unadulterated (less mediated)? Or is visible brushwork (more mediated) does the opposite. The
there extensive involvement (more mediated)? The root degree of mediation must be considered for its potential
word, media, suggests that how an image is made (photog- effect on a project’s perceived objectivity. And the medium
raphy, versus illustration, for instance) influences viewers’ chosen to make an image alters perception of a subject’s
awareness of its contrivance—making that fact more, or meaning—which is why that choice is super important.

Fr
tr
to
to
a
tr
th
ER

The question of mediation and credibility comes to the fore

in comparing these two illustrations. Both are fabrica-
tions—but which one seems more real? If you decided that
T
the corncob person does, you’re probably not alone: its
w
empirical, photographic qualities make it more believable as
G
“real” than the invented space and painterly texture of the
st
drawn image on the right.
h
CHRISTOPHER SHORT / UNITED STATES 
ti
CYR STUDIO / UNITED STATES  p
A
All these images depict the same
subject—a figure—but their differing
syntax intrinsically mediates the
subject to varying degrees. The “pure”
photograph is the least mediated of
the three. The two drawn images are
inherently more mediated than the
photographic image but, between the
two, the naturalistic drawing is less
mediated than the other. The decision to illustrate the
vegetables on this label, rather than
to photograph them, ensures their
absolute perfection and freshness.
WALLACE CHURCH / UNITED STATES

206 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 206 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 206 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 206
 The Medium is a Message A line is a line…or not. Every perceived feel (softness, hardness, fluidity, or stiffness);
mechanical method of creating an image has its own prop- and, sometimes, through its conceptual or allusory aspects
erties (makes characteristic marks) that add a specific kind (for example, using a drawing tool native to a certain region
of visual language to an image. Every medium, therefore, or historical period). Whether a designer is working with
y powerfully affects an image’s communicative value, not pictorial or abstract means to communicate a particular
just its formal qualities relative to other elements around it. idea, he or she must keep in mind that any image visual-
Above and beyond overall territory (pictorial or abstract) izing it may be created with any medium. The question is
and semiotic mode (if a pictorial image), the medium a what medium best corroborates the idea? The only way to
designer chooses for a project’s imagery carries meaning. find out is to test—by reproducing an image using different
A given medium conveys such meaning first through its media and alternating them in a layout for comparison.

From fragility to the material

translucency of glass, to distortion,
to the sense of the glass’s function,
to double vision, and beyond to
agitated intoxication—a treasure
trove of stories waits to unfold from
the medium alone.
ERICA PETERSON / UNITED STATES

The choice of image used for one of several

wall panels in a French cultural center—
Guignol, a puppet character from a child’s
story—is symbolic of French culture. Its The packaging system above
historical stature is altered through media- invokes the raw playfulness of
tion: representing the image in a digital painting to convey a childlike
pixel pattern that makes it contemporary. energy for a manufacturer of
APELOIG DESIGN / FRANCE toddler’s goods. Painting, in the
sense of Medieval illumination,
forms a conceptual backdrop
for an illustration studio’s web-
site (left); ancient and modern
tools come together in the site’s
navigation.
CLASSMATE STUDIO / HUNGARY 
DISTURBANCE / SOUTH AFRICA 

207 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y M E D I A A N D M E T H OD S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 207 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 207 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 207
 MEDIA AND METHODS

Photography Photographic images have become preemi- photographs a designer can license for use are abundantly
nent in design. They’re lush, luminous, and vital; and their available. They’re useful in a pinch, but often are generic or
directness allows viewers to rapidly process them. Access cliché. Much worse is that one runs the risk of an image he
speed in imagery is important; the faster a viewer can under or she has used for a project being licensed by some other
stand an image’s significance, the more likely they are to designer to use in another context entirely—which dilutes
invest continued attention. Plus, a photograph’s contrivance the intellectual impact on viewers who have seen it before.
isn’t so readily appreciated and, although many viewers are Further, viewers who encounter the same image in different
attuned to photography’s deceptive potential, they’re still contexts will be confused (“Whose ad is this?”), and likely to
more likely to accept a photograph as truth over an illus- question the authenticity of the image’s message. Hire a
tration. On a purely practical level, stock (or, ready made) photographer! Better yet: learn to shoot your own images.

P
ci
n
These images highlight the compel- th
ling, “documentary” quality of photo- br
graphs. In the website and packaging a
above, clean, neutral daylight and me- so
ticulous styling capture forthrightness be
and wholesomeness. Such seemingly th
neutral hotographic images also may SU
be used as independent elements, FO
as on the book cover below, right. U
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES 
WALLACE CHURCH / UNITED STATES 
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN  A clever viewpoint and stark, high-contrast
lighting used for the poster, above, render a
typically recognizable subject in an almost
scientific way.
KING 20G / UNITED KINGDOM

208 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 208 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 208 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 208
 Many designers forget that the light-based image-capture tech-
nology of xerography, radiography, and flatbed scanners are all
photographic processes—and they offer extremely interesting pos-
sibilities, as seen in the two websites and brochure spread below.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
MUCHO / SPAIN 
GRETEL / UNITED STATES 

Photography becomes espe-

cially intriguing when used
nonrealistically, as seen in
these constructed editorial and
brand illustrations. As surreal
and contrived as they are,
somehow these images will
be perceived as grounded in
the real world.
SUPERBÜRO / SWITZERLAND 
FOR THE PEOPLE / TASMANIA 
UMBRELLA DESIGN / INDIA 

209 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y M E D I A A N D M E T H OD S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 209 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 209 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 209
 MEDIA AND METHODS

Drawing and Painting Hand-generated images are deeply symbolic and hand-made qualities. An illustration’s success
appealing: they offer a personally creative quality lacking in lies in the appropriateness of its style for its subject. Most is
the seamless realism of photographs. Designers commonly contracted from specialists who cultivate a specific style, but
use the term illustration to mean “images that are drawn and this shouldn’t preclude designers from taking on the role of
painted” although it’s a pretty broad term and can refer to image-maker themselves; their images may be more appro-
photography, collage, and other approaches. A designer who priate and integrate better than would be likely if working
chooses to draw or paint is not only free from the limitations through an outside source. Many neglect this possibility due
of empirical rendering, but can add conceptual qualities to a sense of intimidation: “I can’t even draw a stick figure.”
for interpretation. Doing so can mean sacrificing real-world Illustration can be many things, regardless of native talent,
credibility; but the power of illustration is in its poetic, experience, or academic naiveté in making it.

Whatever the subject or narrative to be conveyed, In both cases, the drawing extends to custom
the range of media from which to choose (never type forms integrated into the image field. In the
mind specific techniques that are possible in each) packaging above, right, a more studied, analytical
is enoromous. Scratchy, almost distraught cross- approach finds its voice in another dry media,
hatching produced with pen and ink enhances scratchboard, expressing a sense of craft with its
the mysterious and slightly sinister quality of the carefully articulated line work.
image above, left. In contrast, fluid gestural marks AMES BROS. / UNITED STATES 
(digital and conventional) and washes of color PETTIS DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
made with wet media lend powerful vitality to a FUMAN / NEW ZEALAND 
humanistic message (above, middle).

210 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 210 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 210 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 210
t

Abstract marking in these three projects works

to suggest more concrete ideas (sometimes,
explicitly). The bold, horizontal swaths of color
across the system of festival programs, above,
refer to their art subject but also evoke the
reflection of light and land on water; similarly,
the linear dribbles and dot-like splots in the
program at right suggest leaves and stems, as
well as musical notes. The face on the olive oil
bottle (above, right) is clearly pictorial, but con-
structed from a cluster of abstract marks that
suggest, possibly, the pits of olives or, perhaps,
grains of rice one might cook with the oil.
FOR THE PEOPLE / TASMANIA 
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE 
VOICE / AUSTRALIA 

The doodle-like quality of the line work in

these juice package illustrations extends into
the drawing of all the text, delivering a spon-
taneous, refreshing, and direct quality while
clearly describing the contents.
BILLIE JEAN / UNITED KINGDOM

M E DI A A N D M E T H ODS

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 211 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 211 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 211
 MEDIA AND METHODS

Reductive Approaches Conventional illustration tends instance of it: a translation of a cat, for instance, depicts “cat-
to be naturalistic, incorporating the detail that implies. But ness” in its totality, rather than a specific breed of cat. Unlike
it may also be highly edited, or reductive, even if it remains an icon, which is mostly about shape, textural and volumet-
naturalistic—many illustrations remove extraneous details ric qualities are important considerations: the cat translation
to emphasize conceptually meaningful ones. One particular must indicate that cats are softly furred, slinky and athletic,
reductive approach, graphic translation, evolved from poster and so on. The medium used can be important if its charac-
work in Switzerland and Germany in the early twentieth teristic marks help describe some aspect of the subject. A
century. It depicts subjects literally, like an icon, but also in scratchy charcoal texture, for example, might appropriately
a self-consciously abstract way that attempts to convey the describe the fragility or dryness of an autumn leaf, but the
fundamental truth of a subject, rather than one particular texture does not exist for its own sake.

These leaf translations all share

the quality of recognition, but the
language of each one is different,
affording knowledge of specific
aspects of the idea “leaf” from
alternately physical and metaphor-
ical viewpoints.

Clever reversals of positive and

negative, together with the exagger-
H
ated undulation of the octopus’s
w
tentacles, imparts the sinuous action
im
of its movement; in a completely opposite
h
gesture, the hyperstatic, machined quality
G
of the image elements below play off the
industrial narrative of the wine’s branding.
GREG FALCONI / UNITED STATES 
MIRELDY / CROATIA 

This motion sequence about the history of iconic,

twentieth-century skyscrapers delivers its information
with translations and graphic patterning that echoes
the design aesthetics of the time period.
LLOYD KIM / UNITED STATES

212 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 212 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 212 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 212
-
e

Graphically simplified scenes

on each of these brochure covers
illustrate ideas about financial
transformation, growth, manage-
ment, and diversification.
HYATT ASSOCS. / UNITED KINGDOM

Although technically a method for

reproducing a single image multiple
times, printmaking is an image-
Hand drawing and vector drawing are combined making medium in its own right; it
with xerographic effects to produce a high-tech exaggerates the tactility of drawing
image for this CD cover, nonetheless retaining a and painting because of the effects
human touch. of its various techniques. These include
GLASHAUS DESIGN / GERMANY
ancient methods, like the rough wood-
cut print in the cover above, as well as
industrial ones, like silkscreen, used
for the brochure at left. Both methods
are surprisingly easy to learn, and can
be applied in different ways for both
delicate, as well as more aggressive, or
edgy, effects.

TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 

MARTA GAWIN / POLAND 

Bold, naturalistic—yet simplified—

translations of tools give an authentic
brand voice to the website of a longtime,
family-owned construction business.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

213 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y M E DI A A N D M E T H ODS

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 213 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 213 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 213
 MEDIA AND METHODS

Collage Assembling found materials in a composition is of the source material (such as printed words or croppings
a development derived from Cubism in the 1910s and ’20s. of image). When the source components of a collage are
Collage was initially used to add things like labels, flat piec- recognizable, the meaningful, conceptual relationships
es of wood, fabric, and so on into paintings, but it quickly that their content creates is extremely important. Collage
evolved into an independent medium. Given that a collage’s is a highly intuitive illustrative approach to image making
pictorial space is abstract because of its fragmented con- that considers the communicative value not only of dis-
struction, designers must resolve compositional issues parate subjects appearing in one space, but also of their
related to the material’s shape accordingly; but they must independent origins—and any meaningful, narrative “bag-
also address each item’s internal visual qualities: surface gage” they might drag into the mix as a result.
texture, graphical inclusions, color, and recognizability

Examples of collage show the varied pos-

sibilities in combining material: cut and
torn paper; found text and images; three-
dimensional material. Digital collage allows
for photographic effects—transparency,
blending, blurring, intricate silhouetting,
and masking not possible with conventional,
cut-and-paste techniques.

In this study, the message changes as

the content of the collage’s components
is changed. As the content becomes more
recognizable, the collage transmits a more
literal and, therefore, more specific message.
Because the source components of a collage
might be recognizable, the conceptual rela-
tionship between abstract and representa-
tional elements is extremely important.

Any kind of cut/paste approach is collage—

whether it’s made using cut and torn paper
(left) or digital means (right).
STEFF GEISSBUHLER / UNITED STATES 
GRETEL / UNITED STATES 

C
v
ra
bu
fo
to
ci
a
to
2F
M

214 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 214 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 214 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 214
 Juxtapositions of related (and sometimes unrelated)
images allow viewers to construct narrative without
being told what to think. Fragmented, overlapping pho-
tographs and text elements in the book cover just below
create a dimensional space that speaks of a Holocaust
survivor’s shattered childhood; in the cover at bottom,
disparate elements build a somewhat satirical narra-
- tive related to colonialism.
LABORATORIO SECRETO / BRAZIL 
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN 

Collage is an excellent method for building extravagant

visual environments and more conceptual, surreal nar-
ratives, like those seen here—both composed digitally,
but incorporating original hand-drawn elements with
found photographic and painted ones. In the image at
top, created for a travelogue, a modern, Turkish tourist
city seems to compose itself from the backdrop of an
ancient wall; the brand image for a cake shop alludes
to a certain fantastical fairy tale.
2FRESH / TURKEY 
METAKLINIKA / SERBIA 

215 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y M E D I A A N D M E T H OD S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 215 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 215 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 215
 MEDIA AND METHODS

Type As Image Giving type elements pictorial qualities similarity between the type’s abstract visual qualities and
beyond those of their basic form turns them into images of those that suggest its semantic meaning in the simplest way
what they mean, and the narrative potential is huge. Words possible. It’s easy to obscure a visual message or dilute
that are also pictures fuse several kinds of understanding: it. Viewers will easily perceive and remember one strong
they are supersigns. Viewers appreciate each meaningful message over several weaker ones—complexity is desirable,
aspect (visual/verbal/emotional/symbolic) immediately and whereas complication is not. Type can be transformed into
simultaneously; the greater ease of recalling images makes an image by using a variety of approaches. Each provides a
such word pictures highly effective for remembering their different avenue of exploration, and several might be appro-
verbal content. Like many aspects of strong type design, priate both to the desired communication and to the formal
transforming type into image means identifying a clear aspects of the type itself.

Form alteration changes the struc-

tural characteristics of type elements,
manipulating them to communicate
nonliteral ideas.
TIEN-MIN LIAO / UNITED STATES 
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE 

Deconstruction changes the visual Form substitution is a strategy in which a

relationships between the parts type form is replaced by an icon or symbol
of text, calling out the relation of whose visual structure still reads as that
its structure to its meaning or of the type it has replaced. The latter
spoken rhythm. concern is somewhat critical; if the form
LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY  substituting a particular letter is shaped
YOOJUNG KANG / UNITED STATES  like another letter, readability becomes
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES  a problem very quickly. A designer can
apply this approach to a single letter in a
word, or to every letter, as in the newsletter
masthead at bottom.
DEBRA OHAYON / UNITED STATES 
P
RAIDY PRINTING GROUP / LEBANON  e
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES  w
m
w
L
M
C

216 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 216 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 216 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 216
 Pictorialization occurs as the result of typography
becoming a representation of a real-world object
or taking on the qualities of something from actual
experience. Some of the logos above are accompanied
by wordmarks that reveal what they are, exccept for
the first three (ready?): one for a winery; the Barcelona
Metro; and the International Center of Photography.
Similar delight occurs in contemplating the two
posters to the left.

Logos above, left to right

JELENA DROBAC / SERBIA
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN
EUIKYOUNG LEE / UNITED STATES
SOOIM HEO / UNITED STATES
DEBORAH GRUBER / UNITED STATES
MOLTOBUREAU / GERMANY

PARALLAX / AUSTRALIA 
LSD SPACE / SPAIN 

s,

Ornamentation transforms typography with graphical

details, such as borders, dots, lines, dingbats, and other
embellishments—as it does here in a logo for a transit
system (top) and a titling treatment for a magazine’s
essay section (bottom).
BRUKETA & ZINIC / CROATIA 
FINEST MAGMA / GERMANY 

Pictorial inclusion refers to bringing illustrative

elements into the type forms so that they interact
with its strokes or counterspaces. This approach
merges the two and, in many instances, is a useful
way to add image material in a limited space.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
MIXER / SWITZERLAND 
C+G PARTNERS / UNITED STATES 

217 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y M E D I A A N D M E T H OD S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 217 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 217 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 217
 MEDIA AND METHODS

Data Processing Just in the past few years, advances in mare to try to accomplish any other way. Like all other
machine learning and AI have introduced powerful new tools and media, these more recently developed machine
ways of interating with imagery in a digital environment. languages leave their characteristic marks and effects on
Programming and processing code that executes custom, the material they process; it’s important to think about the
algorithm-based alterations to input data allow designers meaning of those effects from a visual standpoint (how
to invent new treatments that current industry-standard they affect the perception of an image’s subject matter)—
image software doesn’t; and it allows them to manipulate but, just as important, how they affect a viewer’s percep-
audio and video input, too—very often in real time. The tion of the nature of the image itself. The choice of me-
results are usually exceptionally complex textural render- dium means something (“Why paint? Why algorithm?),
ing, distortion, and layering that would be a real night- just as its signature formal qualities may do.

Despite its mathematical nature, the results of

much algorithmic image generation are extremely
organic in quality—mostly because of its complex-
ity and irregularity, and its quality of continual
reinvention. This is the case with the introductory
animation screen for a music festival website,
above: the graphical forms build, reorder, and
recombine—a visualization not only of sound but
of creativity. In the packaging system at right,
every box is custom, covered with a unique itera-
tion of organic arc forms—the ultimate in
brand personalization.
AKU / ESTONIA 
STUDIO MAKGILL / UNITED KINGDOM 

A
in
a
c
in
S

218 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 218 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 218 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 218
e

Endless modification of a visual language

through digital means establishes new
brands as responsive and allows them to
actively refresh over time—qualities that
are especially relevant for media and tech
companies like those whose business cards
are shown here.
GOÑI STUDIO / SPAIN 
MUCHO / SPAIN 

A simple, literal idea is transformed into a dynamic, engag-

ing set of animations and illustrations used for online, print,
and video touchpoints for a branded product launch. Clouds of
colored numerals ebb and flow, reforming into text and images
in a three-dimensional environment.
SELF-TITLED / AUSTRALIA

219 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y M E D I A A N D M E T H OD S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 219 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 219 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 219
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT

Image Realness It’s said that a picture is worth a thousand porting subjects or symbolic details. Clothing catalogues,
words; which words those are is the big question. It’s critical for example, often use setting, props, cropping, viewpoint,
to realize that we accept images as equivalent to lived reality; and lighting to convey concepts about lifestyle and mood;
a child shown an image of a cup for the first time will try to these aspects are what deliver the most meaningful ideas.
grab it, whatever that image’s medium. An image’s subject These conditions are no less true for photographic images
matter offers only a first step toward conveying its meaning. than for those purely invented, like illustrations. With pho-
The rest of that understanding depends on other factors: tography, especially, many designers overlook this required
which elements a designer includes or edits out; how those level of calculation, fooled by the ready-made completeness
are arranged; which are emphasized; whether any parts have they see within a camera’s frame…and accept it as is, the
been altered; the media involved; and relationships to sup- same way viewers will when encountering it.

Unexpected discrepancies in signifieds are

opportunities rich with metaphor, relying on
the viewer to make connections. This illustra-
tion accompanied an article on charity and
wealth disparity.
CATHERINE CASALINO / UNITED STATES

T
p
su
ro
a
Viewers will suspend their disbelief when confronting im
a highly mediated image of empirical experience. cr
TIEN-MIN LIAO / UNITED STATES  jo
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE  M
IN
CL

220 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 220 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 220 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 220
 Representation and Presentation Any subject matter, image’s syntax in the context of other formal qualities in
meaning, or idea can theoretically be represented by any the project. If a subject is best represented by a pictorial
kind of image; a designer’s first consideration is whether image, the designer must then explore how that image is
a pictorial or nonpictorial image will most clearly and presented, and the options are extensive: Naturalistic or
compellingly represent it. Up next, is what specific syntax stylized? Cropped and inset or full bleed? And whichever
and medium will best evolve viewers’ understanding of the of these, will the space within the image appear dimen-
messages embodied by the subject. A nonpictorial image, sional and empirical, with its elements at relative scale, or
whose visual language (and, therefore, its communication) will that space itself appear somewhat abstract—visually
is typically medium-dependent, requires investigation into flattened, fractured, or presenting elements in “unrealistic”
that aspect—and further, how a given medium affects the spatial relationships?

All of these signs, of varied

syntax, can signify the same idea
in the right context: New York
City. Now isolate any one of them
and list for yourself all of its other
possible meanings.

The various designers of these three projects use different

presentation strategies to focus attention on their images’
subject matters, once chosen, and establish context with sur-
rounding material: creating a self-contained environment
around important symbolic elements (above); silhouetting
images to link directly to a logo’s letters (above, right); and
crossing inset images with dynamic, arcing lines (right) to
join the images with the typographic spaces.
MUBIEN / SPAIN 
INFINITO / PERU 
CLASSMATE STUDIO / HUNGARY 

221 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 221 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 221 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 221
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT C

Strategies for Composition Designers sometimes forget area (without regard to their outer contours, tension,
that they’re not bound by the spatial reality imposed by the and contrast of negative space, and so on) prevents an image
scene they are rendering. All by itself, selective cropping can from achieving maximum dynamism. Just as various kinds
radically focus attention on specific elements, as well as alter of formal contrast are critical for decisive layout of graphic
the energy or mood a viewer perceives. Adjusting or even elements and typography in an overall page environment,
reinventing figure/ground relationships (see chapter 1, page so too is their refinement within an image’s space—whether
26)—even in naturalistic depictions—can dramatically en- that image happens to be photographic or made by some
hance an image’s power to communicate beyond the literal, other means. And, of course, the designer must consider
as well as help engage the viewer and direct the eye. Simply how to create and corroborate compositional relationships
placing subjects in a photograph’s or illustration’s central between the image’s interior and its surrounding context.

Cropping images or objects

as though they’re floating
freely within the space of
a format (A)—whether
they’re purely graphical
shapes, or silhouetted
image forms—emphasizes
the shapes and composi-
tional qualities of those
elements within the space.

Image elements contained

within an inset shape (B)
become dominated by
it, occupying a separate
space from that of the
A surrounding container.
Adjacent image elements,
if they exist can relate to
the composition within
that inset frame, as well as
to the surrounding field.

The positioning of the three highly reductive enhances the sense of regular, marching
graphical figures of soldiers in the lower part movement. Breaking this regimented move-
of this LP sleeve’s format causes them to ap- ment by turning the middle soldier’s head
pear to “slide” along the horizon; the evenness downward draws attention to this figure,
of their spacing and the cropping of the two who now personifies the contemplative
outer figures—each to a different degree— question of the LP’s title.
BIG ACTIVE / UNITED KINGDOM

This pictorial collage is

deconstructed to show the
various compositional strat-
egies—beyond the
selection of subject and C
medium—that the designer cr
has considered in creating
a well-resolved image. Each T
aspect of the composition a
reinforces the others. co
FLORENCE TÉTIER / FRANCE te
Positive/negative Line/mass contrasts Optical weight Value distribution is
shapes distribution su
in
p
w
TO

Perspective and Directional movement Color relationships Contrasts in surface

spatial depth activity

222 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 222 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 222 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 222
 CROPPING STRATEGIES

As with any other imagery, photo- Each of these three general conditions
graphic content must be decisively is presented here, showing a variety
composed. The photographer has two of cropping possibilties for each, in
opportunities to control the image’s response to several different format pro-
composition, however: first, within the portions. These crops are designed to
frame of the camera’s viewfinder; and maximize contour, shaping, proportion-
second, during the printing process in al, and axis relationshipsbetween major
the darkroom (or in cropping a digital structures in the image subjects and the
photograph using software). spaces in which they’re presented.
—
Photographic subjects are usually one
of three kinds of thing: either a scene,
like a landscape; a figure (often a por-
trait, specifically); or an arrangement
of objects on a surface, what is usually
called a “still life.”

Clearly, images need not be

cropped into strict rectangles.
Trapezoidal and other, irregular,
angled planes are a prominent
component of the branding sys-
tem of which this publication
is a part; images are cropped into
such shapes, and their position
in illusory space is further com-
plicated by overlapping them
with cut out blocks of text.
TOORMIX / SPAIN

223 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 223 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 223 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 223
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT

Editing the Experience Designers intuitively understand the subject in-camera, along with included props and the
that drawn or painted images are mediated inventions; they background, as well as lighting and atmospheric condi-
don’t often so readily appreciate that photographs are (and tions. The second opportunity comes after shooting; image
must be) just as mediated. A designer must choose what to manipulation software makes it easy to add, remove, reposi-
include and what to leave out. Not enough detail, or relevant tion, and otherwise alter elements in the environment. Even
ones, and the communication may fall short; too much, or the most subtle decisions at either juncture will recast an
unnecessary, detail will be distracting. Whether creating image’s meaning in dramatic ways. Pronounced mediation
photographs themselves or art directing a photographer, (like creating a stage set or enforcing a color scheme) will
designers have two opportunities to influence interpreta- highlight an image’s contrivance, but viewers are likely to
tion of a visual experience. The first is in initially framing be seduced by its presumed, seamless realism.

In this study for a mystery novel’s cover, the

information conveyed by the image is altered as
a result of changes in content and composition.
The first version (A) provides only neutral facts:
The viewer is in a bathroom, probably at a hotel.
Version B confirms this information with the
addition of a hotel key, but the appearance of a
knife and money signifies foul play; a change in
lighting, from even to more extreme, as well as
its unusual direction, enhances the sinister mood
and further hints that something is wrong: Why
is the light on the floor? The extreme close-up of
version C creates a feeling of paranoia—what’s
happening beyond the frame is unknown—and
focuses attention on specific details: the time on
the clock, the point of the knife, the money, and
A B C the hotel key. The manipulation of the light, as
well as selective focus, helps draw attention to
elements that may be relevant to the story.

C
p
to
h
ri
(t
co
a
a
p
ri
so

Relatively simple framing and lighting right is purposely cast from a low angle to
strategies direct interpretation of the illuminate only certain parts of the body,
imagery in these two projects. The figure in heightening awareness of their sensitivity
the page spread above is cropped out of the as they break the surface of the water.
frame in favor of her ephemeral reflection to RESEARCH STUDIOS / UNITED KINGDOM 
emphasize the idea of contemplating one’s JONA STUDIO / NETHERLANDS 
appearance. The lighting in the image at

224 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 224 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 224 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 224
-
n

Conscious artifice, in the form of a quadrant formation to evoke the end-

propping and styling, informs the pho- less turning of the fashion industry’s
tography in all the projects shown seasons; and the subjects in the photo-
here: Objects are organized in a geomet- graph at lower right are suspended to
ric formation on a brand-colored surface create a surreal, playful experience.
(top); a product is situated among ESTUDIO PANICO / ECUADOR 
colored, abstract blocks ( just above); METAKLINIKA / SERBIA 
an award medal dramatizes quality VOICE / AUSTRALIA 
and personifies the product (below); the RÉGIS TOSETTI / UNITED KINGDOM 
photographs in the fashion ad (above, NAM / JAPAN 
right) use simple props to suggest sea-
sons, but are cropped and rotated in

o
,
y

225 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 225 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 225 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 225
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT

Subject Alteration Most concrete, empirically depictive tial quality that a viewer will perceive it as more “real”—
images tend to remain relatively neutral (despite any qualifi- selectively blurring a static image of a car to convey motion,
cation from accompanying text); but designers need not for example. From a purely practical standpoint, altering
deploy an image in its unadulterated form. Messing with an photographs can erase unwanted problems like blemishes
image presents possibilities for conveying specific ideas: from damaged prints and poor scans, uneven lighting, and
as its form changes, so too will its meaning. Manipulating pixellation in low-resolution images. In addition to over-
a graphic icon can add inventive visual interest and augment coming a poor-quality image’s challenges, designers may
understanding. Even the most radical alteration of photo- find they also have created something entirely new and far
graphic material often will be convincing because of photos’ more interesting than even a high-quality image may have
presumed “truthiness”; it may, in fact, add such an experien- provided from the outset.

In photography, tonal range—

the number and depth of
gray values—is of particular
concern. Traditionally, a good-
quality photograph includes a
clean, bright white; deep black;
detail present within shadow
areas; and a fluid range of grays
in between. This same range,
from darkest shadow to bright-
est highlight, also is desirable
in color photographs.
—
Pushing the tonal range toward
generally brighter values
decreases the contrast in the
image and, to some degree,
flattens it out; pushing the
tonal range toward the shadow
end also tends to flatten the
image but increases contrast
and causes highlight areas
to become brighter and more
pronounced. These effects of
tonality shift are shown in the
accompanying images, in both
black and white and color.
Note the contrast differences
between corresponding images.

Altering a photograph is also

a means of hiding the infe-
A photograph may be considered an icon if it depicts its subject rior quality of images that are
sometimes supplied by clients:
neutrally and acts as pure description. As with graphical poor lighting, surface problems
icons, such an image will signify only its subject unless it is from scratched prints or bad
somehow given a new context or altered. In this study, the scans, and blurring or softness
neutral icon “book” is manipulated to create specific meanings. from low-resolution images.
Selectively adjusting contrast
In the example at top, the image has been burned, suggesting levels in an image’s tonal areas,
intellectual repression (or a famous work of science fiction, or applying textural effects or
Farenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury). In the example at bottom, filters available in software can
the application of a digital filter to pixellate the book’s pages dramatically improve an image
by introducing new syntax,
signifies electronic media. rather than through an attempt
KELLY CHEW / UNITED STATES to fix the problems.

226 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 226 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 226 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 226
,

ys

d The designer of these images—section dividers in a UN presen-

tation on its humanitarian aid programs—applies a variety of
physical and digital alterations to a generic map of the conti-
nents to communicate the programs’ areas of concern.
w STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO / SPAIN

Color-filtering an already evocative landscape

photograph enhances its romantic, dreamlike
quality and further brings its coloration into line
s. with a palette established for the client’s branding.
FUMAN / NEW ZEALAND

:
s

s,

n
e

This still frame from the opening motion sequence of a program

documenting an enironment captures moments of documentary
video footage editing themselves together to create a comprehen-
sive view of the program’s subject matter.
GRETEL / UNITED STATES

227 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 227 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 227 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 227
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT

Because photographic im-

ages are so readily perceived
as depictions of reality,
designers have incredible
leeway in manipulating
them without sacrificing
believability. Despite the
surreal situation depicted in
the top image, for example,
viewers will find it easy to
accept the scene as credible.
Further, this automatic as-
sumption about the veracity
of a photograph permits
designers to evoke sensory
experiences through their
manipulation. Presenting
a graphically exaggerated
photograph of an object, as
seen in the lower example,
trades on its believability
and the corollary common
understanding of its
function to create an imme-
diately recognizable aural
experience.

Enormous digital collages of spliced photographs and

rhythmic lines of type wrap the walls of the admin-
istrative offices of Madison Square Garden, an iconic
New York City entertainment venue.
POULIN+MORRIS / UNITED STATES

The images in the two posters, above, impart creates the lights and darks of a larger image: the
the understanding of transformation by applying face (and, thus, the identity) of the poster’s subject.
a change to an already appreciated subject. The LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
poster at right, on the other hand, suggests that GORRICHO / ARGENTINA 
one subject matter gives rise to another: an icon MIXER / SWITZERLAND 
or abstraction of sound waves, as seen digitally,

228 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 228 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 228 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 228
 A combination of colorizing and
texturizing the imagery in the title
sequence for a martial arts drama
situates the action in a particular
locale, adds a sense of violence with
rough brushstrokes and inky spatters,
and allows for unique transitions
between scenes to allude to intrigues
and memories, and to summarize
various contexts.
JOHN LIKENS / UNITED STATES

nd

Found images of artworks that are relevant to the respective

historical periods of the operas promoted by these posters gain
contemporary freshness, emotional appeal, and narrative depth
through colorization and the introduction of secondary textures
and image elements.
GORRICHO / SPAIN

229 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 229 4/6/20 11:15 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 229 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 229
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT

Mixing Media and Style Creating contrast among visual documentary and credible; illustrations are inventions,
elements is key to enlivening layouts—and this is no less evoke fantasy, display impossible or ideal situations, and
true for imagery. Combining different image modes offers subjective—even if they are naturalistic; icons, symbols,
another highly effective way of doing so. Very textural, and translations distill and simplify complicated, abstract
linear illustration, for instance, will dramatically contrast ideas, and are most often associated with diagrams, navi-
photography’s rich tonal complexity. While it’s important gation, and identification. The designer must selectively
that the different styles being combined decisively contrast combine image styles to support a given purpose, using the
each other, they must also share some visual qualities; the qualities of each to appropriately convey intended messages
mix of media and styles will affect communication as well. and interact with each other in a unified visual language
Each will embody certain associations: Photographs are that assimilates their visual contrasts as part of their logic.

This motion sequence transitions from

3D contruction and photographic image
mapping to vector drawing to convey the
idea of ancient, physical heritage giving
rise to contemporary artistic practice.
TOORMIX / SPAIN

The rich, almost collage-like mixture of

tools used to create this image—airbrush,
pen, digital images, flat ink—contributes
textural contrast and multiple layers of
meaning to consider.
MACIEJ HAJNRICH / POLAND

230 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 230 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 230 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 230
 The decision to present the background image in illustrative form
stems from the need to solve two problems. First, the designer wanted
to avoid visual conflict between two photographs; the flatness of the
illustration style visually separates it from the photograph and causes
it to recede into the background. Second, the illustration enhances
the temporal metaphor created by the two images—one showing a
historical stage in cultural development, the other showing a develop-
mental stage in education.
e
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES
s

The book cover series to the right and the posters (also
from a series), above, both follow the same strategy:
a base image unifies the components of their respective
series, but is added to with drawing and graphical ele-
ments of a different medium to characterize, or qualify,
each one’s particular narrative. The base image provides
an overall subject context for understanding; the second-
ary imagery, distinguished by its difference in medium,
delivers specific ideas in that context.
GORRICHO / ARGENTINA 
CARDON WEBB / UNITED STATES 

231 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 231 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 231 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 231
 CONTENT, CONCEPT, CONTEXT

The “Style” Complication What does style itself even a designer should be neutral: that all of a project’s visual
mean? In one sense, it can refer to an individual’s particu- qualities should objectively derive from the nature of the
lar aesthetic sensibility or use of medium; it can also refer project’s ontent. Others insist that a designer’s own visual
to the aesthetics of a particular historical period. In either sensibilities and aesthetic point of view lend individuality
case, it suggests a predetermined visual language that may and differentiate his or her work in a crowded market. Both
or may not be relevant to an image’s intended message. arguments are valid, and they aren’t mutually exclusive.
Developing an image’s visual syntax within the constraints It should be clear that a project’s messaging must drive its
of a given style (personal or historical) clearly has profound visual language; but designers attempting to reach that
consequences on how an audience will interpret the infor- goal objectively and neutrally still are going to do so in their
mation it provides. Some schools of thought insist that own ways—and their work will always look like theirs.

These two projects nod to the aesthetics

of prior, historical periods to draw paral-
lels between contemporary life and that
of the times to which they refer—either
for intellectual reasons, as does the
magazine cover at right, with regard to
an article on a historical subject (alluding
to poster styles of the mid-20th century);
or as a branding narrative, as does the
promotional poster for a cocktail lounge,
below (with references to the Gilded Age).
RESEARCH STUDIOS / UNITED KINGDOM 
FIASCO DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM 

The scraggly outline and cartoonish forms of this

illustration mix humor and pathos in a promotion
for a studio that conveys its fascination with clip art
and related drawing styles of the 1950s, ’60s, and ’70s.
These particular stylistic qualities distinguish the
studio’s work and, most likely, indicate something
about its cultural and aesthetic philosophies.
AMES BROS. / UNITED STATES

232 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 232 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 232 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 232
 Vernacularism and Appropriation One way of making Appropriating a specific vernacular language associates a
ideas relevant is to “borrow,” or appropriate, visual syntax communication’s messages with the context of its source
from a commonly recognizable context which, often, may and, so, grants it a certain authenticity: it’s something from
be one that is considered undesigned or of “low” cultural the everyday world and, hence, uncontrived; or it purports
value—a visual gesture or trope that is culturally well- to embody longstanding, popular traditions. Borrowing
understood. Whether it’s the characteristically brushy form languages from outside one’s own cultural tradi-
hand-painting of supermarket ad posters, the caricatured tion can effectively, and very immediately, characterize a
outlines of cartoon characters, or the visual qualities message’s cultural context; but it may also be perceived as
ir associated with a handicraft, these gestures trade on the “stealing” that culture’s expression or disrespectfully (and
vernacular (the term itself meaning “common language”). ignorantly) caricaturing it... proceed with caution.

Each of these projects situates its communication in a relevant

vernacular. The hotel room number signage above, left, borrows from
an embroidery tradition common in its locale, while the film festival
brand mark just below it restyles itself as film-industry logos from
the past. The brochures for Eastern-inspired real estate offerings at
lower left abstractly evoke Japanese decorative motifs. The CD cover
above, right, appropriates the low-brow language of scribbled high
school binders, while the business card just below incorporates a logo
that simulates the brand stamp of a well-known producer of high-
quality Parmesan cheese.
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE 
FOR THE PEOPLE / TASMANIA 
STUDIO MAKGILL / UNITED KINGDOM 
STEREOTYPE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
PARALLAX / AUSTRALIA 

C ON T E N T, C ON C E P T, C ON T E XT

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 233 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 233 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 233
 NARRATIVE MASSAGE

When Images Get Together A single image delivers a to do so, even if the available information is incomplete.
powerful semantic punch; putting images together increases A viewer might first see an image of a biker, for example,
their semantic power to create pictorial narrative, or visual and then an image of a man in a hospital bed: he or she will
storytelling. We humans are naturally curious creatures, likely deduce that there’s been a biking accident. However,
and we intuitively compare the identities and meanings we neither image explicitly represents this idea; even further,
perceive between objects or images in our visual field to concluding that the hospitalized man is the same biker is an
understand why they’re togther. Viewers will automatically unproven assumption. That assumption is driven by anoth-
seek a relationship between juxtaposed images, each of er: that adjacent images must have a meaningful relationship.
which will influence the other’s meaning. Their minds will Designers can powerfully exploit this tendency to so readily
attempt to reach a reasonable conclusion and make leaps construct meaning in the “space” between image subjects.

The same image changes

semantically—in varying
degrees—each time it’s
paired with an image carry-
ing its own semantic mean-
ing. In the first pair, the
semantic gap is quite small
and the resulting narrative
subtle. In the second pair,
the semantic gap creates the
same narrative but dramati-
cally alters some assump-
tions about the meaning of
the base image. The third
pair offers a semantic gap
that forces the narrative in a
completely unrelated—and
unexpected—direction.

Viewers will tend to appreciate the

image pairs above as separate, but
corroborative, because each of the im-
ages seen together—despite abutting
each other in direct juxtaposition—
is encountered individually as a
self-contained unit, and its meaning
processed, before contemplating the
relationship between each. In contrast,
the images in this group of posters
will be perceived as inseparable, hybrid
units; each one presents an altered
totality of meanings that can’t be
separated from each other because
the image components have been inte-
grated into singularities.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN

234 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 234 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 234 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 234
 The conceptual space between what images show individu- images will suggest a closer relationship even if the semantic
ally and how they’re interpreted together is a semantic gap gap is enormous. As more images are introduced (simultan-
that results from how closely their subjects might typically eously or sequentially), their narrative reinforces itself, com-
be associated. If one of the images indexes the other very pounding viewers’ assumptions; eventually, viewers will
directly (see Modes of Signification, page 199), the semantic anticipate completion of the story. This narrative momentum
gap will be quite small; a narrower, more literal interpreta- increases exponentially—any image appearing later in a
tion will result. Conversely, if the two images are wildly dif- sequence will seemingly corroborate the narrative, even if
p. ferent in subject, the wider semantic gap allows for more it empirically contradicts information encountered earlier.
far-ranging interpretation, veering toward the conceptual or Suddenly redirecting a narrative with an unexpected image
metaphorical. Interestingly, strong formal parity between (“a curve ball,” so to speak) can be dramatically effective.

In this comparison of two

sequences beginning with
the same base image, the
narratives are wildly differ-
ent, but the narrative mo-
mentum of each concludes
with assumptions that you,
the viewer, has made that
aren’t necessarily true.
The rubble in the last image
of the lower sequence is
not, empirically, that of the
building shown earlier in the
sequence. What assump-
tions have been made about
the information in the other
sequence that cannot be
proven true?

Sequencing related images from one

spread to the next creates distinct nar-
ratives in each set of two-page spreads
shown at right. In both sequences, the
repetition of recognizable, remembered
subject components—the cheerleader,
the couch—creates narrative momen-
tum: The viewer recognizes a kind of
cause and effect because the same object
appears in each step of the narrative. In
the cheerleader sequence, the semantic
or narrative gap is relatively small:
The cheerleader is in flight and then is
caught and is assumed safe. The gap in
the couch sequence is more extreme: We
don’t see the couch move from one loca-
tion to the next, but it exists in a very
different state in the second spread;
looking more closely, one can see that
it’s not even the same couch. Still,
we assume that it is, that it has been
moved, and now is being put to use.
LOEWY / UNITED KINGDOM

235 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y N A R R AT I V E M A S S A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 235 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 235 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 235
 NARRATIVE MASSAGE

Image/Text Interplay As soon as words appear next to an together or in succession. If seen simultaneously, word and
image, its meaning is altered forever. Images are so suscep- image will reciprocally advance one idea without chang-
tible to such change that a designer may easily recast the ing the other’s identity: a single, gestalt message. If one is
same image over and over again by replacing the words that seen first and the other second, a viewer has a chance to
accompany it. Once this knowledge is introduced, the mean- construct meaning before being influenced. In such cases,
ing of the image will be the composite of all the informa- the semantic gap is greatly widened and the impact of the
tion acquired through the sequence. Not surprisingly, the change is more dramatic: The viewer, in the short time given
ability of images to change the meanings of words is equally to assimilate and become comfortable with the meaning of
profound. This mutual, word-image brainwashing effect the first word or image seen, must give up his or her assump-
works differently depending on whether the two are shown tions and, so, radically alter his or her mindset.

The same image is shown

paired with different words.
The semantic gap between
word and image—the weird,
nebulous area wherein
the viewer can construct
a narrative relationship
JOURNEY FREEDOM TERROR between the two—is closer
in the first pair, wider in the
second, and extremely wide
in the third.
—
The brainwashing effect
works in reverse. Here, the
same word is paired with
different images, and the
change in semantic gap,
as well as in the word’s
POWER POWER POWER meaning, becomes more
pronounced.

T
tw
In the layout above, the difference between constructive nature. The poster at right th
the sharp photograph in the television and plays on the word Futura, the name of CO
the blurred image that follows it creates a a typeface, and the Spanish slang term
sense that the blurred image is a televised Futuda, which means mixed up or messed
image; but the juxtaposition of the words up (although more vulgar than that). The
creates a different meaning for the viewer: play on words describes the mixer as a
that real life is less tangible than that metaphor for remixing or deconstructing to
depicted on television. In the poster, above promote a reworked version of the classic
right, the cutout letters of the word “democ- sans-serif face.
racy” hint at the political dialogue inherent BRETT YASKO / UNITED STATES 
in that social system. The scissors and the STUDIO INTERNATIONAL / CROATIA 
work gloves suggest democracy’s LSD SPACE / SPAIN 

236 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 236 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 236 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 236
n

p-

Cynical combinations of a happy-face icon with

words of doom—and, alternately, images of trash
with expressions of kindness—create a satirical
campaign that advocates for giving up disposable,
single-use containers by shaming its audience into
responsible behavior.
TOORMIX / SPAIN

Two images of the same person, juxtaposed with

two different headlines, create a double identity for
the man as teacher and companion.
COBRA / NORWAY

The poster at right presents what seems

like a simple tableau in a common room;
the word Jesus transforms it into an altar
of personal domesticity.
FINEST MAGMA / GERMANY

237 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y N A R R AT I V E M A S S A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 237 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 237 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 237
 NARRATIVE MASSAGE

Ever Metaphor? In writing and speech, a metaphor is an messages of parity: a given subject is recast as equivalent to
expression that refers to an intuitively unrelated idea to another subject. One option is to depict one thing behaving,
create additional meaning. A sensitive young man’s intense pictorially, like another (for instance, presenting products
romantic yearning may be described in terms of a delicate, in an urban cosmetics brochure configured as a city sky-
but clinging, vine; the exceptionally productive worker in line). Yet another possibility is to combine two or more
one’s office may be labeled a “machine.” Images can do the seemingly unrelated images to suggest another form with
same thing: A designer may present an image that means its own meaning, implying some narrative connection
something else entirely, refers to a much broader concept, between ideas (showing a corncob with wheels to suggest
or combines concepts to evoke a third concept that is not the idea of plant-based auto fuel).
explicit in either of the combinants. Visual metaphors are

O
fo
m
tr
em
a
h
M

Social and political public-awareness political and cultural ramifications

campaigns often rely on visual meta- of a terrorist attack; and the poster
phors to communicate provocative furthest to the right characterizes one
positions because they’re able to very kind of insult with color and joins it
simply distill complex ideas, and be- to another. In the frames from an
cause they so quickly bypass viewers’ antismoking public service commer-
ability to dissect and refute them out cial, the graphic shape of the cigarette
of hand—as do the projects shown creates a focus of attention, letterbox-
here: The poster above intellectually ing the action as it confines and traps
embeds a striking equivalency before the people—and then metaphorically
any reading can take place; the poster burns them to ash.
to its right shows the two digits of an PETTIS DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
infamous date falling into a cascade LESLEY MOORE / NETHERLANDS 
of dominoes, implying the resulting LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
2FRESH / TURKEY 

238 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 238 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 238 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 238
 A designer may also consider altering one image by having and social themes to provoke exaggerated responses that
, another act upon it: chopping the first image up, mixing it resonate deeply in a target audience. Symbols are signs
into a texture, pushing it out of the way, making it vibrate, that hold meaning that comes to be understood through
and so on. Trading on audiences’ cultural, political, histor- socialization, an “agreed upon” signification in which the
ical, and personal experiences by mashing up commonly members of a social group participate. Symbols have ritual
agreed-upon symbolic or allusive meanings can deliver depth and significance; simply juxtaposing certain ones,
dramatically startling messages—startling and eminently or constructing one using another, equally symbolic im-
powerful because they not only tend to necessitate unique age, is bound to elicit a dramatic, provocative metaphor.
inventions of form but, more importantly, because they
draw upon deeply ingrained understanding, memory,

On a lighter note, the cover designs

for this popular entertainment
magazine draw on well-known
tropes related to fictional cin-
ematic and literary characters to
attract readers to its content with
humor and familiarity.
MUCHO / SPAIN

In this conceptual promotional piece, small cubes The floral wallpaper used to cover
of sugar are wrapped in typography that expresses this book evokes the tasteful parlors
ideas about “sweetness” from a survey and packages of higher class English culture.
them together. MICHELLE LIV / UNITED STATES
COMA / NETHERLANDS

239 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y N A R R AT I V E M A S S A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 239 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 239 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 239
 NARRATIVE MASSAGE

The motion component of branding for National

Geographic, a media offering devoted to exploration,
combines two visual metaphors: A typographic
continuum, called the “index,” with which program
information flows, without stopping, between
micro- and macro-level displays; its data can be
contextual to specific shots and shows (atmospheric
density of Mars, nautical miles between tuna boats,
Arctic temperatures), or just deliver primary and
secondary messaging. Images use a mapping
metaphor, combining bits of data to form a more
complete picture by softly tiling into place.
GRETEL / UNITED STATES

The spreads of this book on abnormal psychology incorporate

dramatically manipulated images and typography to describe the
emotional conditions presented in each chapter.
HAE JIN LEE / UNITED STATES

P
el
Multilayered, rhythmically pulsing currents of colorful th
dots convey the intangible qualities of pitch, timbre, and of
tempo of musical composition in this festival website. id
AKU / ESTONIA ST

240 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 240 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 240 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 240
 The respective designers of these two proj-
ects summon the fun of office iconography:
the web page and business card at left in-
tegrate the metaphor of tabbed file folders
across branded media (left); and the web
page below mixes two metaphors—that
of the physical sticky note and the digital
desktop “document” icon.
SELF-TITLED / AUSTRALIA 
FOR THE PEOPLE / TASMANIA 

A book cover (below) and a poster

(right) both transform minimalist
images of sound recording and
playback technology (a vinyl LP
and a speaker’s subwoofer, respec-
tively) into metaphorical diagrams
of the cosmos.
JANET HANSEN / UNITED STATES 
ETHAN HAYES / UNITED STATES 

Presenting the numerals as large architectural

elements is a kind of photographic pictorialization
that metaphorically supports the subject matter
of the poster but also transforms the text—verbal
ideas—into concrete constructions.
STUDIO INTERNATIONAL / CROATIA

241 T HE WO R LD O F IMA G E R Y N A R R AT I V E M A S S A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 241 4/6/20 11:16 AM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_194-241.indd 241 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 11:13 AM
Text Page: 241
 There is no recipe for a
good layout. What must be
maintained is a feeling
of change and contrast.

ALEXEY BRODOVITCH/ Pioneering graphic designer and art director

PUTTING IT ALL
TOGETHER

242

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 242 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 242 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 242
 IN THIS CHAPTER:

244
MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE
Creating an integrated experience between the two basic kinds of visual
language in a layout is one of the most confounding challenges for designers.
This chapter begins with a reminder that type is just as visual as images—
and outlines ways to create layout relationships that fuse the two.

256
WORKING WITH GRIDS
One way of organizing visual material is to situate its parts along an invisible
framework of regularly spaced guides or “grid.” A grid establishes a visual
architecture, useful in print and web-based projects alike, that unifies content
elements and streamlines production—especially for multipart projects.

268
INTUITIVE ARRANGEMENT
Although grids are helpful, and often standard, for organizing material
in print- and web-based editorial projects, there are other ways to arrange
design elements in a layout—including “by eye.” This section explores a
number of free-form strategies for cohesively integrating type and imagery.

274
DESIGN AS A SYSTEM
Most projects comprise multiple parts; designers typically must develop a
visual language that unifies them, but provides flexibility to accommodate their
differences. In this section, you’ll discover ways to think systematically about
part-to-whole relationships, sequencing, and pacing among project elements.

294
THE WORKING PROCESS
Ultimately, designing—the activity of visualizing ideas for communication—
is a consulting profession. It integrates creativity and entrepreneurship in
a process that aligns strategic, marketing, problem-solving, conceptual, and
technological expertise. You’ll see that process here, in theory and in practice.

243 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S P U T T I N G I T A L L T OGE T H E R

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 243 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 243 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 243
 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE

Seeing Two Things As One Very simply, all design projects cal lines and the patterns they make. And type means some- S
incorporate just two kinds of stuff: type and imagery. The thing, which makes it that much harder to evaluate on
big question, therefore, is “How do I put these two different a purely visual level, in relation to the more intuitively un-
things together?” Poor type/image integration creates one derstandable formal qualities of imagery, without getting
of two conditions: Either a state of separation and disunity, distracted by its informational aspects. Overcoming type’s
or one in which the type is so aggressively integrated that stark, alien difference from other visual material depends
it becomes nonfunctional. Getting type to unify seamlessly on finding common ground between type’s limited formal
with images is a serious challenge because of its persistent qualities and imagery’s more complex and varied kinds—
difference from everything else: Images exhibit a staggering and that means stripping both down to essential, geometric
variety of formal qualities, but type is always type: graphi- form identities and behaviors.

SHAPE

The design of the brochure cover, below, is a great

refresher on form identity (see chapter 1)—and an
equally useful example with which to confront the most
basic kind of visual relationship between imagery and
typography. The abstract painted clusters positioned on
the left and right sides of the cover are dots, of course;
and, so are the three lowercase letters a, s, and o: a
simple reminder that even though visual elements (in
this case, letters) aren’t literally dot-like in form, they
very often behave as dots do. Further, the horizontal,
blue ink smear is clearly a line, as are the diagonally
oriented, looping ink marks, as well as the two smaller,
horizontally oriented lines of text.
VOICE / AUSTRALIA

The two-page spreads above call attention to in the image at lower left—as well as its
other ways that type and imagery can share circular vignette—are echoed by the arcs of the
shape relationships. In the spread at top, that header reading “table of contents.” These arcs are
similarity occurs between the right-angled item contrasted by the overall angular shape of the
in the photograph and the F of the title element; content text block, and by the horizontal lines of
and, in the shapes of paragraphs of text, which the individual section listings that are part of it.
can mimic almost any shape to be found in an TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
image. In the spread just above, curving elements JIL GUYON / UNITED STATES 

244 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 244 4/6/20 1:37 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 244 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 244
- STRUCTURE

Structural relationships between type and imagery are to be found in

both the overall gestural shaping that a structure produces and in axis
alignments (see pages 60 and 38, respectively, in chapter 1). In the mailer
just below, a structure created by the vertical sewing machine needle and
the heavier, trapezoidal form from which is descends, is restated by the
Arabic type (albeit, in reverse, top to bottom). Additionally, the Arabic
c and English titles stagger to respond to the diagonal axis created by the
edge of the fabric below them. In the poster at bottom, diagonal—as well
as vertical—axes in the image, along with angular structures, are picked
up by the title and the block of secondary text below it.
VCU QATAR / QATAR 
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES 

The width proportion of the text column in the journal spread

at top mimics that of the dark space in the photograph that’s
defined by the bright, vertical scaffolding struts toward its
left-hand side; in the same text column, the division between the
top paragraph of bolder text and the lighter text that follows it
corresponds to a horizontal, linear structure in the image as well.
In the book spread just above, the paragraph restates the shape of
the window in the image, but most of the relationships that the
typography establishes with the photograph are structural ones:
alignments of baselines, caplines, and flush edges to axes within
the image itself, and between type units.
STUDIO WORKS / UNITED STATES 
ESTUDIO PÁNICO / ECUADOR 

245 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R M E R GI N G T Y P E A N D I M A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 245 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 245 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 245
 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE

VALUE R

Because typographic color is so closely the right, masses of dark, medium,

related to value, finding potential and light tones in both image areas
similarities in light/dark logic between and type refer to each other—most
the two worlds can be a valuable often literally, but sometimes only
strategy. Alternating dark and light implicitly.
typographic elements in the upper ANDREAS ORTAGE / AUSTRIA 
portion of the book cover, above, repeat TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 
the dark and light value breaks in the
landscape image. In the web page to

TEXTURE

Of course, type is a texture; changes in spacing between

lines, and the way they align or rag, can transform it to
play off those seen within an image or graphic element.
Here, individual lines of callout text incorporate changes
Font style itself also offers opportunities to cre-
in spacing, size, and weight—while blocks of text alter-
ate textural relationships by virtue of its detail-
nate between looser and tighter leading—to mimic the
ing and, as seen in both the packaging (top) and
surface activity of the drawing they accompany.
brochure cover (left, with detail above) dot/line
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES
and thin/thick contrasts.
PODPUNKT / POLAND 
COBRA / NORWAY 

246 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 246 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 246 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 246
 RHYTHM

Rhythm is about visual movement, first strokes close together, and then
and it happens much the same ways expanding rightward. The type plays
with type as it does with images: a counterpoint—its lines expand
through directional tracking of axes and contract horizontally, alternat-
(remember that type is made up of ing in weight and size to restate the
lines); and through visual “pulsing,” brushwork’s vertical motion later-
as the proportions of elements and ally. Changes in letter width and
the spaces between them expand or weight add further interval change;
contract. The design of the CD case and the vertical axis and stepping
at left comprises all of that in one motion created by the two large title
place. Here, the image is abstract elements again repeats the brush’s
(never mind that it happens to create up/down zigzag.
a letter M); its rhythm is primarily MARTA GAWIN / POLAND
vertical—a vigorous up-and-down
motion. That movement also begins
somewhat compressed, with the

The image in this poster is a combination of photo-

graph and distorted type whose “blown-out” (high
contrast) highlights create a lateral rhythm of pulsing
bright areas across the format. In response, the lines of
type stagger back and forth; bolder and lighter weights
These two-page spreads show contrasting counters the lateral rhythm of the images alternate; and bullets within text elements add to the
rhythm relationships between imagery across the gutter, while the titling and textural quality of the rhythm.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES
and type. At top, the type generally par- upper-level hierarchic elements repeat it.
ticipates in the vertical movement of the FROST DESIGN / AUSTRALIA 
image forms; in the spread just above, the YONG CHOI / UNITED STATES 
main text columns’s verticality

247 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R M E R GI N G T Y P E A N D I M A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 247 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 247 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 247
 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE

To Be, Or Not to Be Given that visual totality in a project is restates, or riffs on, several visual qualities in an image
a desirable goal, it makes a lot of sense to first look for ways becomes that much more powerfully integrated with it.
to treat type so it’s visually similar to adjacent images: to Type/image congruence may express a direct, one-to-one
make them formally congruent. Such congruence can be relationship (literally repeating the image attributes in
found in the five basic attributes we looked at previously: every way); or it may indirectly extrapolate a given attribute
shape, structure, value, texture, and rhythm. Because without being specific: given an image with strong diagonal
images typically exhibit a huge variety of formal syntax, or angular elements, for example, the accompanying type
a designer can pick and choose which kinds of similari- need not be oriented at the same angles—simply rotating
ties to manifest in their treatment of type elements—and, the type, or setting it in text blocks that are shaped like
preferably, to combine several: a single type element that parallelograms, may be clearly congruent enough.

In this page spread from

a philanthropic organiza-
tion’s publication, the type/
image relationships empha-
size formal congruence over
opposition between the two.
This strategy supports the
organization’s message
of unity in purpose. Visual
tension, however, results
from qualities of opposition
that are subtly expressed
by the congruent aspects.
ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. /
UNITED STATES

SHAPE STRUCTURE VALUE TEXTURE RHYTHM SH

CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE C

Type and image both express The figure creates a right-angle Both the image material and the The image is made up primarily of The narrow text column, together G
qualities of dot and line; the structure that is repeated by type are dramatically lighter in lines, but those lines are broken, with the title, repeat the up/ de
narrow column of text, upper left, the narrow text column and value as compared to the back- made of dots; the narrow column down and left/right movement th
mimics the shape of the arm; the title, but in greatly exaggerated ground field. of text, because of its type’s point established by the image. pr
font’s shapes correspond to simi- proportion. — size, creates a similar texture. If — —
lar ones in the image’s details. — OPPOSITION one considers the icons at upper OPPOSITION O
— OPPOSITION The image presents two apparent left to also be typographic, the The title is large enough that it Th
OPPOSITION The title, as a unit unto itself, levels of value, while the type dot/line congruence repeats. also visually separates from the te
Aside from the title’s horizontal- opposes the figure’s generally presents one—which is overall — narrow text column and, thus, zo
ity (which is really a structural vertical structure with its hori- lighter than either of the values to OPPOSITION emphasizes its horizontal stagger th
difference), there is little formal zontal structure. be found in the image. The title element, being very against the primarily vertical
opposition in shape between the linear (but solid), presents the movement of the image.
type and the image. greatest textural opposition
against the image’s dot-formed
lines. It also directly opposes the
dots created by the stars.

248 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 248 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 248 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 248
 One potential hazard of making type and images too for- must also be appreciable, otherwise they’re just different—
mally congruent is creating the sensation that the type is just as with a visual hierarchy (see chapter one, page 80).
“enslaved” by the imagery: trying too hard to be just like it, Accomplishing this state of tension is most easily achieved
not having its own life, and feeling forced. Relating type with the “seesaw” method: establishing certain kinds, and
e elements to images by pointing out formal opposition (or, degrees, of congruence and balancing these with other
l more simply, contrast) between the two kinds of material kinds, and degrees, of opposition to create equilibrium. As
actually can help clarify their individual characteristics: one increases oppositional qualities, one must also exag-
A horizontally cropped image, juxtaposed with a narrow gerate some congruencies to ensure that the oppositional
text column, calls attention to the aspect of proportion. qualities don’t dominate and, so, potentially destroy the
The caveat is that some congruence between the elements unity between type and image.

The design of this website

foregrounds relationships of
/ formal opposition between
- type and imagery—in general
r compositional structure,
o. and with regard to internal
image attributes—to impart
edginess and a sense of urban
hustle. To help unify the two
kinds of material, certain
n type elements occasionally
restate rhythmic aspects of
the composition; and subtle
details, like punctuation
and stylistic treatments in
the text, pick up on image
attributes. For clarity, the
page is shown mid-scroll,
rather than in its initial state
upon landing.
TIMOTHY SAMARA /
UNITED STATES

SHAPE STRUCTURE VALUE TEXTURE RHYTHM

CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE CONGRUENCE

r Groups of letters in the con- Longer lines of callout text par- The relative darkness or light- The vertical strokes of the As the diagonally structured
densed font create rectangles ticipate in horizontal alignment ness of heading and callout condensed font are similar to heading elements scroll within
that correspond to the rectilinear with image axes; forward slashes, text elements alternates with the linear forms and dark, linear the browser, their movement cor-
proportions of the images. used as informational separators that of darker and lighter features in the images. responds to the implicit diagonals
— in text, refer to the diagonality of image elements. — created by the staggered, lateral
OPPOSITION images’ contours and axes. — OPPOSITION arrangement of the image bands.
The narrow, vertical column of — OPPOSITION The type’s sharpness is a strong —
text elements contrasts the hori- OPPOSITION The vertical text column is overall contrast to the blurred edges of OPPOSITION
zontal shapes and proportions of Top-level hierarchic elements lighter in value compared to all the imagery’s vignettes. The images express an overall
er the images. express a diagonal structure, values that are appreciable within lateral/horizontal motion, while
in contrast to the horizontally the images. the type is primarily vertical in its
banded, compositional structure emphasis (whether literally, in
of the layouts—which is also the column, or implicitly, in the
opposed by the vertical axis of the condensed quality of the font).
narrow column.

249 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R M E R GI N G T Y P E A N D I M A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 249 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 249 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 249
 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE

Type alignments and the angular configu-

rations of text groups relate to the align-
ments and shaped crops of the images, both
pictorial and purely abstract.
MAKEBARDO / NEW ZEALAND

The symmetrical structure of the text elements restates

that of the central figure in the image; the type’s horizon-
tal darker and lighter blocks (including the bold lines)
refer to the darker and lighter, horizontal divisions in the
image’s background.
STUDIO VIE / AUSTRIA

Proportional divisions in the image on the

left-hand page of this spread—some wider
and some narrower—are repeated on the
right-hand page, in the division between
the main column of text and the narrow
channel of space that contains the inset
One particular component of the
image and its caption; the top line of the
image (the landscape’s diagonal slope)
main text block is positioned relative to
becomes the basis for the rotated
dark, horizontal line elements in the im-
orientation of the text; the value con-
age; and the varied depths of the two text
trast between large section titles and
columns plays off similar changes in depth
individual chapter listings restates
among image forms as they drop from the
that defined by the sky, relative to the
top of the page.
land below it, as does its color.
PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES
DECLAN ZIMMERMAN / UNITED STATES

250 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 250 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 250 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 250
 Overlaps of inset image rectangles are
mimicked by overlaps of type; negative,
“white” rectangles further overlap the
positive type forms to create dynamic
foreground/background changes that
affect both kinds of material. The linear
quality of the large type, together with the
textural wuality of the small paragraph,
contrast the planar quality of the images.
GRETEL / UNITED STATES

The brochure spread at left and the poster just below

introduce graphical (and so, typographic) details into
the areas occupied by images—a strategy that helps
unify the two materials while keeping them distinct.
GARBETT / AUSTRALIA 
TOORMIX / SPAIN 

n the
wider
the
een
ow
et
he
to
m-
text
depth
m the

Transparency and overlap visually join the

image with the typography in this brochure
spread, despite how different the two are in
texture and value.
BRAND BROTHERS / FRANCE

251 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R M E R GI N G T Y P E A N D I M A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 251 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 251 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 251
 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE

Spatial Interaction Another important consideration new questions: Is the type floating in a layer in front of
is establishing clear relationships between how image the imagery? Is it on top of the images? How far in the
elements and type elements exist within the space of a foreground does the type appear to be, as compared to the
given format. As we’ve seen (see pp. 56 and 222) images depth location of the imagery? Maybe the type is embedded
can occupy space in a number of ways: they may be full- within an image, or crosses the boundary between its field
bleed (filling the format edge to edge); inset (cropped into and the surrounding space... Or is the type simply next
a shape which, itself, creates compositional relationships); to the images, occupying the same spatial position? Any
or silhouetted (being “cut out” so they “float” within the of these relationships can be visually dynamic—and even
format). In whichever of these states an image appears, the if the type itself isn’t formally congruent with the image,
positional relationship of any accompanying type poses their spatial dynamic can help interrelate them.

When images are discrete compositional Type may easily overlap image elements, Typographic material that exists solely Within a full-bleed image—one that com-
objects within a space, type elements whether they are silhouetted or inset, within the confines of an image’s boundar- pletely fills a format from edge to edge in
may appear adjacent to them. In doing creating the perception of a pronounced ies becomes part of that image and discon- all directions—typographic elements ex-
so, congruence and opposition in shape foreground/background relationship. Two nects in nearly every way from potential hibit a strange duality. They become new
between type and image dominates; the different possibilities, both resulting in the visual relationships that may exist in the compositional elements that are part of
attribute of value is of secondary concern; same effect, are shown here: one in which surrounding space. the image itself; but in so doing, they also
and the attributes of texture and rhythm the type originates within the image’s retain their compositional independence
are the least pronounced. boundaries and extends into the surround- to a certain degree.
ing space; and another in which the type
originates and terminates in the space but
traverses the image.

All of the text is contained within the full-bleed image’s The vertical, overlapped title—as well as the geometric T
field; but the text that appears at lower right is separat- blocks of white and yellow—appears to float in front el
ed from the full bleed image as a foreground element. of and over the image on an invisible foreground plane, im
KATE HOOVER / UNITED STATES thanks to their enormous scale and tremendous value a
contrast with the image. Oddly, the subtitle occupies a TI
space inside the white bar at the top.
THOMAS CSANO / CANADA

252 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 252 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 252 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 252
 Type and Inset Images Once an inset image (whether within the image as potential sources for alignment; clearly
cropped into a geometric or organic plane) enters a field, defined shapes within an image may similarly provide
the axes created by its edges cannot be ignored. The aligned inspiration for the shaping of text blocks. Rectangularly
d edge of type will readily respond to such axes. It may be cropped images may arguably relate best to the orthogonal
equally clear and dynamic, however, for text elements to characteristics of typographic structure; the mutually en-
not align with the edges or axes of an inset image (just hancing geometry of these two becomes more significant,
make sure the misalignment is decisive). Responding to the and rigorous, when there are multiple images and multiple
inset image’s internal composition offers additional, and text blocks. Using a grid to organize such material is an
sometimes far more interesting, opportunities. Look for intutive next step a designer may consider, discussed in
strong vertical, horizontal, or diagonal breaks or movement depth in the following section.

The axes created by the edg- The outer edges of circular

es of any angular, geometric forms, if large enough, also
form offer possibilities for present axes, although these
positioning type elements need not be considered
to establish alignment rela- solely orthogonal ones. The
tionships. The aligned edge internal symmetrical axes
of a text element may travel (vertical and horizontal) of
along an axis or anchor to it a circular form are also valid
orthogonally. for establishing alignment
relationships.

The positions of this poster’s type The relationships between rectangular the strong horizon in the large photograph
elements refer to the circular inset axes of inset images and type in this maga- on the left-hand page—also helps define
image’s outer contour, central axis, zine spread alternate between instances positions for text blocks.
and to axes contained within it. of alignment and nonalignment. Visual FOLCH STUDIO / SPAIN
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES information within images—for instance,

253 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R M E R GI N G T Y P E A N D I M A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 253 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 253 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 253
 MERGING TYPE AND IMAGE

Type and Silhouetted Images Silhouetted images share space and disconnects itself from the spatial context of the
a visual relationship with the rags of paragraphs or columns image. It’s equally important to be conscious of formal ele-
but also share an opposing relationship with their align- ments contained within the silhouetted image—just as one
ments. Type adjacent to a silhouetted image offers more must be conscious of them within an image that is cropped
or less contrast, depending on its location relative to the into an inset shape. The goal is to find congruence between
image. If its rag leads into the image’s contours, the two its internal material and the typographic language that
elements flow together, and the type might seem to share exists outside of it—so as to ensure integration, despite the
the spatial context of the image. Bringing the vertical align- image’s dominant, irregular contour.
ment of a column into proximity with an image’s irregular
contour produces the opposite effect: the type advances in

Despite silhouettes’ irregular

contours, geometry under-
pins their structures; internal
axes may define options for
positioning type elements
for greater integration. Look
to play type off other visual
syntax as well: dark-value
elements and boundaries be-
tween contrasting forms; tonal
changes that may present
possibilities for adjusting text
values; and shapes or surface
activity within the silhouette
may relate to stroke and ter-
minal details in a typeface.

Position silhouetted images to

ensure they flow smoothly into
the type’s geometry without
seeming awkwardly out of
place. Note the alternation of
hard edges and organic ones
in multiple directions. The re-
lationship between the image
shape and the rag becomes
dominant if the rag enters into
the image’s contour; the geo-
metric alignment in the same
block of text will naturally
counter the irregular forms
within the silhouetted image.
Allowing text to overlap
the silhouette helps further
integrate the two.

W
a
th
in
H

In both the brochure spread (top) and the of the image or contrasting its curvilineari-
web page ( just above), the type’s geometric ty with angles and horizontals, respectively.
qualities, with respect to those of the images, FROST DESIGN / AUSTRALIA 
is quite apparent—restating the value/ RED CANOE / UNITED STATES 
weight distribution and stepped diagonality

254 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 254 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 254 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 254
 Type and Full-Bleed Images Type that is placed within Finding a relatively open, simple area within the image (one
the field of an image must respond to the image’s composi- that is overall dark or overall light, and devoid of changes
e tion as though it is one made of independent compositional in value or small, complicated detail) will generally allow
forms. Although the type has become part of the image, it the type to be set in a value that is the opposite. One danger
must still engage in specific instances of congruence and here is the potential to fill up the negative spaces in the
opposition with the internal components of the image, just image that contribute to its own compositional dynamism.
e as it would in any other circumstance. The most challeng- The joy of working with type in full-bleed scenarios is that
ing aspect of composing type within a full-bleed image is the type becomes so dimensional and integrated; but this
that of ensuring legibility through adequate contrast depends on the image retaining the vitality of its existing
between the type’s value and that of whatever is behind it. positive/negative characteristics.

For all appearances, the chapter title on this

book spread is situated on the gallery wall at
the back of the image.
FINEST MAGMA / GERMANY

The designer of this book cover

uses diagonal rotation of the type to
oppose the dot-like central form in
the image, but staggers the lines of
text to create inward and outward
movement that echoes similar move-
ment in the clouds and stars. Despite
While the type in this poster takes the volume and size of the text,
advantage of large, tonally simple areas, valuable negative space is retained
the designer has left the majority of the to prevent visual cluttering.
interesting spaces untouched. DECLAN ZIMMERMAN / UNITED STATES

HELENA WANG / UNITED STATES

-
y.

255 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R M E R GI N G T Y P E A N D I M A GE

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 255 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 255 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 255
 WORKING WITH GRIDS

The Grid System All design work involves organizational a grid are simple: clarity, efficiency, economy, and continu-
problem solving. Pictures, fields of text, headlines, and ity. A grid introduces systematic order to a layout, helps
tabular data: all these pieces must come together to com- distinguish between various types of information, and eases
municate. A grid is an organizational framework of vertical a user’s navigation through them. Using a grid permits a
and horizontal axes that may be used to govern alignment designer to lay out enormous amounts of information in
and proportional relationships among such elements—and a short time because it sets up layout guidelines based on
it is simply one approach to achieving this goal. Grids can a project’s communication needs. A grid also allows many
be loose and organic or they can be rigorous and mechani- individuals to collaborate on the same project or on a series
cal. Among other things, a grid helps solve communication of related projects over time, without compromising estab-
problems of great complexity. The benefits of working with lished visual qualities from one instance to the next.

GRID ANATOMY

A grid consists of a distinct set Margins are the negative spaces

of alignment-based relation- between the format edge and
ships that serves as a guide for the content, that surround and
define the live area where type
distributing elements across and images will be arranged. The
a format. Every grid contains proportions of the margins bear a
great deal of consideration, as they
the same basic parts, no help establish the overall tension
matter how complex the grid within the composition. Margins
becomes. These parts can be can be used to focus attention,
serve as a resting place for the eye,
combined as needed or omitted or act as an area for subordinate
from the overall structure at information.
the designer’s discretion, and
the proportions of the parts Flowlines are alignments
that break the space into horizon-
is similarly dependent on the tal bands. Flowlines help guide
designer’s needs. the eye across the format and can
be used to impose additional
stopping and starting points for
text or images. There may be one
flowline or several.

If there are numerous flowlines

at regular intervals, breaking
the page top to bottom in a
repeated proportion, a system
of rows is created that intersects
the vertical columns.

Modules are individual units

of space separated by regular in-
Gutters are interstitial tervals that, when repeated across
spaces between columns the page format, create columns
(column gutters) and and rows.
rows (row gutters) that
separate fields of content Spatial zones are groups of
(text or images) from modules that form distinct
one another. fields. Each field can be assigned
a specific role for displaying
information; for example, one
horizontal field might be re-
served for images, and the field
below it might be reserved for a
series of text columns.

Markers are placement indicators Columns are vertical alignments of type

for subordinate or consistently that create horizontal divisions between
appearing text, such as running the margins. There can be any number of
heads, section titles, folios, or any columns; sometimes they are all the same
other element that occupies only width, and sometimes they are different
one location in any layout. widths, corresponding to specific informa-
tion. The page diagrammed here shows four
columns of even width.

256 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 256 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 256 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 256
-

The exhibition design, above,

and the website, at left, both
structure their respective con-
tent on a modular grid. slight
deviations notwithstanding,
the material in the exhibi-
tion design is very rigorously
constrained within the grid’s
modules, which are made
explicit through physical gaps
between display panels.
—
In contrast, the modularity
of the website is somewhat
less rigorously enforced—or,
shows greater variation in how
module widths can be combined
in different ways to accommo-
date text and image content of
differing proportion.
INFINITO / PERU 
MUBIEN / SPAIN 

In the publication at top, the full area image details and text content as distinct
defined by the column and row structure from the primary, introductory content
is free to accommodate information of any presented in the upper half.
type, and at any location within the page LSD SPACE / SPAIN 
area. In the page spread just above, the PODPUNKT / POLAND 
designers define the lower half of the page
as a spatial zone that contains supporting

W OR K I N G W I T H GR I DS

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 257 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 257 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 257
 WORKING WITH GRIDS

COLUMN GRID MODULAR GRID H

Information that is discon- and large images, while horizontal alignments in Extremely complex projects formational space. Grouped the number and stress
tinuous benefits from being captions might be placed in increments from the top require even more precise together, these modules of the module achieve dif-
organized into an arrange- an adjacent column. of the page. Regardless of control, and, in this situa- define areas called spatial ferent kinds of presence
ment of vertical columns. Any number of columns the number of columns, the tion, a modular grid might zones to which specific for the typographic and
Because the columns can be can be used, depending body and margins may be be the most useful choice. roles can be assigned. The image content.
dependent on each other for on the format size and the related asymmetrically or A modular grid is essentially degree of control within the
running text, independent complexity of the content; symmetrically (mirrored). a column grid with a large grid depends on the size
for small blocks of text, or even two- and three-column number of horizontal of the modules. Smaller
crossed over to make wider grids, among the most flowlines that subdivide the modules provide more flex-
columns, the column grid is common used in designing columns into rows, creating ibility and greater precision,
very flexible. For example, publications, provide a tre- a matrix of cells called but too many subdivisions
some columns might be mendous number of layout “modules.” Each module can become confusing or
reserved for running text options. Flowlines define defines a small chunk of in- redundant. Variations on

ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. / UNITED STATES  NAROSKA DESIGN / GERMANY 

TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES  PATRICIA ERNE / UNITED STATES 

258 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 258 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 258 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 258
 HIERARCHIC GRID COMPOUND GRID

Sometimes the visual and regular repeated intervals. ers, or web pages, it’s an Depending on the complex- One option is to superim- on a single page spread—
informational needs of a Column widths, as well organic approach to order- ity of the publication, a pose grids that share outer or, on a single page, but
project require an odd grid as the intervals between ing information in space designer might find that margins, allowing them to to separate that page into
that doesn’t fit into any cat- them, vary depending on that still holds all of the multiple grids are needed be relatively arbitrary in different areas.
egory. These grids—called context and use; they may parts together architectur- to organize the content, their relationship to each
hierarchic grids—conform make use of several rows ally with clear, orthogonal within sections or even a other; a second option is to
to the needs of the informa- grouped together in only relationships. single-page spread. The superimpose grids that each
tion they organize, but one part of a format, joined differences in visual logic define their own margins,
they are based more on an by a single column; or they between material respond- with specific column widths
intuitive placement of align- may consist only of broad, ing to different grids can or flowlines corresponding
ments customized to the simple divisions defined by make very clear distinctions between the grids (or not);
various proportions of the a few guidelines. Whether between sections or types a third option is to combine
elements, rather than on used to build books, post- of content. grids opposite each other

ASTRID STAVRO STUDIO / SPAIN  COMA / NETHERLANDS 

STUDIO BLUE / UNITED STATES  IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES 

259 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R W OR K I N G W I T H GR I D S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 259 4/6/20 1:36 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 259 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 259
 WORKING WITH GRIDS

Grid by Image An effective grid derives from a project’s column intervals but, sometimes, a universal module. An
content. If a given project is image heavy (like a coffee table important consideration is whether the images will appear
book or an exhibition website) one useful approach is to at relative size to each other, or at any size. A designer may
base the grid’s characteristics on those of the imagery. Begin then develop proportional measures for the images and
by placing a representative selection of images on a page, surrounding text areas. It’s also possible to structure a grid
all sized to the same height and sharing an alignment, to based on how images will be sized in succession (perhaps
see how their formats vary. Scaling the images to match first bleeding fully off one page, then a half-page vertical,
widths or heights at different sizes will reveal instances in then inset, and so on). In this case, the proportions of the
which their respective proportions correspond with each images as they relate to the format will define a series of
other, thereby permitting one to define either only a set of intervals that can be subdivided more precisely.

In this hypothetical study, in the group will be very second image. Shifting the
several source images, each different. Some formats may images around, and at dif-
with different proportions, be related in width or depth; ferent sizes can help distill a
are positioned relative to others may be fractionally module to form the basis of
each other to help deter- related if their relative a column and row structure
mine where their depths and scales change—if shrinking that will accommodate all of
widths might correspond. one, for instance, to match the images’ formats—at a
More likely than not, the another’s height, causes it variety of sizes—for maxi-
aspect ratios of the images to be half the width of the mum layout variation.

Another way of thinking differences in the formats’

about images as a source for respective proportions; each
building a grid is how their gives rise to a highly indi-
shapes relate to that of the viduated grid as a result.
format in which they’ll ap- —
pear. Similar to the method Again, the same formats are
described above, the shape shown but, this time, with
of the images can be used grids based on relating two
to define a module; a grid images to each format (bot-
made built this way could tom row). The square image
just as easily consist of defines the same vertically
columns whose measures shaped area to its right in
happen to be some frac- each format as a result of its
tional subdivision of the changing size. The vertical
image’s width when it is space is a reference to the
sized as desired within the proportion of the second
format area. image. This logic gives rise
— to a grid that correlates the
In this study, a placeholder proportions of both images
for a square-format image in all three formats as an
confronts each of three integrated system.
formats (top row)—each
time revealing secondary,
square-based spatial breaks
in a different way, due to the

260 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 260 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 260 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 260
 Grid by Text Alternatively, one can base a grid’s structure From this point, the designer must evaluate the resulting
on a text’s typesetting attributes. The first consideration is margins (head, sides, and foot) and determine whether
how much text is involved: publishers typically budget for there is enough space surrounding the body to keep it away
a specific number of pages, so each page must accommo- from the edges of the format. Because optimal width can
date a certain number of words. Even so, the optimal setting vary a little with the same text setting, the designer has
is a good starting point. Comparing optimal settings for some leeway in forcing the columns to be wider or more
different text styles can indicate a width for columns, and, narrow as needed. Last, if a modular grid is called for,
further, how many columns will comfortably fit side-by- comparing how the respective leading measures of the text
side on a single page. Adjusting the text’s stylistic attributes styles meet up at various depths may reveal a repeating
will allow the designer to create a preliminary structure. interval that can establish a row structure.

To find a column measure: a single width increment To find a row measure: position all of the measures are divisble alignment with the others in
align specimens of the that governs all the widths specimens of the text styles by the same number. Among various instances, just not as
type styles to the left, in a as a multiple of itself: two adjacent to each other, with the set of specimens above, consistently.
vertical stack. Draw vertical for the caption, four for the first lines of each all rest- all the leading measures are —
guidelines as shown to mark running text, and so on. ing on the same baseline. The multiples of 6, a relatively A measure for the row
their left-aligned edges, Some variance between the leading measures of the vari- large number. gutter is typically based on
as well as each specimen’s original text widths and new ous styles must be made — the running text’s leading, but
longest line. Slightly “protocolumn” width will to share a numeric relation- In comparing specimens, one it may just as easily be some
adjust the positions of the be evident; remember that ship: Increase and/or decrease will notice that the text of other increment that is a mul-
long-line guides to discover “optimal” has a character- the individual leading mea- some or all of the styles share tiple of the common leading
a fractional relationship be- count tolerance built in. This sures of each text style until both the top baseline and number. The last step is to fit
tween the styles’ respective universal increment will be another at particular intervals. a useful number of rows from
widths—where the caption the column width. One of these intervals is likely top to bottom of the page; the
width, for instance, might be to be a good choice for the row remaining spaces above and
one-half, or one-third, that depth—probably the one at below the row set become the
of the running text. Combine which the majority of the base- head margin and foot margin.
fractional widths and/or lines meet up. It’s alright if not
split the differences to yield every style’s baselines meet
at this interval; the odd ones
out will still show baseline

261 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R W OR K I N G W I T H GR I D S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 261 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 261 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 261
 WORKING WITH GRIDS

In a column grid without flowlines to constrain them, images Si

may be of any depth and slide up and down the columns ar
without aligning horizontally at any point. “f
pr
m

The geometric simplicity of align with the edges of columns, within the body of the structure.
rectilinear images (or graphical left to right, and they align A common error is to allow an
planes) offers the easiest way with the edges of rows, top to image’s edges to fall somewhere
to first understand how a grid bottom. It’s okay for images to in the middle of a column or
manages visual material within overlap each other, and to bleed row. Sometimes it looks better
its structure. All the instances off the page (even across the that way. Fine, then—add more
shown above are possible—and page gutter)—so long as they columns or rows so that a propor-
more. The basic rule to follow adhere to the column and row tional alignment option becomes
is this: The edges of images alignments whenever they fall available as part of the structure.

Duis autem velure

As soon as flowlines are introduced, one must assume Im
there’s a need to create horizontal alignments—in which ca
case, images can hang from them, dropping to whatever si

summa quaequoda
depth; sit on them; or be proportioned by the distance co
between them (if there are more than one). ad

Lorem ipsum dol

sit amet consecti

Similar to the way images of its bounding box should butt a column into an area occupied
should correspond to a grid’s up against the right-hand edge by an image). A single paragraph
alignment guides, so too should of a column. Column gutters and or column of text always begins
text—regardless whether it is a row gutters exist to keep text from the top edge guideline of a Always keep in mind that images can cross from one column Te
headline, a deck, running text, a separate when being articulated row—or “hangs” from it—but (or row) to another—and that means they can overlap each th
callout, or caption. Text set flush side by side (unless, of course, it may similarly cross through other at different sizes, in different proportions, and so on. fo
left should have its aligned edge the text is purposely being made a lower row, or even end in the qu
positioned along the left edge of to cross from a column originat- middle of a row. Text is organic: fo
a column; the right-hand edge ing within a negative space over when it runs out, it runs out.

262 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 262 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 262 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 262
es Silhouetted images and those cropped into irregular shapes Ragged text creates a soft, irregular edge that won’t Bullets are best set to “hang” to the left of a column
are perfectly fine, but the designer must ensure that they quite fill out columns. The irregularity of the rag’s shape alignment, as are quotation marks when they occur at
“feel” as though they’re aligned with guides or that they’re becomes more pronounced at larger text sizes (for the beginning of a line of text. Not doing so disrupts
proportionally related to grid widths and depths—which instance, in a headline or title. It’s okay: a well-placed the clarity of the aligned edge; in short, it looks sloppy.
means “eyeballing” them until they look right. element will help optically “mark” or “complete” the
right edge of the column.

Images that fill an entire page or spread from edge to edge Textual inclusions—such as initial caps and callouts that If a column of text is crossing over several rows, and there
can be made to relate to the underlying grid through careful invade the regular text structure—should correspond to are paragraph breaks within it, they need not fall at a row
sizing and cropping—so that key visual features align with a grid increments or very clearly not conform to them. guideline. Causing them to do so is a possibility, but it
column or row guide, or refer to widths or depths evident in results in awkward separations within the column and an
adjacent elements. overly self-conscious quality to the layout’s typography.

n Text, of course, can be set on top of an image (so long as Setting text centered-axis often results in the text Hanging indents (sometimes referred to as “outdents”)
there’s enough contrast between their relative values appearing unrelated to column alignments. The closer are a distinctive typographic gesture that require wider
for the text to be legible). In such cases, the text’s visual the overall width of such a text element to a recogniz- column gutters, or careful positioning in a column far
qualities must play off those of the image while it’s still able column width, the better; aligning its central axis away from the one that precedes it.
following the structure underneath. to a clearly demarcated column edge guide can only
help it appear well integrated.

263 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R W OR K I N G W I T H GR I DS

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 263 4/6/20 12:57 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 263 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 263
 WORKING WITH GRIDS

Arrangement Logic The spatial proportions and intervals of that change. Some regularity must clearly tie together
in a grid define a unifying plan structure, but the behavior alternations in logic to be meaningful; otherwise, the audi-
of material across that structure is what defines a specific ence simply recognizes the change but not its significance.
layout rhythm, or logic, for a project. A single grid can be When columns shift up and down past one another (or hang
used to articulate material in an endless number of ways; from a single point and drop to different depths ), consider
and every kind of rhythm expresses a feeling or idea, from the relationship between lines of text across the gutter sepa-
austerely geometric to wildly organic. Changing how mate- rating the columns: adjust the text’s leading measure and/
rial relates to its underlying grid from section to section can or how paragraphs are separated to ensure that the text’s
be a fun way to distinguish different informational areas. baselines clearly align from column to column; or, alterna-
The designer, however, must carefully consider the rhythm tively, that they purposely do not.

Columns justified to the option for arranging text,

head and foot margins especially in terms of
(A), or to a specific module integrating images. The
depth (B), create a rigidly differences in interval
geometric band of text. between column begin-
Hanging columns (C) nings and endings must be
provide a measure of con- decisive and considered
sistency, balanced by their for their rhythm.
changing depth. Columns
that change hangline (D)
and depth (E) offer the
most organic and flexible
A B C D E A

A
in
al
to
fr
to
an
sp
sa

Both of these publications follow a hanging

column approach that divides their layouts along a
mid-format flowline, top to bottom. In the foldout
brochure, that horizon dominates because more
material (both type and image rectangles) are situ-
ated along it, creating a sensation that elements
are flipping above and below that line. In the page
spread to the right, the two major hanglines are
more pronounced, as is the quality of the material
hanging—mostly because there’s openness in
the middle area. The names and headings that
accompany the images are allowed to violate the
column structure.
CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER / AUSTRIA 
VON-K ( JULIA KLINGER) / GERMANY 

264 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 264 4/6/20 2:37 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 264 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 264
 Variation and Violation A grid is truly successful only if questions, automatically creating interesting variations.
a designer rises above its implied uniformity and generates But violating a grid is an unavoidable necessity: sometimes
interest page after page. The greatest danger in using a grid because a bit of content won’t quite fit; or because it’s visu-
g is to succumb to its regularity. Grids don’t make dull layouts; ally necessary to radically emphasize something; or, just to
designers do. Once a grid is in place, sort all the project’s fight monotony. Violations must be relatively infrequent or
a- material part by part, and then test layout variations. How relatively small or they begin to undermine the reader’s
might elements interact with the grid differently from page sense of the grid’s consistency. Any specific item or general
to page, and yet still adhere to a recognizable rhythm? Very layout that violates the grid will be very dramatic. Not only
often, how different kinds of content (narrative images, in- will it be instantly noticeable, but it also will become hierar-
fographics, and so on) will best be displayed answers these chically most important (which may be good or bad).

be

A B C D

A simple trick to achiev- ferent locations, on the next surprise breathes life into the designer is that of established structure even the violation; if the pages
ing layout variation is to spread (A, B). Occasionally the sequence and highlights integrating the layout so as he or she violates it—per- following this particular
alternately cluster images ignoring a rigorous grid has featured content. Designing that it clearly belongs to haps a typographic element spread are a continuation
toward the top or bottom a dramatic effect on pacing a two-page spread that the same publication. Using from the previous spread of its content, the designer
from spread to spread, or and hierarchy. In this study ignores the grid established typefaces and colors that are continues onto the unique might add smaller violating
to force a small, medium, (C, D), just such an instance for the remaining pages of used elsewhere will do so, spread. In addition, the elements that recall the ma-
and large image onto a stands out among a series a publication ensures that but these alone will not be designer must consider the jor violation while restating
spread—and then use the of layouts that are heavily spread will be memorable. enough. The designer must transition back into the grid- the regular structure.
same sizes, but placed in dif- structured. The resulting The problem then facing create some reference to the structured pages following

In the brochure spreads at left, a great number to spread; graphical lines circulate around the
of columns means that margin, image, and text margins, responding to the column gutters but
proportions can shift around dramatically from changing color on a regular basis.
page to page, but the proportions of the negative PEOPLE DESIGN / UNITED STATES 
spaces and content objects remain unified in MARIELLE VAN GENDEREN+ADRIANN MELLEGERS /
feeling. Images in the publication above continu- NETHERLANDS 
ally change size and shift position from spread

265 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R W OR K I N G W I T H GR I D S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 265 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 265 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 265
 WORKING WITH GRIDS

Grids in Adaptable Environments In establishing a grid optimal attributes. Using the smartphone screen format
structure for an interactive experience, all the same consid- to define a column structure, then, is almost a no-brainer.
erations and methods under discussion still apply—except Its “ready-made” column width presents an opportunity to
that designers must anticipate how a layout will adjust when problem solve: Whatever column structure might be desir-
a user closes down a browser or how it will translate from able in a large-format screen environment can easily grow
a large-size format to a small one. The limited screen area of from the single-column measure of the smartphone. Work-
a smartphone is an unavoidable physical reality. However, ing from small screen to large, developing a grid is a matter
any perceived restriction there, with regard to type or image of arranging columns of the smartphone width side-by-side
sizes, is made up for by its particular width, which will to fill the increasing screen area. The base column can be
accommodate a range of legible type sizes with generally subdivided for greater flexibility and layout variation.

This diagram describes

the part-to-whole
relationship that can
be achieved between
smallest and largest
screen formats by
using the smartphone
screen proportion as
a base column. Even For quick reference, these
if that column is sub-
sequently subdivided, text specimens are set at a
the grid will maintain a
consistent proportion
variety of sizes. This serif is
among all formats set at 12 points, or roughly
and enforce visual
continuity throughout. 12 pixels in height.
TABLET / LANDSCAPE

A typical smartphone is
TABLET / PORTRAIT

shown at actual size to

the right. This specimen is set
at 15 points...
1200 × 1040
360 × 640

768 × 940

940 × 768

DESKTOP
PHONE

As is this sans serif.

At 10 points, most sans serifs and
contemporary serifs will remain
more than adequately legible.
DESKTOP / LARGE FORMAT SMARTPHONE This sans serif is also set at a
size of 10 points; note the
difference in its apparent size,
compared to that of the serif
sample above.
A sans serif font with a large x-height
is likely to read legibly even if reduced
to 8 points in size, as is this specimen

Using default template structures atic if specific layout gestures are

or themes potentially creates two intrinsic to a brand’s visual identity
kinds of structural conflict: First, or behavior. Both kinds of conflict
between symmetry and asymmetry, appear in the top examples, but are
which typically manifests itself in resolved in the lower examples.
misalignments between naviga-
tional and content elements, es-
pecially when the browser resizes;
and second, between different
uses of space, which is problem-

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 266 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 266 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 266
-
r
e

In both of these websites, which are

shown in device-responsive formats,
the base phone-width column
structure is clearly visible in the pro-
portions of the spatial breaks within
the layouts—and, in the page design
above, it’s explicitly marked by deli-
cate, graphical lines. By following
this strategy, the two sites not only
present an overall similar experience
of size among elements from device
to device, but the visual language is
compositionally and rhythmically
unified to a much greater degree.
DIANO & CO. / SLOVENIA 
ESTUDIO PÁNICO / ECUADOR 

e
tity
ct
are

267 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R W OR K I N G W I T H GR I D S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 267 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 267 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 267
 INTUITIVE ARRANGEMENT

By Eye and On the Fly Using grids has become part of the them to make necessary connections for the viewer. Design-
status quo of designing; but, visual organization is itself a ers often will use this method as a step toward building a
message, and that message may often mean throwing out the grid, but it’s just as valid an approach on its own. In essence,
grid. Sometimes, content has an internal structure that a it means working like a painter does: pushing text and
grid won’t necessarily clarify, or it needs a more organic images around, fast and loose, analyzing what conditions
one to create specific emotional reactions; and sometimes, arise, and then making adjustments in whatever way is
a designer prefers working intuitively—that is, by eye. Far most appropriate for the communication. The method’s
from being random, this compositional method is simply inherent liveliness has an affinity with collage; its sense of
responds to the content’s formal aspects: seeing visual rela- immediacy and directness can be very inviting, providing
tionships and contrasts within the material and exploiting viewers with an accessible, gratifying experience.

The material in all these projects—posters, an anima-

tion, and a book design among them—is layed out
spontaneously, allowing each element to respond to the
others. The projects on the opposite page show greater
attention to geometric relationships than do the poster
and motion sequence on this page, but they’re other-
wise free-form compositions.

This page
WEDGE / CANADA 
DAEUN KO / UNITED STATES 

Opposite: Column 01
TOORMIX / SPAIN 
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES 

Opposite: Column 02
OHYESCOOLGREAT / NETHERLANDS 
VIKTOR MATIC / ITALY 

268 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 268 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 268 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 268
 269 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R I N T U I T I V E A R R A N GE M E N T

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 269 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 269 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 269
 INTUITIVE ARRANGEMENT

Deconstruction Another way of composing material is other information if a change in size or density accompa-
to deconstruct (meaning to “disassemble” or “reassemble”) a nies the shift in placement. A conventional grid repeated
conventional grid. Once defined, a structure can be altered in different orientations, as well as overlapping grids with
in any number of ways: “cutting apart” major zones and modules of different proportions (or that run at different S
shifting, rotating, or rescaling them. It’s important to watch angles in relation to each other), will introduce a certain a
what happens when content that would normally appear order to the spatial ambiguity that such layering creates, sp
co
in an expected place (marking a structural juncture in the especially if some elements are oriented on both layers or
grid) appears elsewhere, perhaps aligned with some other simultaneously. The resulting optical confusion presents LE
kind of information in a way that didn’t exist before. The challenges to resolve in terms of hierarchy, but will inevita-
shifted information might end up behind or on top of some bly create a surreal, dynamic architectural space.

Shifting or breaking apart grid

modules or columns so that
they begin to overlap, even
while they carry sequential
information (like running
text), creates a perception of
layers within the compositional
space. The textures of different
columns interacting as they run
over each other establishes a
perception of transparency in
which text, or other elements,
appear to float in front of each
other. Shown here are a few of
the nearly unlimited possibili-
ties for deconstructing a grid,
and how text and image ele-
ments might respond to them.

270 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 270 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 270 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 270
 Slight overlaps in columns, changing column widths,
and column rotation create movement and geometric
spaces reminiscent of the design work and historical
context of the poster’s subject without copying his style
or showing any of his own projects.
LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY

al
t
n

Shifting columns and exaggerated textural qualities

harmonize the type with the images.
HYOSOOK KANG / UNITED STATES

In a remarkably funny twist, typo-

graphic elements are deconstructed
off the grid of the walls in hotel
rooms to create an amusing spatial
environment for guests.
E-TYPES / DENMARK

271 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R I N T U I T I V E A R R A N GE M E N T

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 271 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 271 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 271
 INTUITIVE ARRANGEMENT

Pictorial and Conceptual Synergies Further options for books or walls in an exhibit, visual elements relate to each
creating interesting layouts include translating pictorial other in time, as though in frames of a film. Images might
or conceptual ideas into a means of shaping or styling text. move across a format or otherwise be changed from page
The approach can refer to observable experience, like waves to page, affecting other images or text that appear later.
on the surface of water, or it can be based on a concept, like A simple example of this visual kinesis might be a sequence
a map or other kind of diagram. Whatever the source of the of pages where text appears to advance forward in space
idea, the designer can organize material to refer to it. For because its scale increases every time a page is turned.
example, text and images might appear to sink or float Using sensory experiences of space and time as organizing
around like objects caught in a flood. These might be called principles can be conceptually and emotionally powerful.
allusive structures. In projects of a sequential nature, like

Li
is
The designer of these seasonal calendar panels ex- bl
presses the feeling and energy of each season through LS
abstract images. The typography responds not just
formally but conceptually, alluding in different
instances to falling rain, leaves, and snow.
HAE JIN LEE / UNITED STATES

In this poster, the primary type is pictorialized to

represent a fish. Even the small, informational
text near the lower-right edge of the format plays
into this strategy—spaced rhythmically to suggest
the flow of water, despite the poster’s format
being vertical.
MANUEL ESTRADA / SPAIN

272 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 272 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 272 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 272
e

Veils of colored texture and transparent type—running

in two directions—evoke the veil of Arabic culture and
reference that language’s reading direction in contrast
to that of Western reading.
LEONARDO SONNOLI / ITALY

Little explanation is needed to clarify the image that

is being created by the configuration of justified text
blocks in this foldout brochure.
LSD SPACE / SPAIN

This poster alludes—almost literally—

to the folding of the sheet on which it is
printed, bringing up the question of
whether the poster’s “face” has value.
The planar shapes and irregular diagonal
axes provide interesting results for the
positioning of text elements.
OHYESCOOLGREAT / NETHERLANDS

273 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R I N T U I T I V E A R R A N GE M E N T

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 273 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 273 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 273
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

Why “System” Most designed works are systematic: they might appear simultaneously in multiple publications, but
often consist of several parts, sometimes each with different in different formats (double-page spread, half-page vertical,
content and functions that must recognizably interrelate. and so on). Environmental design work integrates informa-
Consider a website, presenting more general and more tion and visual experience among multiple spaces, like the
granular content distibuted among its pages. Print publi- exterior and entry lobby of a building, a set of exhibit spaces,
cations are produced serially or sequentially (a family of or public areas such as shopping centers or mass transit
related items produced all together, or individual items stations. Even a single-format, one-off piece, like a poster,
produced at different times, such as a series of brochures). must likely incorporate some aspects of an existing brand.
Advertising campaigns, too: a single format might appear A visual system is a language set of rules that flex to inte-
in sequential issues of a magazine; or, ads in a campaign grate such required differences and still unify the whole.

Within branding programs, logos must often be designed as T

systems themselves so they can adjust to changing contexts d
and retain their identifying characteristics. The logo shown on
here always retains its primary symbol form, but its or
wordmark component changes structure to accommodate (l
subsidiary names (top). The logo also flexes for display in a
differently sized environments (bottom). fa
ISOMETRIC DESIGN / UNITED STATES a
m
VB

In the website, a four-column grid anticipates

different conditions that might arise for content,
whether there may be a single image with
complex text support or mutliple images in a gal-
lery formation. Text is styled consistently with
respect to its hierarchic function.
STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO / SPAIN

274 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 274 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 274 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 274
-
Although the typography
throughout this identity program
, is rigidly styled on a consistent
grid, the designer has introduced
flexibility in form at every level:
variations in the visual shape
of the logotype lockup; a series
of abstract linear illustrations
that can be used in a number of
ways; and a strong color palette
of analogous hues with varying
levels of intensity.
CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER /
AUSTRIA

This extensive array of communications in

different media and formats is unified not
only through the prominent use of a specific
orange hue and a corporate brand mark
(logo) but through consistent application of
arcing lines, colored dots, a sans-serif font
family, certain kinds of image cropping,
and compositional structures—all hall-
marks of an integrated visual language.
VBAT / NETHERLANDS

275 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R D E S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 275 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 275 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 275
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

Parts and Part-to-Whole Before any visual work begins, forcing stuff into a preconceived visual idea; and one critical
designers must understand the scope of the system to be fact is that the system likely must integrate materials that are
created: what kinds of components it comprises (website, unanticipated at a project’s outset. Elements of different kinds
printed literature, signage); their respective formats and within a single component will relate to each other in specific
limitations; how much material each one must deliver; and ways, and each component, to the others. The functional
the different kinds of information (verbal and visual) that interplay of a system’s parts defines what must happen; the
must be accounted for (and in what combinations). Further, designer’s imagination determines how that interplay can
one must define how and when the system’s audience will happen. Analysis aside, designers are visual thinkers; one’s
encounter its parts and how they will use them. A system’s imagination should naturally play a role in envisioning how
form language grows from factual necessities, rather than best to visually express a system’s functional requirements.

Project

DESCRIPTIVE ILLUSTRATION
EDITORIAL ILLUSTRATION

IMAGE GROUP: GALLERY

Content

IMAGES DESCRIBING
STATISTICAL CHART
ONE IMAGE / SMALL

NOTATIONAL ICONS
ONE IMAGE / LARGE

Survey

COMBINATION
INFOGRAPHIC

Note by Letter
3–5 IMAGES
2–3 IMAGES

6+ IMAGES

A PROCESS
VIS UAL

VERBAL
H
D

G
A

K
B

L
I

HEADING/TITLE 1
SUBTITLE 2
EXTENSIVE DECK 3
CALLOUT/PULLQUOTE 4
PROSE: 15–30 W 5
PROSE: 30–50 W 6
PROSE: 50–100 W 7
PROSE: 100–300 W 8
PROSE: 300–1000 W 9
PROSE: 1K–2K W 10
POETICS: SHORT 11
POETICS: LONG 12
TESTIMONIAL 13 T
COMMENTARY 14 ch
IMAGE CAPTIONS 15 re
SIDEBAR 16
k
TIMELINE 17
ch
FINANCIAL TABLE 18
n
MARGIN NOTES 19
a
FOOTNOTES 20
co
PROCEDURE: SHORT 21
re
PROCEDURE: EXTENSIVE 22
a
CONTENT LISTING 23
be
CONTENT SUBMENU 24
CATEGORICAL LIST 25
sp
COMBINATION
m
Note by Number ES

When weighing format size, Creating a matrix (like the one

shape, and other such physical shown here) to map extensive
factors against the require- content can be an especially
ments imposed by content, helpful reference—for planning
look for best- and worst-case page count, website wireframes,
scenarios (by page, spread, and even for project proposal The components of this exhibit
or section) by which to judge: budgeting purposes. For multi- installation show a highly repeatable
compare the smallest amount part projects, especially ones layout structure that nonetheless
of something to the largest, with different kinds of touch-
or the most simple combination point, or delivery medium, integrates content of many different
of content elements to the repeating the matrix study for kinds, each of different volume—the
most complex. each and comparing them is an result of the designers understanding
excellent means of finding syner-
gies between them that can help
the characteristics of the project’s
understand how the system will content in great depth.
need to work. POULIN+MORRIS / UNITED STATES

276 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 276 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 276 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 276
l Recognizing that every level of
BOOK (PRINT/EDITORIAL) CONTENT STRUCTURE information to be presented in
re a project may require specific
s structural attributes (because
of its depth, complexity, or
c particular functionality) is
Section Section the first step in creating a
Opener Introduction comprehensive grid that will
enfold all of those attributes.
Diagrammed at left are major
End Matter
Index functional components as-
Front Matter sociated with print (top) and
Essay Bibliography
Notes UX design (bottom), with each
w Preface
Foreword Chapter Chapter Chapter coded to its relative level of
. Opener Jump Text Section complexity by depth of color.
Contiguous

ONLINE (WEBSITE) CONTENT STRUCTURE

Search Media

Landing A-Level 01 B-Level 01 C-Level 01

Page

Shopping Cart

Forms A-Level 02 B-Level 02 C-Level 02

The pages of this website address

changing content conditions by
reproportioning content of specific
kinds, based on a modular grid. The
changes in layout structure and
number or size of images becomes
a feature of a particular level of
content that the viewer comes to
recognize over time—much like
appreciating a visual distinction
between a book chapter’s opening
spread and the text spread that
might follow it.
ESIETE / SPAIN

277 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R D E S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 277 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 277 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 277
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

Ordering and Sequencing After defining a project’s parts, signage, and vehicle livery, each with unique requirements).
one must figure out what goes where, and how it should be Some components have obvious roles; and, again, a client
arranged informationally or experientially. A client might may impose ordering criteria for certain ones. Content A
L

supply content in a particular order, but the designer really organization often derives from conventions: for example, A
R
R

has to understand it and, potentially, reorder it to improve that content found in the upper levels of a website will be R
C

its clarity or enhance its conceptual aspects. Further, the more general, then more specific at deeper ones. Conven-
content may not be presented all at one time, in one place, tions also abound for printed publications, where one also
or all in the same format. A branding program, for example, assumes a certain kind of sequence. Still, most content can
is a system whose content is distributed among a multitude be ordered in different ways, and it’s for the designer (in
of items (stationery, website, brochures, environmental dialogue with the client) to conceive of what’s most effective.

BY KIND

Content ordered by differences in meaning

BY SPECIFICITY

Content categorized from more general to more detailed

BY COMPLEXITY

Content ordered sequentially from least complex to most complex

NARRATIVELY

Content ordered in terms of time sequence, historical context,

or as steps in a process or story

BY RELEVANCE

Full-bleed photographs of a gallery en- traveling horizontally through a spa-

vironment lead viewers experientially tial zone at the bottoms of the pages
through an exhibit, moving them from provides commentary and supporting
Content ordered according to which information is most important room to room and then close-up to photographic images.
artwork on individual walls. Content COMA / NETHERLANDS

278 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 278 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 278 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 278
). HOTEL SEARCH Within a self-contained ABOUT
LOCATION
SEARCH
CONTACT
ABOUT
LOCATION
SEARCH On a single page of the site
LOGO project, such as a book or, AMENITIES
ROOMS
(the home page, in this case)
here, a website (shown RESERVATIONS sorting the same content
as schematic wireframe HOTEL AMENITIES in different ways might call
ABOUT
LOCATION PROMOTIONAL diagrams) content is sorted HOTEL Descriptive text lorem ipsum
dolor sit amet consectitur adips LOGO attention to specific parts
ing elit duis autem velure sum
AMENITIES
ROOMS IMAGERY among pages: how much, LOGO nunc et semper, magnificat exe Descriptive text
lorem ipsum
ROOMS over others and thereby
RESERVATIONS
REVIEWS and what, on each. On each deo in pellentesque dolor sit amet
consectitur adi
affect the emphasis of these
page, the volume of material RESERVATIONS specific parts. Convention
CONTACT REVIEWS
psing elit duis
autem ure sum
changes, and the hierarchic generally dictates that ma-
relationship between the CONTACT
terial that comes first should
parts also may change—or be assumed to have greater
HOTEL
LOGO
SEARCH they may remain the same. SEARCH ABOUT
LOCATION
SEARCH significance. Adjusting the
The content, even yet so order to create a narrative
raw, begins to direct the HOTEL
LOGO flow that enhances focus
. designer’s decisions as to REVIEW REVIEW HOTEL AMENITIES on specific content changes
ABOUT
LOCATION
PROMOTIONAL
IMAGERY
Descriptive text lorem ipsum
dolor sit amet consectitur adips the sizes and positions of LOGO the experience.
AMENITIES
ROOMS
RESERVATIONS
ing elit duis autem velure sum
the elements. The distribu- RESERVATIONS
MORE > MORE >
Descriptive text
lorem ipsum
ROOMS
PROMOTIONAL Descriptive text lorem ipsum tion of content from page dolor sit amet
REVIEW REVIEW
REVIEWS
dolor sit amet consectitur adips consectitur adi
RESERVATIONS
CONTACT IMAGERY ABOUT
ing elit duis autem velure sum to page has significance for LOCATION
AMENITIES
psing elit duis
autem ure sum
PROMOTIONAL Descriptive text lorem ipsum the website’s users: how to ROOMS
MORE > MORE >
IMAGERY dolor sit amet consectitur adips
ing elit duis autem velure sum identify navigation versus CONTACT
CONTACT

content, to begin with, as

well as which content is
hierarchically related and
which is not.

The design of this mobile app takes advantage

of its specific height to create a module that
groups major information levels concisely—
and the ability to scroll vertically, or swipe
horizontally, to create a specific sequence in
which users will access information. Vertical
scrolling provides overview information,
presented in four levels within a given module
about a subject; swiping left or right reveals
more specific, or expanded, information about
the subject in that module.
ORDER / UNITED STATES

279 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 279 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 279 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 279
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

Pacing Ordering accounts for the locations, groupings, and can cue the viewer to changes in the content’s meaning and,
actual sequence of a project’s content (see the previous page). so, clarify how different groupings of content relate to each
Pacing concerns how incrementally or abruptly, how subtly other. Changes in pacing also prevent monotony (and, espe-
or dramatically, such content changes in its visual qualities cially with regard to extensive material) reengage viewers
from one part of the project to the next. Ordering is about at each stage of their experience. One can establish pacing in
function; pacing is about feeling. By creating a clear cadence a discontinuous or multipart system (like the touchpoints
(or “timing”) among visual variations that viewers will of a brand, encountered at different times) by varying each
encounter—from long and drawn out to sudden, or from component’s complexity and use of form relative to the order
quiet to dynamic—the designer can accomplish several in which viewers will likely interact with them: from ad to
goals. First, and perhaps most importantly, the designer website to retail location to product package, for example.

A A B C D A B C D A B C D

A A B A A C A A D A A B In the context of a scrolling

web page—where a grid’s

B compositional field is con-

tiguous—the notion of pacing
focuses on lateral positioning
of elements, in concert with
changes in the depths and
widths of masses.
A B B B A C C C A D D D

C
B A B C B D B A B C B D

D
A B B B A C C C A D D D A
i
s
i
b
p
a
l
t
a
s
Abstractly representing differ- As a second step, the designer Following this study, the designer c
ent states of visual activity in a explores different sequences of will compare the visual rhythms a
simplified form gives the these basic variations: cycling to the project’s actual distribution d
designer a means of rapidly through them in order, reversing of content and, in consideration
testing alternative approaches that order, alternating between of its effect on hierarchy, choose a
f
to a pacing strategy. For a two or three, repeating some and pacing strategy to pursue, or f
hypothetical sequence of not others, and so on. continue looking for other strate- m
page spreads, a designer — gies that more closely correspond K
has first defined a category The labels help the designer with the content’s hierarchic
of change—that of value, identify the nature of the rhythm requirements, if it appears neces-
relative to spatial break—and in a method that is common to sary to do so.
several possible variations, musical composers: A B C D, for
arranged from darkest to example, or A B A C A D.
lightest, overall, and labeled Repeating a state (A B B B C D )
accordingly. slows the pacing in some areas,
while rapid changes from state
to state speed it up.

280 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 280 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 280 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 280
 , The designer of this book focused on value progressions
h as a way to create distinction between, and flow within,
various sections. The thumbnail overview of all the
- book’s spreads (below) shows a pronounced cadence of
dark-to-light change from beginning to end—in the first
n section versus the remainder, and within each section.
L2M3 / GERMANY

ing
ng
h

After the film’s conceptual slogan is

introduced through a rapid, jarring
series of transitions, the major-
ity of this opening title sequence
builds suspense through a slower
pacing strategy. Production credits
are introduced by sliding them
laterally across the screen while
they dissolve in and out of view,
and the background texture begins
slowly to morph in a reference to a
character’s alien transformation. In
a startling shift, the pattern rapidly
distorts and the film’s title emerges
from deep space to explode out of the
frame. The pacing in the sequence
mirrors that of the film’s events.
KIYOTAKA SUMIOSHI / UNITED STATES

281 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 281 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 281 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 281
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

This website moves the user from expansive, envi-

ronmental imagery that bleeds the screen’s format,
through increasingly reduced, more analytically
cropped detail images.
ESIETE / SPAIN

This film title sequence presents a minimalist, abstract

view of white dominos that evoke a notable scene.
Etxroardinarily slow, stately pacing through different T
panning shots suggests the film’s themes of solitude, s
pain, and self exploration. li
JOHN LIKENS / UNITED STATES
b
r
e
fi
D

282 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 282 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 282 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 282
 This book design creates a recognizable rhythm
in the way its page spreads alternate between
particular structures: full-bleed imagery;
full-bleed text; chapter title with inset block;
and occasional irregularly organized pages for
punctuation. At first glance, each kind of spread
appears very different from the others—but
similarities in the relative sizes and positions of
certain elements, as well as rhythmic gestures,
reveal themselves upon closer inspection.
ESTUDIO PÁNICO / ECUADOR

The idea of pacing is typically related to single

sequences, but it can also apply to multipart or non-
linear narratives—like brands. In this sense, pacing
becomes about how the visual langauge refreshes or
restates itself each time a viewer encounters a differ-
ent component of it, so as to maintain continuity but
fight monotony, as this brand successfully does.
DESIGN RANCH / UNITED STATES

283 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 283 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 283 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 283
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

Function into Form As the realities of a project’s content what information is expository (literally needed for under-
reveal possibilities and limitations for how its material can standing: “These are some available health care services”) as
be delivered, the designer now must contemplate the visual well as what narrative, if any, will frame the information
language that will best achieve his or her communicative (“These health care services provide peace of mind”). From the
goals. What kinds of form and imagery will do the job? How expository standpoint, if the designer sees that every part
do different semiotic and compositional strategies address of a project involves three kinds of text, but requires few
(and enhance!) necessities of ordering and part-to-whole images, he or she then knows that typography will be a
relationships? How must images conceptually connect with more pronounced component of the system: it may likely
text—and what might that mean for type hierarchy, layout require several columns, multiple font styles, and more
structure and style? These questions all have to do with active use of space (when, for example, no image is present).

Every part of this system performs the

same function and presents the same
volumes and kinds of information. Its
primary goal is to deliver a consistent
(branded) experience. A language of
painterly marks, in a fresh, cool palette,
creates a changing backdrop for centered
text, set all caps in a sans serif and foil
stamped in gold.
ANAGRAMA / MEXICO

T
la
a
o
in
e
T

In this packaging, the same kinds of text

elements are listed top to bottom, in the same
order and treatment; an inset photograph
accompanies the text and may be positioned
below it—or, if the available space demands,
embedded within the text’s justified area.
Limited color changes in the typography
are a restrained variation.
P&W DESIGN CONSULTANTS / UNITED KINGDOM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 284 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 284 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 284
 From the narrative standpoint, a designer’s visualization what’s possible, evaluating the results, resolving problems,
of subject matter may offer a direction: If the subject is life and returning yet again to freer exploration. The designer’s
sciences, for example, the designer may use dots to suggest conclusions define the basic characteristics of the system:
molecules and cells, crop images into circular forms, and this kind of image, that medium, these kinds of shapes, this
then choose a font with ball serifs. If a logo is part of the color palette, that font family, this sort of layout structure.
system (as it often is), its own visual language may shape Together, these characteristics embody not only the system’s
that of the system (a linear logo may suggest that lines and “look and feel,” but how its particular parts work in specific,
certain type arrangements be used throughout). Finding repeatable ways to accommodate and corroborate each
the most effective form language involves analytical and other—as consistently as can be. All form communicates;
intuitive study of the content: freely messing around to see in a system, form becomes a set of unifying “rules.”

A B C

The graphical divisions of space and the overall

language of geometric elements in this book act as
a system that grows from the function of each kind
of spread: (A) section introduction; (B) subsection
introduction; (C) subsection discussion; (D) visual
examples introduction; (E) visual example discussion.
TIMOTHY SAMARA / UNITED STATES

D E

The need for unified, responsive formatting and the

nostalgic ticket-tab metaphor combine to create a
modular, branded online experience across devices.
SELF-TITLED / AUSTRALIA

285 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 285 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 285 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 285
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

Rules and Variables Overall visual consistency is generally prescribed form; or violating the rules to do what’s best and,
important for creating cohesion, a sense of totality or thereby, disrupting the system’s continuity. Making sure
integration, among a system’s parts (in branding, it builds a system’s visual language can “flex” is therefore critical.
memorability through repeated recognition). That said, if Consequently, so is a designer’s intimate understanding of
every part is too visually similar, viewers will quickly get the inherent qualities of the visual language’s syntax and
bored or, worse, gloss over new material because they think grammar, and how these may be varied or rigidly enforced.
they’re seeing the same stuff again. On a functional level, Lines may vary in their relative lengths and weights, and
“rules” that are too rigid may interfere with presenting they may be solid or broken; they may run in parallel or
material in whatever way is most effective—and that means divergent directions. If material is organized in diagonal
either doing a disservice to the content by forcing it to fit a configurations, the fact of diagonality can be a consistent

The rules that a designer defines for the syntax and

grammar of a system’s visual language can be quite
simple. Simplicity is considered desirable to ensure
easy application to new communications that arise,
as well as for consistency among that that will be
recognized by an audience. Simple rules can result
in a simple expression or one that appears very
complex. The system that governs the layouts of the
posters, at right, calls for a straightforward alterna-
tion in the position of the field with the logo (top or
bottom), and a reversal of position between logo and
exhibition title. In contrast, the system below is based
on a grid of dots that define the relative positions
of all elements, but their sizes and interaction are
permitted wider variation—which makes the system
appear more complex than it really is.
MOLTOBUREAU / GERMANY 
THINKMOTO / GERMANY 

286 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 286 4/6/20 12:58 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 286 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 286
 rule; but perhaps the angle of orientation can change (30°, rules, very consistently applied); and, alternatively, it may
45°, 65°), and the angle may further rise from lower left to be remarkably organic (more rules, each applied with
upper right within a format, or vice versa. Or, it may be that greater possible variation)—and still be a system. A system
each kind of informational text element is set in a particular may even incorporate randomness: properly controlled
font, but the relative size of each kind of text element can (and here, we’re getting a little Zen), the very presence of
be changed—so long as the most important one is always randomness can become appreciated as rule unto itself.
the largest, regardless of their actual point sizes. This range The greater the variability in a system (more rules, more
of possible logic in how a system’s rules and their variables variations on each rule), the greater the risk it will fall
may be expressed means that any system can be extremely apart—challenging viewers to appreciate their experience
programmatic, or templated, overall (very few, very specific as a recognizable, overarching visual idea.

Logos used to be considered unalterable but, in

recent years, that thinking has changed; many
are now designed to be variable. For such a logo
to consistently identify its brand, its formal
variables must be specific and limited. Within
the parameters of very narrowly defined rules,
however, a variable logo may still achieve a
remarkable degree of flexibility—as the logos
shown here reveal. Analyze each for yourself:
What are the particular formal aspects that act
as the rules it follows? What are the specific
variations within each rule that allows the logo
to change as it does?

Left to right, top to bottom

GARBETT / AUSTRALIA
MUCHO / SPAIN
MAKEBARDO / NEW ZEALAND
LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP / GREECE
FIASCO DESIGN / UNITED KINGDOM
VBAT / NETHERLANDS

287 D E S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 287 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 287 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 287
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

T
to
sp
a
is
p
T
a
fr
th
fr
d
d
ea
a
Although there are other characteristics at play in th
these systems, their typography is the dominant tr
characteristic of their respective visual languages. m
In the brand materials for a theater complex, ov
just above, the individual theaters are each A
characterized by a numeral set in a particular
type style, and these are joined by a serif and a
sans-serif family, each used for only specific kinds
of information. All the typography is arranged in
relation to a line that expresses a diagonal axis.
For the backlit, cube kiosk outside an orchestra’s
performance hall (right), type is set in three faces
and arranged around a single vertical axis. The
system below derives a set of shapes from the
architecture of the university it brands to gener-
ate a custom face. A “type generator” allows
the designer to modify the way those shapes form
individual letters of different style, and the order
in which the varied styles are sequenced as they
appear in a line of text.
TOORMIX / SPAIN 
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCS. / UNITED STATES 
FOR THE PEOPLE / AUSTRALIA 

288 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 288 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 288 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 288
 RIGID ORGANIC
These two poster series point up the extremes posters are part of a family: The same kinds
The selected systems on
to which a system may gravitate on the of hand-drawn, iconic elements, colors, and the following pages—all .........................................................
spectrum between near-absolute consistency typefaces appear; the negative space is almost relatively extensive branding Form The identities and behav-
and near-random organicism. The character- consumed by elements; and there is generally programs—express their ioral characterstics of the system’s
visual languages in varying visual syntax
istics of the series just below fall toward the a similar hierarchic distribution of headline degrees of rigidity and organi- .........................................................
programmatic, or rigid, end of the spectrum. and support material. Because these formal cism. Some follow only a Color The system’s chromatic
The sizes and positions of all the elements qualities are so powerfully evident, the few rules (one kind of form, palette and the relationships
are fixed; only the specific style of picture designer is able to introduce endless variation only two colors, one font), among its hues
while others incorporate
frame that’s featured, and the coloration of without sacrificing unity. multliple rules for different
.........................................................

that image and the word “beyond,” change Typography The number and
MARTA GAWIN / POLAND  kinds of material, each per- style(s) of typefaces used in the
from poster to poster. And yet, that limited NATASHA JIWA / UNITED STATES  mitting further variation. system, along with alignment
degree of variation is sufficient to create — logic and any treatments
A small, graduated diagram
dynamic, visual renewal of the language in accompanies each project .........................................................

each instance. The series of posters promoting to show where its system Imagery The pictorial or nonpicto-
resides on the spectrum rial nature of subject depiction, as
a city’s cultural festival (bottom) exists at well as media and presentation
of expression between these
the other end of the continuum, showing noted extremes—along with .........................................................

tremendous formal variety: in the sizes of ele- a brief list of its rules and Layout The structural and rhyth-
ments, axis relationships, color distribution, variables, categorized by mic characteristics of the system’s
formal characteristic. organization
overall composition, and mix of typefaces.
And yet, there is no question that these three

289 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 289 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 289 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 289
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

RIGID ORGANIC

Design festival brand identity

INFINITO / PERU

..........................................................

Form Parallel and concentric lines

patterns / Rectangular, triangular,
and semicircular planes
..........................................................

Color Two pairs of analogous hues

(cool and warm) / Strong saturation
..........................................................

Typography One sans-serif face in

its bold weight / Size change only /
Rectangular box highlighting
..........................................................

Imagery Silhouetted art objects

of cultural significance / Duotoned
photography
..........................................................

Composition Grid-based column

structures / Vertical emphasis with
module-based horizontal divisions

RIGID ORGANIC

Identity and responsive web de-

sign promoting a municipality’s
public artworks
ASCEND STUDIO / UNITED KINGDOM

..........................................................

Form Squares / Horizontally

proportioned rectangles / Lines in
horizontal, parallel formations, as
well as 90° axis formations
..........................................................

Color Two cool, analogous hues,

plus black and two values of gray
..........................................................

Typography One sans-serif family

using two weights / Brand, headings,
and navigation set uppercase with
tight spacing / Labeling and text set
upper- and lowercase
..........................................................

Imagery Full-color photography /

Art subjects / Gallery scenes
..........................................................

Composition Asymmetrical type

configurations / Corner formations
for brand name initials

290 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 290 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 290 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 290
 C RIGID ORGANIC

Brand identity for an industrial

site redeveloped as a public space
for work and culture
... BRAND BROTHERS / FRANCE
s
, ..........................................................

Form Rectangular planes cut by

...
angled ones / Crops of logo form
es (house shaped, linear) / Horizontal
on lines, in two weights, running paral-
... lel (web, text dividers)
n ..........................................................
/ Color Six hues (three cool, three
warm) plus black / Integration of
... analogous pairs and a triad (green/
orange/red-violet) / Strong satura-
d tion
..........................................................
... Typography Custom logotype:
unicase, angular deformations / One
h sans-serif family / Uniform stroke
s weight, angular deformations in
some curved forms details / Size
change / Asymmetrical setting
..........................................................

Imagery Pictorial / Documen-

tary photography / Black halftones
overprinting solid fields / Full-color
photography used online / Pixel-
stylized icons (exterior mural)
..........................................................

Composition Primarily grid-based /

Interruptions of orthogonal grid with
angled planes / Overlaps of imagery
with geometric elements (type, logo)

-
y’s

...

...

...

y
ngs,
h
set

...

...

291 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 291 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 291 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 291
 DESIGN AS A SYSTEM

RIGID ORGANIC

Branding and packaging for a

restaurant featuring Egyptian
street food
& WASLH (AND THE ZOOBA TEAM) /
UNITED STATES

..........................................................

Form Rectangles / Geometric, linear

borders / Dot, angle details / Nonpic-
torial ornaments
..........................................................

Color Five hues / Primaries (one

tinted), one secondary, plus black /
Strong saturation / Solid fields
..........................................................

Typography Custom wordmark

(unicase, sans serif, extended) / One
neutral, sans serif (bold weight) /
Symmetrical setting (headlines),
asymmetrical setting (text) / Under-
scoring details
..........................................................

Imagery Reductive icons (border

embellishments) / Full-color photo-
graphs (food images), silhouetted /
Arabic calligraphy as image
..........................................................

Composition Centered axis / Shal-

low or flat illusory space / Divisions
of space into shallow horizontal
bands and deep (sometimes square)
rectilinear areas

292 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 292 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 292 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 292
 C RIGID ORGANIC

Branded identity materials

for a consulting firm
SEA / UNITED KINGDOM
/
..........................................................

Form Squares / Irregular, organic

forms made of linear pattern and
...
continuous tone
ear ..........................................................
pic-
Color Four hues (two warm and
analogous; two neutrals [one warm,
...
one cool])
..........................................................
/
Typography One modern serif / High
contrast / Two weights / Typically
...
two sizes only, with minor deviation
..........................................................
One
Imagery Nonpictorial / Organic /
Flexing and weaving / Transparent /
er- Asymmetrical text setting
..........................................................

...
Composition Free-form, intuitive,
asymmetrical (nonpictorial form) /
o- Symmetrical format divisions
d/ (squares, type) with minor deviations

...

l-
ns

re)

RIGID ORGANIC

Branding system, including

print and environmental
applications, for a commuter
railroad system
STUDIO MARVIL / CZECH REPUBLIC

..........................................................

Form Letter-based logo (zig-zag

structure) / Lines / Multiple weights /
Parallel direction / Even, patterned
intervals
..........................................................

Color Three hues / Two-to-one

complement (orange and two blues,
one cool, one warm)
..........................................................

Typography One sans-serif face /

Typically set one weight (two weights
in text) / Set asymmetrically /
Uppercase for logotype, headings /
Lowercase for text
..........................................................

Imagery Nonpictorial / Linear pat-

terning / Full-color, pictorial photog-
raphy / Journalistic (limited use)
..........................................................

Composition Asymmetrical /
Hierarchic grid

293 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R DE S I GN A S A S Y S T E M

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 293 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 293 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 293
 THE WORKING PROCESS

Phases and Tasks Every designer works differently, and the project at a high level of quality and (in most cases)
every project is unique. Still, many designers follow a staged as economically as possible. To craft a visual language that
process learned from early formal training, even if they communicates an idea in all its richness, a designer must
are very experienced: researching, and then brainstorming first fully understand that idea—and that means research.
as many different ideas as possible; comparing these to There are many ways to research material: Reading about it
find what is useful, and which, if any, may be combined to online or in printed resources, or viewing documentaries
mutually enhance each other; focusing on the result of about the subject; comparing existing projects of a similar
this comparison to construct the necessary parts of the nature; making brainstorming lists and mindmaps; con-
project, refining them at increasingly detailed levels; and ducting interviews with stakeholders; collecting images
last, figuring out how to fabricate or otherwise produce or objects by association; and simply sketching intuitively.

RESEARCH AND STRATEGY VISUAL CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT R

The designer or studio engages in an audit focus groups, buidling mood boards, and so Armed with the creative brief, the designer they work. Typically, three to five concepts
of competitors’ materials to determine on—the designer or studio will formulate (or design team) embarks on visualizing the in the form of rough prototypes, or “comps”
how best to position the project’s com- a written strategy, or creative brief, that communication in alternative ways that will (short for “comprehensive rough”) are
munication, relative to the client’s stated outlines their intended creative process for achieve the client’s goals. To be considered presented to the client.
goals. The audit considers existing visual the client. are the project’s format, the ordering of con-
languages, as well as the audience’s tent, how and where it will be encountered
cultural expectations, to form a framework by its audience—as well as, of course, pos-
for determining what approaches may be sibilities for its visual language. Preliminary
useful to consider. Based on their findings concept studies will be reviewed internally
and, in conjunction with more conventional to focus on specific directions, and these
library and online research, mindmapping, will then be evolved to a somewhat refined
collection of marketing data, testing with level so that the client can understand how

Competitive Audit Concept Exploration

Conceptual Research Internal Review and Critique
Data Collection Investigation of Media for Production
Audience/Cultural Analysis Concept Selections
Cocreation/Focus Testing Constructing and Testing
Marketing Research Problem Solving
Brainstorming and Mindmapping Creation of Rough Prototypes
Mood Boards Presentation to Client
Formulation of Strategy
Creative Brief

294 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 294 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 294 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 294
 Once the designer identifies the best concept and evolves typically requires collaboration with specialists in the
it, he or she will then engage in a process of clarifying the trade or discipline with the necessary expertise to realize
message and refining its formal aspects to achieve a state the designer’s vision. It’s very important for designers to
of resolution, a condition in which the project’s visual be well versed in a variety of production processes so they
attributes have become somewhat singular: indisputably can weigh the effects of any particular one on a project’s
embodying particular qualities that seem considered, well- timeline or budget; such knowledge can also help designers
crafted, decisive and, in the context of its eventual environ- understand how a given process might best be exploited
ment, will seem the one best way for it to be. The last phase to enhance the expression of a project’s visual language
involves getting the project out into the world, whether and, ultimately, the ideas it communicates.
that means printing, fabricating, or coding; and this phase

REVISIONS AND REFINEMENT IMPLEMENTATION

Upon the client’s review and hopefully fying image and color use, details of weight, With the project’s visual design finally propriate provider based on their expertise,
” approval of one of the concepts presented, spacing, and structure in its typography, approved, the designer(s) focus attention and in consideration of the client’s budget.
the designer or team will then build out the and so on. After a previously agreed-upon on its production or fabrication—whether The designer(s) will see prototypes or
remainder of the project and address any number of rounds of revisions, by which this entails printing, coding, fabricat- proofs of the work to check its quality, and
concerns the client has raised. During this point the designer(s) have achieved resolu- ing and installing objects, and so on. For often may personally oversee the produc-
stage, there are likely to be several phases tion, the client will approve the project for whatever production process is required, tion process.
of back-and-forth review of the project production. the designer(s) create the artwork or digital
between the designer(s) and the client. In files as requested by a specialist engaged
addition to revising and possibly correcting to perform the production work. Generally,
hierarchic or functionality problems, the designer(s) will seek cost estimates from
designer(s) also will be steadily refining the several specialists for whatever production
visual language of the project’s parts, clari- services are needed, selecting the most ap-

Creation of Additional Components Formulation of Production Specifications

Addressing Client Concerns Requesting Cost Estimates for Production
More Specific Problem Solving Contracting Production Specialists
Clarifying Hierarchy Creating Relevant Artwork or Files
Fine-Tuning Color and Image Logic Reviewing Proofs or Prototypes
Subcontracting Photography/Illustration Correcting Files to Improve Quality
Detailed Typesetting and Styling Overseeing Production or Fabrication
Exploring Relevant Media in Depth Delivery of Realized Project
Proofreading and Visual Corrections
Submission to Client for Final Approval

295 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R T H E W OR K I N G P R OC E S S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 295 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 295 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 295
 THE WORKING PROCESS

Visual Concept Development Naturally, the phase that of the concept-development process is one of exploration,
most interests designers is that of ideation: visualizing a so it’s important to really understand what that means:
given project’s message, or concept. Designers approach investigating without preconception. To envision an end
concept development from myriad directions. The very result usually results in a formulaic response or cliché; it
definition of a concept differs among designers: some see the blinds one to potentially more inventive solutions. At every
content itself as the concept; others see it as a raw thing, to step, the designer must accept the exploration’s results,
be interpreted and embellished through visual metaphor, whether potentially successful or not: The point is to
allusion, or added context; yet others weigh these philoso- discover what is effective—and what is not. Being open to
phies to choose one or the other approach as appropriate rethinking is critical. Try not to like anything outright:
at a given time. However one frames the idea, every stage Find what works and then like it because it does.

The visual development

stages shown here as a
typical example of the
design process are from
the author’s own work in
creating a visual identity
for Streamline Health Care
Solutions, a medical billing
consultancy.
—
The designer examined
a range of approaches to
understand their respective
potentials in the given
context: visual brainstorm-
ing. The goal of this phase
was not to arrive at any
conclusions—and never to
preconceive the outcome—
but, rather, to roughly and
rapidly generate as many
ideas as possible.
—
The general rule of this
investigative process is “The
more, and the more differ-
ent, the better.” There’s no
point in getting caught up
in refining any single idea
until a multitude exists from
which to make comparisons
and, eventually, a selection
of one or several that seem
most viable.

In dialogue with the client, conceptually and formally.

the designer isolated the Not to be confused with
particular concept that’s “clean-up” or mere simpli-
determined to be the most fication, this stage in the
appropriate; in this case, process—refinement—
a hybrid of two nonpictorial concerns editing the form
approaches discovered in elements to bring them to a
the exploration process: state in which they appear
A flame-like, authoritative decisively resolved. Eventu-
form suggesting energy and ally, color and typography
the initial S of the client’s for the client’s wordmark
name, and a linear pattern were studied in a similar,
conveying a unified system iterative process.
and, perhaps, sheafs of
documents. The designer
experiments with variations
(in scale, rhythm, position,
and so on) to compare how
these options alternately
confuse, clarify, or augment
the communication—both

296 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 296 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 296 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 296
 The author’s conceptual were isolated as embodying
and visual development of the greatest potential for
this theater poster follows a conveying those ideas
similar process as described (above, right). Each offered
for the logo, opposite. The potential, but the one
subject (a drama set during featuring a manipulation
the 1979 Islamic revolution of a hyacinth, a powerful
in Iran, around the time of cultural symbol (middle
Nowruz, the Persian New concept) most dramatically
Year) necessitated exten- captured the complex ideas
sive research into political to be communicated.
and cultural symbolism that
gave rise to a multitude of
sketches (above) in a search
to combine visual signs that
would speak to the dualities
of hope and conflict, rebirth
and death. Three major
concepts, from perhaps 50,

For more specific meaning, in relation to the text that

the skulls used to form the would accompany it (be-
hyacinth’s flowers were low, left). At this stage, the
replaced by stylized gre- designer also introduced a
nades; testing variations in secondary image element
their organization revealed (a decorative pattern) and
a dynamic, ornamental color, both derived from
configuration that reflected an example of Iranian
Iranian decorative motifs ceramics. To enhance the
and allowed for secondary color palette and improve
symbols (a pomegranate, hierarchic distinction
also relevant to Nowruz) within the typography, the
to be integrated. Once the designer opted to add a
primary image achieved fourth hue (the saturated
a state of resolution, the green). A quick series of
designer examined possible studies revealed a simple,
compositional strategies dot/line relationship
within the poster’s format, between the main icon and
the text structure; further
manipulations of the title
and a combination of serif
and sans-serif fonts cap-
tured a calligraphic quality
that integrated with the
contours, shaping, and
rhythm of the illustration.

297 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R T H E W OR K I N G P R OC E S S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 297 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 297 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 297
 THE WORKING PROCESS
TH
The Business of Being a Designer There are many ways how the business works and for connecting with the design
to practice design, and a nearly unlimited number of kinds community at large. Whether regional or international,
of design to practice; but they all involve being a business- general in focus or specialized, such organizations typically
person. Graphic design is an industry, as well as a discipline. offer resources to help navigate the ins and outs of prospect-
And, like any other profession, the business of designing ing for employment or clients, self-promotion, negotiating
demands not only an investment in equipment and a space salaries or freelance fees, and the intricate (and sometimes
to do it, but considerable knowledge of commercial law and annoying) legalities that pertain to contract writing and
the professional standards, commonly accepted practices, intellectual property. There’s a lot to know to get started…
and ethics it has evolved. Joining a professional graphic But you have to start somewhere. Here’s a simple overview
design association is a great way of becoming familiar with of what the business of design entails.

IN-DISCIPLINE AREAS OF PRACTICE PRACTICE MODELS AND CAREER PATHS

Print BOOKS MAPPING Studio/Agency

MAGAZINES TRANSIT SCHEDULES Most designers are full-time, salaried employees in a
Despite the prevalence of digital communication and
JOURNALS INSTRUCTION MANUALS design studio or agency (advertising or public relations).
a resulting decrease in the total volume of materials
NEWSPAPERS POSTERS They enter as junior designers, rising to a senior designer
produced by printing, many designers choose to focus
FINANCIAL REPORTS DIRECT MAIL position after 3 to 5 years of experience, and then to the
on projects that will be produced only through such
CATALOGUES PRINTED ADVERTISING level of art director or design director (5 to 10 years),
media—whether offset lithography, screenprinting, NEWSLETTERS CHARTS/DIAGRAMS overseeing groups of juniors and seniors. The top level of
letterpress, engraving, thermography, and so on. BROCHURES/PAMPHLETS COMICS/ZINES creative director oversees them all, a position typically
Print designers may further specialize in a particular SELL SHEETS BAGS/BOXES/LABELS achieved after 10 years of practice or more.
medium or genre of communication: the design of FLYERS T-SHIRTS/PRINTED MERCH
periodicals, like magazines or newsletters, or books—
to develop a particular niche for their practice.
EVENT INVITATIONS LIMITED EDITION WORKS Freelance
ANNOUNCEMENTS CARDS/GAME BOARDS Some designers work independently, offering their exper-
MENUS TYPEFACE DESIGN tise to design studios or consultants on a per-project
STATIONERY (or “gig”) basis. These designers sometimes work onsite
FORMS
at their employers’ locations (or, occasionally in their own
homes or studios) and charge an hourly or daily rate. Many
Radiant Media BROCHUREWARE SITES DIGITAL GAME DESIGN freelancers continue this practice for their entire careers,
This general area of practice typically implies focus on SERVICE SITES PRESENTATIONS while some develop their own consultancies after a time.
E-COMMERCE SITES AUGMENTED REALITY
the development of websites, but comprises all kinds
of screen-based projects categorized under the umbrella NAVIGATION INTERFACES TELEVISION COMMERCIALS Consulting
E-LEARNING CONTEXTS ON-AIR NEWS GRAPHICS It’s also possible for an individual designer to establish his
term UX/UI (user experience/user interface)—from C
MOBILE APPS SCREEN PROJECTIONS or her own studio; while still technically freelancers, these
motion graphics and animation (for online or televised SOCIAL MEDIA SPATIAL PROJECTIONS
application), to mobile apps and onsite informational designers conduct their practices as businesses, scouting
PRODUCT INTERFACES out and servicing a consistent roster of clients. They may
kiosks, to spatial projections as might be used in stage ANIMATIONS
performance or in exhibitions. work from home, or have an independent office.
INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEOS
DIGITAL KIOSKS
FILM/VIDEO TITLES
Education
PROGRAM OPENERS
Many designers, at all levels (and whether salaried,
FILM SUBTITLING
freelance, or consultants) supplement their professional
practice by teaching—usually at the university level, in
an established graphic design program. The majority are
adjunct instructors—meaning, they are employed on a
Dimensional SIGNAGE FORM/COLOR BLOCKING semester-by-semester, or seasonal, basis; some seek full-
Graphic design in the service of physical and spatial WAYFINDING SYSTEMS 3D PRINT ORNAMENTS time positions as professors who work toward tenure.
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHICS PRODUCT SHAPING
media most often supports the work of architects,
STOREFRONT BRANDING PRODUCT LABELING
interior designers, and industrial (product) designers—
INTERIOR BRANDING PRODUCT GRAPHICS
especially when it comes to typographic elements like
RETAIL DISPLAYS PACKAGING CONTAINERS
signage and product labeling. This area of specializa- EXHIBITS
tion also includes the graphical shaping of products TRADE SHOWS
(especially with regard to packaging, like the design of SHOWROOMS
bottles, canisters, and so on), exhibition and trade- SET OR STAGE DESIGN
show design, and textile work. INFORMATIONAL KIOSKS
POINT OF SALE DISPLAYS
FINISHES, FIXTURES
TEXTILE PATTERNS
TEXTILE PRINTS

Multidisciplinary/Branding Typeface Design

Of course, a designer may choose not to choose an The design of fonts is its own area of specialization,
area of practice in which to concentrate—to be a independent of application. Designers who pursue
“jack-of-all-trades” who will take on the challenge type design as a career are relativey few in number,
presented by any kind of communication project. and their skills are highly valued. Those working in
Such designers often gravitate toward branding, this field may develop fonts for sale and distribution
or visual identity, because it’s a comprehensive, as freelancers—licensing their work to font houses or
systems-based practice that addresses how a visual selling them to designers directly; they may also be
language concept will apply to a wide variety of enagaged by branding studios to develop custom faces
media and applications. Branding, specifically, also for their clients; and, they may work as part of a team
integrates the practices of strategic development at an established foundry.
(and sometimes, naming), as well as a focus on
symbol (logo) design.

298 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 298 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 298 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 298
 THE STUDIO SETUP DESIGN FEE BASICS

The Hourly Rate

All design work is billed to clients based on time in some
y way, simply because “creativity” is hard to quantify. The
value of that time varies—based on the designer’s level of
experience, the nature of the project, and even market val-
ues for hourly employment in different locales. Most design
organizations produce a pricing guideline or, at the very
least, are good resources to contact to discuss pricing; and
there exist several publications devoted to the subject.
That said, a typical hourly rate for junior-level designers
(depending on location) is $25–50; for seniors, $50–100;
and for art directors or higher, $100–300.

The Flat Fee

Billing by the hour is problematic: a client has no way to
budget; a designer who is very fast makes less than one who
is slower, assuming similar quality; and there are endless
ways for both players to exploit each other. It’s generally
better, therefore, to establish a single, all-encompassing fee
for a project. Most designers and studios use an hourly rate
as a rough basis for calculating a fee, but adjust it according
Designers working in a studio or agency will find all their to all those variables outlined above. In addition, one must
Computer / Laser printer / Scanner consider the working process: how many concepts to be
material and technological needs met. Freelance designers
presented, how many revisions, and how quick the delivery
and consultants, on the other hand, must fend for them- Drawing and painting media schedule. However a fee might be structured, every designer
selves. At the very least, they’ll need a laptop computer,
software subscriptions, and some way of generating Studio knife / Ruler and straightedge should use a contract that outlines the scope of work to
printed proofs to show clients. A separate studio space, if be included, the time frame for the project, the fees to be
feasible, is helpful for defining work/life balance, but it’s Work table with cutting surface paid—and which rights to use that work transfer to the
entirely possible to set up a dedicated workspace in one’s client, versus those that remain with the designer.
home. Most designing takes place in a digital context; Paper stock samples or swatchbooks
still, it’s important to have conventional studio materials Expenses
on hand. And, along with reference materials for color and Printing ink swatchbook(s) Design fees are just that: compensation for the time and
printing, it’s especially important for designers to cultivate expertise devoted to designing. All additional costs—from
a library: books, periodicals, and other publications they Process color guide out-of-pocket expenses, like studio supplies, to imple-
may look to for inspiration, reference, theory, and discus- mentation, like printing—should be billed in addition to
- sion of contemporary issues. Production and fabrication references the design fees. Most designers add a surcharge of 20% to
expenses they bill; it covers the cost of banking those ex-
Design library penses on the client’s behalf during the project’s duration.
n
ny

is
e CREATING A PORTFOLIO SELF PROMOTION

Whether you’re casting about

for a new, salaried position or
looking to entice new freelance
clients, self promotion is critical.
Many designers maintain a
public presence through social
media, but nothing beats mailed
promotional items like cards,
miniportfolios, or conceptual
- explorations for impact and
memorability. Some studios
initiate a series of publications
that explore journalistic subject
matters, mailing them to existing
clients and prospective ones
alike; others create posters (like
the ones shown here) or send
holiday cards, ranging in produc-
tion technique from commercial
printing (which, of course, is
more costly) to personal stamp-
printing and drawing. For digital
Designers of all stripes make their living it’s designed suggests all kinds of things options, one might consider
by showing prospective employers and about its designer beyond what the work creating microsites, short videos
clients documentation of their skills, itself shows—their ability to evaluate or animations, and sending links
aesthetic point of view, and prior and edit; to order and pace; to build a to prospects via email.
experience—a portfolio—commonly hierarchy; to impart a narrative about the
referred to as one’s “book.” Most design- work; and even simply to typeset well.
ers present a selection of their work Several publications, like the ones above,
online, but a physical presentation is still offer valuable insights and methods to
important for in-person interviews; and help designers develop compelling, effec-
it should add to, enhance, and evolve tive displays of their work.
whatever is shown online. There are all
sorts of philosophies about what one’s These self-promotional posters are new year’s
portoflio should include (or not), and how
one should be organized; but ultimately, greetings, based on the creatures of the Chinese
it’s an expression of the designer him- or zodiac. The back sides list personality traits,
herself—aesthetically, conceptually, and notable events, and relevant celebrity birthdays
organizationally. In any case, a portfolio
is a designed experience, and the way associated with the zodiac avatar.
IDEAS ON PURPOSE / UNITED STATES

299 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R T H E W OR K I N G P R OC E S S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 299 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 299 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 299
 THE WORKING PROCESS

Brand New Organized by design duo Bryony Gomez-Palacio and

Armin Vit (otherwise known as UnderConsideration LLC),

Conference 2019
the Brand New Conference is an annual event devoted to
corporate identity and branding that brings together the
most active and influential practitioners from around the
world. It grew from the influential blog of the same name,
V I S UA L I D E N T I T Y which the two began publishing in 2006; in 2019, the
conference celebrated its 10th anniversary. Each year, the
two partners undertake the development of a new brand
U N D E R C O N S I D E R AT I O N for the conference itself as it appears in a new venue.
/ U N I T E D S TAT E S

o
s
t
—
I
m
t
le
a
w
fl
B
in
fr
e
v
w
t
p
li
p
—
The changing location of the confer- A search for an equivalent typeface T
ence (called BNCONF for short) is proved fruitless (too slick or grungy). la
fundamental to its character. Accord- Instead, a vintage set turned up online; m
ingly, the venue during any given year these were scanned, refined, and con- le
informs that year’s branding. In 2019, verted into a working font. The caplines w
the conference took place in Las Vegas and baselines of the font’s characters a
and, specifically, downtown: the origi- are flat, and their curves squared off, in
nal gambling center established before creating a modular quality that the a
the Strip. Vit and Gomez-Palacio were designers not only appreciated, but c
drawn to the mid-20th century version exaggerated with extremely tight let- c
of the downtown area, and to two vis- terspacing and leading. t
ual aspects, in particular: the marquee — b
letters typically used for signage on The pair then turned their attention to (i
the older casinos; and, not surprisingly, the “frenetic, on-off flickering of neon fr
their dazzling neon light displays. It signs, lightbulbs, and letters,” they ap- o
seemed immediately clear to them that preciated as characteristic of the Vegas c
these two elements were those upon experience. Armed with a telephoto
which the conference’s identity should lens, the pair photographed every neon
be based that year. sign they could—in as many “on” and
“off” states as possible. From more
than 2,600 images, they selected the

300 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 300 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 300 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 300
,

ones that yielded the best on-off made use of calming, bold, black fields
states and, according to Vit, “looked to carry type, reversed white; the
the coolest” as abstractions. marquee font carried names and upper-
— level headings, with a cast of suppirting
In spelling out the conference’s fonts: a geometric sans serif, set all
monogram, the designers realized that uppercase, for subheadings; a bold
the acrylic rectangle framing the source slab serif, for running text; and a 1950s
letters created its own modular frame, brush script, for accent text.
and so provided a means of working —
with the photographs to visualize the Bags for conference merchandise were
flicker they were hoping to achieve. kept simple, each featuring a full-
By masking alternating photographs format image form the library of neon
into the letters and their surrounding light photographs; but the presentation
frames, they created jarring, seemingly stage letters took another imaginative
electrical image pairs. The buzzing turn. Constructing the conference’s
visual flicker was tailor made for the monogram and year marker as shallow
website and social media posts, but “trays” of acrylic allowed the designers
the question of how to translate it into to line the inside “lip” of the tray with
physical materials for the conference— adhesive-backed LED light strips. The
like programs, badges, and so on— strips were alternated in color within
presented a challenge. and among the characters, and had
— settings that allowed them to pulse at
The solution was to be found in lenticu- different rates—re-creating the sensory
lar printing, a method in which two (or overload of the casino environment.
more) images are printed onto parallel —
lens ridges made of thermoplastic; The realization of this project shows
when viewed at different angles, they an intelligent, witty dialogue between
appear 3D or animated. The alternat- vernacular sources for communication
ing images were printed in this way and their reinvention as a relevant,
and then spliced together in various contemporary, narrative system.
combinations, resulting in individually
customized program covers (using
the letter/frame configuration) and
badges for the conference attendees
(in an alternate, nested/concentric
frame configuration). Interior layouts
of the programs and the informational
components of attendees’ badges

301 P UT T IN G IT A LL T O G E T H E R T H E W OR K I N G P R OC E S S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 301 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 301 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 301
 Don’t expect theory to
determine how things look.

MICHAEL ROCK / DESIGNER AND EDUCATOR

/ Principal, 2x4, New York

CAUSIN’ SOME TROUBLE:

BREAKING EVERY
RULE IN THIS BOOK

302

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 302 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 302 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 302
 Rules in graphic design exist as guidelines any rule: something will be gained, and
that provide context for evaluating work something will be lost. The designer must
and serve to help designers avoid problems decide whether the sacrifice is acceptable
that interfere with communication. Hope- and ultimately be prepared to accept the
fully, if you’ve spent time reviewing the consequence of the decision. Becoming con-
material in the preceding chapters, you’ll fident enough in one’s understanding of
see that most of these so-called rules make how the rules of visual language really work
pretty good sense. takes time; once that happens, a designer
—— can take new liberties in the way he or she
It is often said, however, that rules are approaches visualizing their projects and
made to be broken, and this is never truer enjoy the process of experimentation.
than in design. No two projects are alike: Some of the greatest innovations in visual
Every project comes with different require- communication happen when designers
ments; different ideas to be expressed; knowingly—and intelligently—throw the
very specific kinds of content that demand rule book away.
lateral thinking; and often, audiences with
very particular needs. Further, a designer’s
personal point of view and formal sensib-
ility are valid sources for visualization in
their own right. No design approach should
ever be considered out of bounds—“Thou
shalt not, on pain of death!”—so long as
(one might argue) the end result is clear
and compelling communication.
——
It’s important for designers to evaluate
the pros and cons of following a certain rule
on a case-by-case basis. If adhering to the
rule is creating a problem, test to see what
will happen when the rule is broken. Some
rules are less flexible than others, and there
is likely to be a trade-off when breaking

303 DE S I GN E L E M E N T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 303 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 303 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 303
 01 The design of this trade book
approaches its subject as informa-
tion to be delivered in a clear,
concise, and neutral way—letting
HAVE A CONCEPT the content speak for itself. It is,
after all, an instructional volume.
Sometimes, the content needs to A
The restrained presentation al-
speak with as little interference as lows the book’s readers to access a
possible. This is true in the case of the content without interference. e
pure information design—in forms, CONOR & DAVID / IRELAND a
for example, where the content’s w
only requirement is to be understood s
very easily—but might also be true c
for other project types, as well. Being i
neutral and having no concept— o
presenting content very directly and r
efficiently, refining legibility and hier- w
archy, and using color and material to i
craft a refined artifact—is a concept t
unto itself. This approach can result
in a quickly accessible, informative,
and functionally user-centric experi-
ence, which is not without its appeal.

02
COMMUNICATE—
A kaleidoscopic collage of
varied form languages and
image elements capture the
experimental energy of a hip
DON’T DECORATE cultural event. Rather than
attempt to parse the visual
When the message warrants it, use T
language for meaningful
form willy-nilly, without regard for content, viewers will absorb t
its meaning. This, in itself, might be the imagery’s exuberant color i
interpreted as a message and—on and movement to interpret a
rare occasions—that message is an appropriate feeling. f
appropriate as part of a design solu- VICTOR MATIK / ITALY D
tion. A project concerning Baroque w
or Victorian aesthetics, for example, c
might very well benefit from ex- i
tremely decorative treatments that
would otherwise constitute a crime
against nature.

304 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 304 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 304 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 304
 a- 03 The audience targeted by this
poster is young and interested
in messages that speak to them
ng obliquely, pose questions rather
BE UNIVERSAL than answer them, or suggest
me. ideas that may be antiestab-
Always tailor the message to the
lishment, or discussed only
audience. For a subculture whose within small segments of the
e. expectations of visual messaging population. While the formal
are very specific—a hip-hop manipulation of the type
website, as opposed to a large- suggests some relationship to
scale, general-public branding electronica, the image of
campaign—using visual metaphor, the wild boar is a conceptual
idiosyncratic stylistic treatments message inserted to provoke
a reaction.
of type or image, and color that
SUPERSCRIPT / FRANCE
references their shared context
will resonate more powerfully than
images and color that are designed
to speak to the world at large.

04
SPEAK WITH ONE
Unified by their shape and
bold, black exteriors, these
packages of coffee are each
given a radically different style
VISUAL VOICE of illustration to more clearly
differentiate each roast. In one
The quickest way to draw attention
sense, the consistent change
to a particular element is to make of the visual language in each
it different from everything else package becomes a kind of
around it, and this can be highly ef- system unto itself.
fective as a communication strategy. A-SIDE / UNITED KINGDOM
Disharmony among visual elements,
whether stylistic, compositional, or
chromatic, is also a message unto
itself.

305 BR E A K I N G A L L T H E R U L E S I N TH I S BOOK

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 305 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 305 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 305
 05
LEARN TO LIVE
This poster trades on the ver-
nacular of 19th-century circus
posters and Hatch Show
prints, invoking the busy,
WITH LESS “undesigned” aesthetic of
those predecessors to create
By all means, add extra stuff if it a metaphorical context for a
P
helps the message. Intricate, com- cultural event. The addition f
plicated, maze-like arrangements of multiple clusters of text t
of form, even though somewhat information at different sizes, l
daunting at first, will appeal to in different styles, together i
specific audiences. Including appar- with overlapping images and p
ently unrelated forms or images, surreal details captures the p
romance of the circus and its
or creating an overload of form or t
carnival-like multitasking
texture, may add an important quality of entertainment. o
subtext that, in the end, helps THE NATIONAL GRID
i
support the project’s intent. [ JONTY VALENTINE, MAX LOZACH, i
AND LUKE WOOD] / NEW ZEALAND

06
CREATE SPACE—
Similar to other examples
presented in this section, this
poster promotes its subject—
alternative music perfor-
DON’T FILL IT mances, in this case—to a very
specific, subcultural audience.
Okay, there’s no good way to break S
The explosive rhythm of yel-
this rule. An absence of negative low, black, and white type and O
space is a disaster and always blocks of color that just about t
will be. That said, allowing visual fills the poster’s format edge f
material in particular segments to edge conveys the visceral m
of a project to overwhelm the quality of the experience to be d
compositional space—on occasion, had and the wall of sound that s
in response to other segments in attendees will expect. n
HI [MEGI ZUMSTEIN+CLAUDIO
which negative space is used liber- BARANDUN] / GERMANY c
ally—can be an excellent strategy s
for introducing dramatic rhythm e
and helping focus attention on t
special material.

306 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 306 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 306 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 306
 07
GIVE ’EM THE
As a metaphor for a particular
season’s fashion collection that
celebrates repurposing of design
gestures and materials, this ad-
ONE-TWO PUNCH vertising poster delivers multiple
levels of information simultane-
Presenting a multitude of items ously—in essence, the scattering
for simultaneous consideration gets of image and text elements takes
the information out front quickly, on the quality of detritus to be
leaving the viewers to decide what picked through as a source for
is most interesting or important at a ideas and style.
particular moment—making them RÉGIS TOSETTI / UNITED KINGDOM

participate in getting the informa-

tion, rather than handing it to them
on a plate. If they have to work for
it, they might enjoy it and remember
it more easily later.

08
BEWARE OF
The designer of this poster
very skillfully navigates its
symmetry and counters any
potential static presentation
SYMMETRY with pattern and icon elements
that are confrontationally large
Symmetry evokes a set of classical,
and introduce compositional
Old World, elitist messages; it can, tension; further, the patterns
therefore, be powerfully exploited are distributed to the left and
for formal, historical, and serious right of the central axis in alter-
material—and as a foil to more nating hues of different value
dynamic content. Tension between and temperature, drawing the
spatial intervals, density and open- eye inward and outward from
ness, and light and dark becomes the axis with different degrees
of emphasis.
critical in maintaining visual activity
DENNIS KOOT / NETHERLANDS
so that the symmetry becomes
elegant, lively, and austere, rather
than heavy handed, stiff, and dull.

307 BR E A K I N G A L L T H E R U L E S I N TH I S BOOK

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 307 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 307 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 307
 09
FIGHT THE
Gigantic, flat semicircles and
rectangles of white and black
carve out a dramatic shape
cluster in this poster that carves
FLATNESS out the title and punches the
illusory depth into an almost
Proceed with caution. The primary A
singular plane—and punches
danger here is causing viewers to the viewer in the proverbial
c
disengage because it is the illusion gut with its unapologetic and o
of depth and movement that creates joyous confrontation. Small c
wonderment and makes them forget details created by negative s
that they’re looking at a designed spaces introduce rhythmic ten- a
communication. Static arrangements sion between the large forms. s
of material, however, can be very SAWDUST / UNITED KINGDOM c
focused and restful, an alternative to r
dramatic movement and deep spatial u
illusion, and in that sense can be use- n
ful at times. Optically flat arrange-
ments can provide visual punctuation
to aggressive presentation, and
contrasting moments of focus and
introspection. A pronounced lack of
spatial experience creates an alto-
gether different feeling in a project
and, when it makes sense for the
message, is quite appropriate.

10
PICK COLORS
The designers of this publication—
part of a European city’s branding
program—chose colors not so
much at random, but in terms of
ON PURPOSE defaults: the process colors magenta
and yellow, combined with two
Being more or less random—choos- tones of black. The overlap of the A
ing colors whose usual association red ink on the yellow ink—which i
purposely conflicts with expecta- has been slightly adjusted toward a
tion—is a viable method that can a greener hue—creates a jarring, i
achieve some surprising results. random-like chromatic jumble, e
After a time, choosing color using in concert with the middle-value h
familiar methods yields combina- neutral gray. s
ONLAB / GERMANY
tions that may be somewhat expect- a
ed or, worse, completely uninter- t
esting. Purposely selecting color c
combinations that feel awkward t
or disharmonious often presents
unexpected options that somehow
retain chromatic relationships.
Additionally, a random color choice
might sometimes aid in communica-
tion, depending on the nature of the
project. Seeming randomness, like
other messages, can be valid given
the concept the designer intends
to convey.

308 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 308 4/6/20 12:59 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 308 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 308
 11
LESS COLOR
Rich, vibrant hues that transi-
tion through every part of
the spectrum work to create
a vividly sensuous support for
IS MORE the surreal illustration in this
poster. One effect of the candy-
As with all the rules, be careful and
like saturation and multiplicity
considerate when breaking this of hues is that the image
one—and always for a reason of becomes possibly less threaten-
communication. A firestorm of thou- ing than it might be if it were
sands of hues, of differing values rendered in a limited palette.
and intensities, may not yield a LA BOCA / UNITED KINGDOM
specific color idea that viewers can
commit to memory, but the expe-
rience of being overwhelmed by
uncontrolled extravagance is surely
not easily forgotten.

12
MASTER THE DARK
An extremely low-contrast
range of dark-value tones
creates a smoky, dreamlike noc-
turnal experience that reflects
AND THE LIGHT a theme of the fashion event
that this poster promotes:
A tonally quiet, soft presentation
“noir” or blackness. Although
in which contrast between light the poster’s typography is
and dark (or temperature and reversed out to white, it is of
intensity) is minimized can be very such small scale that it nearly
effective in garnering attention, is absorbed into the surround-
helping to separate viewers from ing fields of gray, darker gray,
surrounding, more active, visual and black texture. Adding a
activity. Low-contrast images and taste of luxury (as well as exac-
erbating the low-contrast near
typography are perceived as more invisibility of the imagery), the
contemplative and elegant, rather poster is printed on a highly
than urgent or aggressive. reflective metallic paper stock.
TSTO / FINLAND

309 BR E A K I N G A L L T H E R U L E S I N TH I S BOOK

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 309 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 309 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 309
 13
FRIENDLY TYPE IS
And—all of these attributes
are present in this poster,
which promotes a film festival
that gives special attention
GOOD TYPE to the work of directors who
explore dark and disturbing
As you might guess, the relative T
themes. The typography may,
accessibility of type greatly depends in fact, be read by focusing g
on the message being conveyed. on the boundaries where the o
Making portions of type illegible, individual lines of text meet, a
overbearing, aggressive, sharp and to find a kind of anchoring a
dangerous, nerve-wracking, or fragile point; or, by viewing the poster c
is perfectly acceptable—indeed, from extreme angles so that the t
preferable—when the job calls for perspective renders the type t
more regular in appearance
it. There is no excuse for typography p
(much like crosswalk warnings
that doesn’t viscerally communicate printed in the street). The i
in an appropriate way, even if this notion of “extreme viewing t
means frightening, frustrating, or angle,” however, as well as
confusing viewers in service of the the filmstrip like flicker, both
right concept. communicate more about the
poster’s subject than does the
text itself.
RAF VANKAMPENHOUDT +
JORIS VAN AKEN / NETHERLANDS

14
USE TWO FONTS,
MAXIMUM
Complex text, with a great many T
parts, will be clarified by strong, o
varied changes in type style. Some- c
times, you’ll need many different d
typefaces working together to cre- c
ate a kind of busy texture that con- t
veys something important. Thinking t
outside the type box can be difficult, v
especially if you’re comfortable with a
a select set of typefaces: So take a e
deep breath, close your eyes, and p
click the font list at random. a

This stylishly elegant magazine changes, and detailing within

spread derives much of its an astutely considered mix of
beauty from the contrasts in some ten typefaces.
width, weight, structural VRUCHTFLEES / NETHERLANDS

310 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 310 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 310 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 310
l
15
TREAT TYPE AS
To prevent this book cover’s
titling type from overpowering
the fire image—which is
presented quietly in a dithered
YOU WOULD IMAGE texture and with relatively
diminished contrast—the de-
There are always times when typo-
signers chose a lightweight sans
graphy needs to shut up and get out serif and low-reflection metallic
of the way—especially when the type foil that would cause it to sink
accompanies cataloged artwork or is elegeantly into the surface.
acting in support of images that are The type’s elegantly restrained
r carrying the brunt of the communica- quality is ehanced by a simple,
e tion burden. In such instances, treat flush left arrangement .
the type as quietly and as neutrally as FINEST MAGMA / GERMANY

possible. Even so, carefully consider

gs
its size, spacing, and stylistic presen-
tation.

16
AVOID REDUNDANT
REDUNDANCIES
The breaking of this rule is more
of a practical issue, driven by the
content of a given project: If you’re
designing a magazine about travel,
clearly the images will show what
the text describes. Still, repeti-
tion of text content by image and
vice-versa can be useful for making
a point crystal clear. Subtle differ-
ences in the same subject or idea,
presented verbally and visually, will
add depth and richness.

Food packaging is one of those types inside the box. This packaging system
of project that almost requires visual/verbal explodes the images of the contents around
redundancy: consumers want to see the food the edges of the format in almost surreal
and understand its freshness or tastiness, supersaturation of color.
even though the label tells them what’s KREZIMIR MILOLOSA / CROATIA

311 BR E A K I N G A L L T H E R U L E S I N TH I S BOOK

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 311 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 311 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 311
 17
CREATE IMAGES—
In this design of a cover for a
master of highbrow literature,
the designer appropriates low-
culture comic book imagery to
DON’T SCAVENGE convey the disturbing political
and emotional turmoil of
True, finding an image to stick into Franz Kafka’s story. R
a layout tends to be quicker; some- BEN GRANDGENETT / UNITED STATES
o
times, however, purposely using d
banal, almost meaningless or kitsch d
images from stock sources can be t
great fun, especially if the project b
calls for a vernacular approach or a
conceptually refers to the ubiquity of c
image content and the influence of a
day-to-day pop culture. But the real s
benefit of scavenging is acquiring m
pieces and parts that can be used to The design of this book that
create custom images. Even more explores the musical work
intriguing is the possibility of revital- of DJ Spooky alludes to the
izing the understanding of familiar practice of sampling and the
or time-worn content by creating an ubiquity of branded messages
in a current context.
unexpected relationship with imagery
COMA / NETHERLANDS
that has been repurposed or pulled
out of its expected context.

18
LOOK TO HISTORY—
DON’T REPEAT IT
Don’t get me wrong: history is a A
treasure trove for designer and W
public alike. Books or exhibitions r
that focus on historical subjects, f
or invitations to period-themed c
events, for example, are perfect s
vehicles for exhuming visual style e
from the vaults of antiquity. The f
potential fun here is not so much g
copying the style outright as sam- c
pling portions thereof, adjusting o
them so they become new again. i
g
t
t
c
a
t
This CD cover revels in its appropriation of period The confrontational, close-up image is a decidedly u
design style without succumbing to the wholly contemporary gesture, making the layout fresh
derivative—a difficult line to walk. The typogra- and inventive while still honoring a general style
phy evokes the design sensibility of Blue Note jazz of photography from the period.
albums from the 1950s and 1960s in its use of slab STEREOTYPE DESIGN / UNITED STATES
serif typefaces and black/blue/yellow color scheme.

312 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 312 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 312 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 312
 19
IGNORE FASHION.
Because the fashion industry, in particular,
is characterized by the shifting of trends, the
fact that this runway show invitation is up
And, it’s visually engaging, showing a
dynamic use of space and beautiful textural
contrasts between type, flat geometry, and
to the minute in its trendy, retro 1980s style spray-painted stipple gradations.
SERIOUSLY. Swiss Punk aesthetic is quite appropriate. STUDIO NEW WORK / UNITED STATES

Riding the current stylistic trend has

occasional benefits. In choosing to
do so, a designer may opt to speak
directly to an audience whose subcul-
tural zeitgeist makes them likely to
bypass visual material that doesn’t
appear to speak to them. This is espe-
cially true when communicating to
adolescents, who identify with very
specific visual styles at any given mo-
ment and will ignore anything else.

20
DO IT ON PURPOSE,
A caveat to start: the design
of this poster is remarkably
confident in its contrasts, scale
relationships, and conceptual
OR NOT AT ALL deconstruction of a flag image
by planes that are both flat and
Ambiguity can be a good thing.
three dimensional at the same
While clear visual and conceptual time. What might normally
relationships are usually favored be perceived as indecision—
for the sake of quick, accessible misalignments between text
communication, introducing mixed and image forms that appear
states of being among elements— to be very close to aligning,
elements that appear to be in the deep indents in text that begin
foreground, as well as in the back- to compromise the integrity
of the text’s flush edges, and
ground, as a simple example— so on—here come off as the
can create an impulse on the part spontaneous results of intuitive
of the viewer to question and image making. Discrepancies in
investigate more thoroughly. The these details fail to overshadow
gap between the concrete idea and the more important aspects of
the ambiguously presented image a rich, ambiguous interplay
that refers to it can provide more between flat and spatial, solid
and outline, and foreground
complex avenues of interpretation
and background.
and a rich, engaging experience
2XGOLDSTEIN / GERMANY
that yields deeper, more complex
understanding.

313 BR E A K I N G A L L T H E R U L E S I N TH I S BOOK

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 313 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 313 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 313
 I N DEX
& Walsh, 292 Balland, Ludovic, 165 chroma, 89 warm color, 91 The Elements of Typographic Style
(Bringhurst), 132, 151
Bang Bang, 68, 113 closed relationship, 102 wheel and sphere, 93
Escher, M. C., 28
2Fresh, 215, 238 Barandun, Claudio, 306 coding palettes, 116–117 column grids, 258
Esiete, 63, 145, 277, 282
2XGoldstein, 139, 313 Barnbrook, 82 color models, 93 Coma, 239, 259, 278, 312
Estonia, Aku, 218, 240
A10 Design, 116, 204 Beetroot Design Group, 91 complementary, 96, 109 communication rule, 8, 304
Estrada, Manuel, 27, 143, 196–197,
Bickford-Smith, Coralie, 17, 43, compressed value scale, 100 compositional contrast, 76–77 208, 215, 217, 272
112, 197
cool colors, 91 compositional strategies
A Big Active, 222
Estudio Pánico, 57, 78, 225, 245,
267, 283
desaturation, 89 contrast, 76–77
AAD, 141 Billie Jean, 211
diametric opposition, 98 foundations of meaning, 82–83 e-Types, 61, 271
About Face (Jury), 6 “black effect,” 98
emotions and psychology, 119 goal of totality, 70–71 Executive Agency, 48
additive colors, 87 Blok Design, 27
empirical associations, 118 macro-/micro-level, 75
“after-image” effect, 98 Brand Brothers, 107, 192, 251, 291
aggregates, 38
extension, 95, 98, 100, 102 space activation, 72–73 F
Brand New Conference, 300–301
fabrication material and, 130–131 symmetry, 79 Falconi, Greg, 212
Airey, David, 97, 103, 143, 199 Brazil
form and space, 104–105 tension, 78 fashion rule, 17, 313
Aku, 218, 240 A10 Design, 116, 204
gamut, 87 unity, 74 fees, 299
Albers, Josef, 84 BR/Bauen, 83, 129, 173
grayscale, 87 visual hierarchy, 80–81 Fiasco Design, 16, 36, 42, 232, 287
Ames Bros., 210, 232 Laboratorio Secreto, 5, 24, 215
hexadecimal “websafe” color, 87 compound grids, 259 Fibonacci, Leonardo, 62
Anagrama, 23, 284 Media Invia (Diego Morales), 39
hue, 86, 88, 96–97 concept rule, 8, 304 Finest Magma, 147, 217, 237, 255,
analogous color, 96, 100, 109 BR/Bauen, 83, 129, 173 311
indexed color, 87 conceptual allusion, 272–273
analogous saturation, 98 Bringhurst, Robert, 132, 151 Finland, TSTO, 309
in-print, 127 Conor & David, 14, 67, 107, 304
And Partners, 203 Brodovitch, Alexey, 242 Folch Studio, 253
introduction, 86 Croatia
Apeloig, Philip, 143 Bruketa & Zinic, 12, 58, 217 Form, 45, 54
limited palettes, 114 Bruketa & Zinic, 12, 58, 217
Apeloig Design, 27, 207 Bureau Mirko Borsche, 74 form and space
manipulating, 122–123 Kresimir Milolosa, 311
Argentina, Gorricho, 71, 105, Burnett, Ron, 194 activating, 72–73
228–229, 231 models, 93 Mireldy, 130–131, 212
aggregates, 38, 39
Ariance Spanier Design, 13 multiple-variable systems, 111 Studio International, 40, 76, 108,
The Art of Color (Itten), 93 C neutral hues, 89
236, 241 amplitude, 24–25
Studio Marvil, 46, 293 appropriateness of, 31
Ascend Studio, 44, 55, 58, 63, 70, C + G Partners, 16, 34, 47, 137, 217 optical sensation and, 124–125
73, 173, 179, 187, 290 Csano, Thomas, 22, 82, 104, 123, arranging, 56–57
Canada palette and photography, 115 199, 252
asymmetry, 59 asymmetry, 59 fo
Atelier 480, 29 palette definition, 108 Cyr Studio, 198, 206
Astrid Stavro Group, 259 attributes of form, 34–47 Fo
Bang Bang, 68, 113 perception, 86 Czech Republic, Studio Marvil, 53,
Astrid Stavro Studio, 135, 149, 169 169, 181 axes, 38
Blok Design, 27 process (CMYK) color, 87, 127
Atelier 480, 29 Fo
Executive Agency, 48 background arrangement, 64–65
print media and, 128–129
Atipus, 14 Fr
bleeding the format, 24–25, 64,
Marek Okon, 16, 172 progressive saturation, 98 D 66
Australia
Subcommunication, 109 progressive value, 100 Das Buro, 55 color, 87, 104–105
For the People, 288
Thomas Csano, 22, 82, 104, 123, relationships, 92, 102, 109 data processing, 218–219
199, 252 compositional strategies, 70–83
Frost Design, 28, 123, 171, 247,
254 RGB color, 87 decisiveness, 32
Wedge, 268 contour, 38
Garbett, 66, 68, 112, 121, 174, rule of selection, 12, 308 decisiveness rule, 17, 313
Casalino, Catherine, 220 corroboration of, 31
251, 287 rule of usage, 13, 309 Denmark, e-Types, 61, 271 division, 62–63
Chang, Myung Ha, 193
Munda Graphics, 76, 200 rhythmic extension, 100, 102 desaturation, 89 dots, 34, 50–51
Chang, Tammy, 172
Parallax, 217, 233 saturation, 86, 89, 98 Designers United, 33 dynamic interactions, 57
C. Harvey Graphic Design, 59, 149 Fr
Self-Titled, 71, 105, 134, 219, 241, simultaneous contrast of, 94 Design Ranch, 283 experimenting with, 48–49
285 Cheng Design, 40, 158 Fu
single-variable systems, 111 Detail Design Studio, 97, 121
Simple, 30, 153 Chew, Kelly, 226 fields, 24, 64
spaces, 87 Diano & Co., 23, 185, 267
There, 45 CHK Design, 152 figure/ground relationship, 26–29

Voice, 41, 47, 49, 63, 99, 168, 211, Choi, Yong, 247
split opposition, 98 diametric color opposition, 98 foreground arrangement, 64–65 G
225, 244 spot color, 87 Disturbance, 97, 207
Choi, Youjin, 22, 24, 69 form arrangement considerations, G
Austria subtractive, 87 dots, 34, 50, 83, 186 56
Chuo, Christine, 172 G
Andreas Ortag, 158, 196, 246 symbolism of, 120–121 Drobac, Jelena, 23, 99, 103, 143, 217 format considerations, 68–69
Church, Wallace, 206, 208
Clemens Théobert Schedler, 159, systems, 110–113 Drotz Design, 99 geometric form, 40 G
179, 205, 264, 275 Classmate Studio, 5, 37, 75, 207, 221
temperature, 86, 91, 102–103 Dwiggins, W. A., 4 hierarchy, 80–81
Studio Vie, 250 Cobra, 22, 153, 193, 237, 246 G
triadic, 96, 109 kinesis, 66
Von K Brand Design Studio, 47, 71, collage, 214–215 G
type hierarchy, 188–193 lateral arrangement, 64
101
color E
typographic color, 165–167, lines, 35, 37, 52–53
additive, 87 Eames, Ray and Charles, 8
178–179
mathematical logic, 62
B analogous, 96, 98, 100, 102, 109 value, 86, 90, 100–101, 246
Earsay, 173
middleground arrangement,
B & B Studio, 5, 112 “black effect,” 98 Ecuador, Estudio Pánico, 57, 78, 225, 64–65
visual hierarchy, 106–107
245, 267, 283
Bachgarde Design, 179, 187 calibration, 126 movement, 66

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 314 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 314 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 12/6/20 1:30 PM
Text Page: 314
 musical logic, 62 Finest Magma, 147, 217, 237, 255, Gruber, Deborah, 217 medium and, 207 JRoss Design, 104, 177
311
nature of, 24 Guyon, Jil, 244 merging type and, 244–255 Jury, David, 6
Glashaus Design, 213
negative space, 26 metaphor and, 238–241
Golden Cosmos, 9
organic form, 41
Gunter Rambow, 95, 118
H narrative, 234–235
K
parity, 74 naturalistic, 200
Hajnrich, Maciej, 230 Kang, Hyosook, 271
Hi, 306
pattern, 43 nonpictorial, 202
Hansen, Janet, 146, 199, 241 Kang, Yoojung, 97, 110, 216
Julia Klinger, 264
perception of, 22–23, 24–25 painted, 210–211
Hayes, Ethan, 241 Kelty, Catrine, 34, 38
L2M3, 66, 82, 137, 147, 281
physical surface, 44 photographic, 208–209, 223–229
Helfand, Jessica, 5 Kim, June, 75
Megi Zumstein, 306
planar, 36, 37, 54–55 pictorial, 198
Helmo, 23 Kim, Lloyd, 212
Moltobureau, 28, 68, 171, 217,
positive and negative forms, 286 presentation of, 221
Helmut Schmid Design, 143 Kim, Minah, 121
26–29
Mutabor, 16, 46, 72, 83 realness of, 220
Heo, Sooim, 217 Kim, Sohyun, 118
refinement and resolution, 33
Naroska Design, 27, 35, 65 reductive approach to, 198,
Hi, 306 King 20G, 208
rhythm, 52–53, 67, 78, 247 212–213
Onlab, 25, 308 hierarchic grids, 259 Klinger, Julia, 264
semantic gap, 235 representation of, 221
Surface, 27 hierarchy Ko, Daeun, 61, 268
singularity, 24 rhythm, 247
Think Moto GMBH, 38, 51, 113, color and, 106–107 Koot, Dennis, 307
spatial intervals, 52–53 286 rule about, 16, 312
form and space, 80–81 Kunz, Willi, 5
spread, 24 Von-K, 264 semantic gaps, 235
rule, 11, 307
static interactions, 57 gestalt, 83, 95 semiology, 197
structure, 60–63 Glashaus Design, 213
historical inspiration rule, 16, 312
signification modes, 199 L
Hoffmann, Armin, 18
surface activity, 44–47 Golden Cosmos, 9 silhouettes, 254 L2M3, 66, 82, 137, 147, 281
Hoover, Kate, 252
symmetry, 58, 79 Golden Section, 62–63 spatial interaction, 252 La Boca, 201, 309
How Images Think (Burnett), 194
syntax and grammar, 21 Gomez-Palacio, Bryony, 300 stylization, 200–201, 232 Laboratorio Secreto, 5, 24, 215
hue, 86, 88, 96–98. See also color
tension, 50, 52, 55, 78 Goñi Studio, 125, 219 symbolic representation, 196 Law of Thirds, 62–63
Hungary, Classmate Studio, 5, 37,
texture, 42 Gorbunova, Vera, 149 text interplay with, 236–237 layout organization
75, 207, 221
thrust, 54 Gorkovenko, Andrew, 23, 200–201 top-down processing, 197 grids, 256–267
Hungry Studio (SK), 31, 33, 69,
tonal value, 13, 64, 309 146, 198 type and, 216–217, 236–237, intuitive arrangement, 268–273
Gorricho, 71, 105, 228–229, 231
244–255, 253–255
unity enforcement, 74 Hurd, Diana, 86 Lebanon, Raidy Printing Group,
Grandgenett, Ben, 312
vernacularism and appropriation 199, 216
variables of alteration, 48–49 Hyatt Assocs., 213
Grapefruit, 143 of, 233
Lee, Euikyoung, 217
visual language and, 22 graphic design(ers), 4–5, 298–299 India
Lee, Hae Jin, 240, 272
visual mass, 37 Greece I Ishan Khosla Design, 198
Liao, Tien-Min, 13, 216, 220
volume, 37 Beetroot Design Group, 91 Ideas on Purpose, 51, 70, 97, 137, Umbrella Design, 27, 96, 97, 209
167, 185, 186, 208, 259, 299 Likens, John, 23, 229, 282
format, 23, 68–69 Designers United, 33 Infinito, 20, 46, 117, 173, 221, 257,
images 290 lines, 35, 37, 52–53, 187
For the People, 5, 16, 209, 211, 233, Luminous Design Group, 26, 47,
241, 288 69, 134, 170, 191, 211, 216, 220, about, 196 Interaction of Color (Albers), 84 Liv, Michelle, 57, 115, 239

Foster, Kim, 185 233, 287 Loewy, 10, 49, 51, 190, 235
5 abstract messages, 204–205 Ireland
France Gretel, 46, 76, 167, 209, 214, 227, Louise Fili Ltd., 106, 141
240, 251 algorithmic generation of, AAD, 141
Apeloig Design, 27, 207 218–219 Lozach, Max, 306
grids Conor & David, 14, 67, 107, 304
Brand Brothers, 107, 192, 251, 291 alteration, 226–229 LSD Space, 9, 10, 27, 29, 43, 91, 99,
about, 256–257 Detail Design Studio, 97, 121
collage, 214–215 166, 173, 190, 199, 201, 217, 228,
Florence Tétier, 61, 222 Ishan Khosla Design, 198 234, 236, 238, 257, 273
in adaptable environments,
Helmo, 23 266–267 compositional strategies,
222–223 Isometric Studio, Inc., 88, 113, 121, Luminous Design Group, 26, 47,
Philip Apeloig, 143 anatomy, 256 164, 248, 258, 274 69, 134, 170, 191, 211, 216, 220,
concrete representation, 196 233, 287
Studio Lesbeauxjours, 184 arrangement logic, 264 Italy
connotative representation, 196
Superscript, 305 columns, 256, 258 Leonardo Sonnoli, 48, 51, 105,

Frost Design, 28, 123, 171, 247, 254 compound grids, 259
cropping strategies, 223 117, 216, 271, 273 M
data processing, 218–219 Victor Matik, 304 Made in Space, Inc., 36, 44, 121, 143
Fuman, 25, 46, 69, 130–131, 210, deconstruction of, 270–271
227 diagrammatic representation, 196 Viktormatic, 268–269 Makebardo, 29, 250, 287
flowlines, 256
drawn, 210–211 Itten, Johannes, 93
9 Manual, 29, 53, 64–65, 66–67
hierarchic grids, 259
editing, 224–225
G image-based, 260
Matik, Viktor, 304
expansive form, 198
s, Gang, Jessie, 82 intuitive arrangement, 268–273
J McConnell, Robert, 81
full-bleed images, 255
Garbett, 66, 68, 112, 121, 174, Japan meaning, foundations of, 82–83
layout variation, 265
251, 287 graphic translation, 212
Helmut Schmid Design, 143, 177 Media Invia, 39
margins, 256
Gawin, Marta, 153, 164, 213, 247, grids and, 260
Kenichi Tenaka, 73 Mellegers, Adriaan, 177, 265
289 markers, 256
iconic representation, 196
Nam, 108, 225 Metaklinika, 45, 70, 103, 187,
Geissbuhler, Steff, 214 modules, 256, 258 215, 225
indexical signs, 199
Shinnoske Inc., 96
Germany spatial zones, 256 metaphor, 238–241
inset images, 253
Ten-Do-Ten, 196
2XGoldstein, 139, 313 text-based, 261–263
juxtaposition of, 234–235
Jensen, John, 28
Anna Meyer, 74 type and, 261–263
literal representation, 196
Jiwa, Natasha, 289
Ariance Spanier Design, 13 types of, 258–259
media mixing, 230–231
Jona Studio, 224
Bureau Mirko Borsche, 74 variation of, 265
mediation and, 206
Claudio Barandun, 306 violation of, 265

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 315 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 315 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 12/6/20 1:30 PM
Text Page: 315
 Mexico Norway, Cobra, 22, 153, 193, 237,
246
R Infinito, 173 texture, 42, 246
Anagrama, 23, 284 LSD Space, 9, 10, 27, 29, 43, 91, There, 45
Raidy Printing Group, 199, 216
Not From Here, 102 99, 166, 173, 190, 199, 201, 217,
Esiete, 145 228, 234, 236, 238, 257, 273 Think Moto GMBH, 38, 51, 113, 286
Rambow, Gunter, 95, 118
Mucho, 141, 181 Manuel Estrada, 27, 143, Think Studio, 59, 109
Rand, Paul, 12
Parametro, 34, 44 O Red Canoe, 121, 254
196–197, 208, 215, 217, 272 thrust, 54, 57
Parámetro Studio, 118, 125 Ohayon, Debra, 216 Mubien, 143, 221, 257 tonal value rule, 13, 309
Research Studios, 27, 101, 165, 187,
Zoveck Estudio, 197 Ohyescoolgreat, 268–269, 273 205, 224, 232 Mucho, 20, 43, 45, 115, 125, 209, Toormix, 25, 78, 130–131, 141,
219, 239, 287 158, 179, 201, 223, 230, 237, 251,
Meyer, Anna, 74 Okon, Marek, 16, 172 rhythm, 52–53, 67, 78, 247
Parámetro Studio, 86 268–269, 288
Milolosa, Krezimir, 311 Oliver Munday Group, 197 Rock, Michael, 302
Studio Diego Feijoo, 54, 153, 227, Tosetti, Régis, 225
minimalism rule, 10, 306 Onlab, 25, 308 Romania, Grapefruit, 143 274 totality, compositional, 70, 83, 95
Mireldy, 130–131, 212 Oostra, Martin, 171 Roycroft Design, 47 Toormix, 25, 78, 130–131, 141, Triboro Design, 44, 82, 164, 167
158, 179, 201, 223, 230, 237,
Mixer, 217, 228 Order, 20, 201, 279 rules of good design
251, 268–269, 288 TSTO, 309
modular grids, 258 organization of layout about, 6–17
Spin, 76 Turkey, 2Fresh, 215, 238
Moltobureau, 28, 68, 143, 171, grids, 256–267 breaking the, 302–313
Stavro, Astrid, 63 two-dimensionality, 22
217, 286
intuitive arrangement, 268–273 Russia, Andrew Gorkovenko, 23,
Stereotype Design, 12, 55, 233, 312 two-dimensionality rule, 12, 308
Monigle Associates, 73 200–201
Ortag, Andreas, 158, 196, 246
Stressdesign, 41 type
Moore, Lesley, 15, 56, 83, 199, 238 Ryan, Sean, 196
structure, 60–63 alignment, 152–153, 168–171
Morales, Diego, 39
P Struktur Design, 174 allusive structures, 272–273
Mubien, 143, 221, 257
P & W Design Consultants, 284
S analphabetic symbols, 162
Studio Blue, 11, 61, 74, 98, 100,
Mucho, 20, 43, 45, 115, 125, 141, Sabotage Pkg, 173 121, 259
181, 209, 219, 239, 287 palette, 108 apertures, 142
Samara, Timothy, 8, 12, 17, 23, 35, Studio Diego Feijoo, 54, 153, 227,
Munda Graphics, 76, 200 Paone Design Assocs., 11, 15, 28, 39, 41, 44, 49, 65, 92, 95, 97, 99, 274 archetype, 134
39, 63, 71, 75, 81, 90, 114, 118, 107, 114, 123, 129, 145, 192, 202,
Munsell, Albert, 93 139, 144, 188, 216, 245, 247, 288 Studio International, 40, 76, 108, ascenders, 142
205, 209, 213, 216, 231, 244,
Mutabor, 16, 46, 72, 83 246, 249, 253, 258, 268–269, 236, 241 axes, 142
Parallax, 217, 233
285 Studio Lesbeauxjours, 184
Parametro, 34, 44 bowls, 142
Sawdust, 308 Studio Makgill, 218, 233
N Parámetro Studio, 86, 118, 125
Schedler, Clemens Théobert, 159,
brackets, 161, 163
Studio Marvil, 46, 53, 169, 181, 293 branches, 143
Nam, 108, 225 Park, Sunyoung, 28 179, 205, 264, 275
Studio Network, 33 bullets, 162–163
Naroska Design, 27, 35, 65 Peopledesign, 8, 44, 63, 70, 89, Schmid, Helmut, 177
102, 131, 193, 250, 265 Studio New Work, 313 cadence, 135
The National Grid, 306 Sea Design, 105, 293
Peru, Infinito, 20, 46, 117, 221, Studio Vie, 250 caps and small caps, 162
near and far, 64–65 257, 290 Self-Titled, 71, 105, 134, 219, 241,
285 Studio Works, 21, 42, 245 case, 135
negative space, 57, 65 Peterson, Erica, 207
semiotics, 5, 82, 197 Subcommunication, 109 characters, 134
negative space rule, 10, 306 Pettis Design, 28, 128, 210, 238
Serbia Sulki + Min, 8 color hierarchy, 188–193
Netherlands pictorial allusion, 272–273
Jelena Drobac, 23, 99, 103, 143, Sumioshi, Kiyotaka, 281 color value, 246
Adriaan Mellegers, 177, 265 Piscatello Design Centre, 31 217
Superbüro, 209 columns, 158, 160
Coma, 239, 259, 278, 312 plane, 36–37, 54–55 Metaklinika, 45, 70, 103, 187,
215, 225 Superscript, 305 combining styles, 148–149
Das Buro, 55 Podpunkt, 38, 151, 163–164, 170,
187, 191, 246, 257 Shao, Min, 201 Surany, Eva, 202 contrast, 135, 182–185
Dennis Koot, 307
Poland Shinnoske Inc., 96 Surface, 27 counters, 134
Jona Studio, 224
Maciej Hajnrich, 230 Shiromasa, Kiyoko, 115 Sweden cut, 134
Joris Van Aken, 310
Marta Gawin, 153, 164, 213, 247, Short, Christopher, 206 Bachgarde Design, 179, 187 descenders, 142
Lesley Moore, 15, 56, 83, 199,
289 Nine Design, 116
238 A-Side, 305 detail, 142–143
Podpunkt, 38, 151, 163–164, 170, Swim Design, 100
Marielle Van Genderen, 177, 265 Simple, 30, 153 diminishing contrast, 190
187, 191, 246, 257
Martin Oostra, 171 Slovakia, Hungry Studio (SK), 31, 33, Switzerland distinction, 180–181
portfolio, 299
69, 146, 198 Ludovic Balland, 165
Ohyescoolgreat, 268–269, 273 eyes, 142
Poulin + Morris, 25, 184, 228, 276
Slovenia, Diano & Co., 23, 185, 267 Mixer, 217, 228
Raf Vankampenhoudt, 310 flush, 152
process (CMYK) color, 87, 127
Sonnoli, Leonardo, 48, 51, 105, 117, Superbüro, 209
Una (Amsterdam) Designers, 83, font families, 134
project synthesis 216, 271, 273
128, 147
Willi Kunz, 5 full-bleed images and, 255
order and sequence, 278–279 South Africa, Disturbance, 97, 207
VBAT, 131, 275, 287
symmetry, 58 gaps, 160
pace, 280–283 South Korea, Sulki + Min, 8
Vruchtflees, 79, 310
symmetry rule, 11, 307 graphic detail, 140, 143, 186–187
perspectives, 284–285 space. see form and space
New Zealand
rules and variability, 286–289 Spain grids and, 261–263
Fuman, 25, 46, 69, 130–131, 210,
227 scope, 276–277 Astrid Stavro, 63 T hierarchy, 174, 176–179, 188–193

Jonty Valentine, 306 visual language range, 290–293 Astrid Stavro Group, 259 Tasmania, For the People, 5, 16, 209, images and, 216–217, 236–237,
211, 233, 241 244–255, 253–255
Luke Wood, 306 visual system of, 274–275 Astrid Stavro Studio, 135, 149,
169 Teig, Kristin, 34, 38 indentation, 159, 160
Makebardo, 29, 250, 287
Atipus, 14 Tenaka, Kenichi, 73 as information, 174–193
Max Lozach, 306
Q Esiete, 63, 277, 282 Ten-Do-Ten, 196 inset images, 253
The National Grid, 306
Qatar, VCU Qatar, 36, 192, 200, 245 tension, 50, 52, 55, 78 instructions, 174
Fiasco Design, 42
Nine Design, 116
Folch Studio, 253 Tétier, Florence, 61, 222 italics, 161
Northern Ireland, David Airey, 97,
103, 143, 199 Goñi Studio, 125, 219 text and image rule, 15, 311 joints, 143 ty

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 316 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 316 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 12/6/20 1:30 PM
Text Page: 316
 justification, 156–157 310–311 Drotz Design, 99 Steff Geissbuhler, 214 Von K Brand Design Studio, 47,
71, 101
lead lines, 162 Typography (Kunz), 5 Earsay, 173 Stereotype Design, 12, 55, 233,
312 Vruchtflees, 79, 310
legibility of, 150–151 Erica Peterson, 207
Stressdesign, 41
line breaks, 159, 160
U Ethan Hayes, 241
lists, 174
Ukraine, Moltobureau, 143
Euikyoung Lee, 217
Studio Blue, 11, 61, 74, 98, 100,
121, 259
W
mass, 168–171 Eva Surany, 202 Wang, Helena, 103, 255
Umbrella Design, 27, 96, 97, 209 Studio Network, 33
mathematical symbols, 162 Greg Falconi, 212 Webb, Cardon, 24, 231
Una (Amsterdam) Designers, 83, Studio New Work, 313
1,
merging images and, 244–255 128, 147 Gretel, 46, 76, 167, 209, 214, 227, Wedge, 268
Studio Works, 21, 42, 245
240, 251
navigation, 186–187 UnderConsideration, 300 white space. see negative space
Sunyoung Park, 28
Hae Jin Lee, 240, 272
notations, 174 United Kingdom Wood, Luke, 306
Swim Design, 100
Helena Wang, 103, 255
numerals, 134 Ascend Studio, 44, 55, 58, 63, 70, working process
Tammy Chang, 172
73, 173, 179, 187, 290 Hyosook Kang, 271
as optical experience, 164 branding practices, 298
Think Studio, 59, 109
B & B Studio, 5, 112 Ideas on Purpose, 51, 70, 97, 137,
orphans, 160 career paths, 298
167, 185, 186, 208, 259, 299 Tien-Min Liao, 13, 216, 220
Barnbrook, 82
paragraph separation, 159 dimensional practices, 298
Isometric Studio, Inc., 88, 113, Timothy Samara, 8, 12, 17, 23, 35,
Big Active, 222
parentheses, 161, 163 121, 164, 248, 258, 274 39, 41, 44, 49, 65, 92, 95, 97, fees, 299
Billie Jean, 211 99, 107, 114, 123, 129, 145, 192,
posture, 135 Janet Hansen, 146, 199, 241 202, 205, 209, 213, 216, 231, implementation, 295
CHK Design, 152 244, 246, 249, 253, 258,
primary text, 174 Jessie Gang, 82 multidisciplinary practices, 298
268–269, 285
Coralie Bickford-Smith, 17, 43,
punctuation, 162–163, 167 Jil Guyon, 244 portfolio creation, 299
112, 197 Triboro Design, 44, 82, 164, 167
rag (range), 152 John Jensen, 28 practice models, 298
Fiasco Design, 16, 36, 232, 287 UnderConsideration, 300
ragging the text, 154–155 John Likens, 23, 229, 282 print, 298
Form, 45, 54 Vera Gorbunova, 149
rhythm, 245, 246, 247 JRoss Design, 104, 177 radiant media, 298
Hyatt Assocs., 213 Wallace Church, 206, 208
sans-serif, 136, 140 June Kim, 75 research and strategy, 294
King 20G, 208 Yong Choi, 247
scales of contrast, 182–185 Kate Hoover, 252 revisions and refinement, 295
La Boca, 201, 309 Yoojung Kang, 97, 110, 216
secondary text, 174 Kelly Chew, 226 self-promotion, 299
Loewy, 10, 49, 51, 190, 235 Youjin Choi, 22, 24, 69
serif, 136, 140, 143 Kim Foster, 185 studio setup, 299
P & W Design Consultants, 284 Zipeng Zhu, 197
shape, 244, 246, 247 Kiyoka Shiromasa, 115 typeface design, 299
Régis Tosetti, 225 Zooba Team, 292
shoulders, 142 Kiyotaka Sumioshi, 281 visual concept development, 294
Research Studios, 27, 101, 165, unity enforcement, 74
187, 205, 224, 232 Kristin Teig, 34, 38
silhouetted images and, 254 universality rule, 9, 305
Sabotage Pkg, 173 Lloyd Kim, 212
sizes, 136–137 X
Sawdust, 308 Louise Fili Ltd., 106, 141
slab serif, 140 Xin, Lucy, 155
Sea, 293 Lucy Xin, 155
V
spacing, 138–139, 161
Sea Design, 105 Valentine, Jonty, 306
spatial interaction, 252 Made in Space, Inc., 36, 44, 121,
A-Side, 305
143 Van Aken, Joris, 310 Y
spurs, 143
Manual, 29, 53, 64–65, 66–67 Van Genderen, Marielle, 177, 265 Yasko, Brett, 129, 157, 236
Spin, 76
structure, 134–135, 142, 176–177,
243, 246, 247 Michelle Liv, 57, 115, 239 Vankampenhoudt, Raf, 310
Struktur Design, 174
Minah Kim, 121
stroke, 134., 143 Studio Makgill, 218, 233 VBAT, 131, 275, 287 Z
style classification and detail, 135, Min Shao, 201 VCU Qatar, 36, 192, 200, 245
United States Zhang, Sang, 31, 56, 89
140–143 Monigle Associates, 73
& Walsh, 292 Viktormatic, 268–269 Zhu, Zipeng, 197
subheads, 162 Myung Ha Chang, 193
Alexandra Vitale, 124 visual hierarchy, 80–81 Zimmerman, Declan, 250, 255
subscript and superscript, 162 Natasha Jiwa, 289
Ames Bros., 210, 232 visual language Zooba Team, 292
tables, 174 Not From Here, 102
Ben Grandgenett, 312 decisiveness, 32 Zoveck Estudio, 197
terminals, 143 Oliver Munday Group, 197
Brett Yasko, 129, 157, 236 definition, 20 Zumstein, Megi, 306
tertiary text, 174 Order, 20, 201, 279
C & G Partners, 16 figure/ground reversals, 28–29
text-based grids, 261–263 Paone Design Assocs., 11, 15, 28,
C + G Partners, 34, 47, 137, 217 26–27
texture, 246, 247 39, 63, 71, 75, 81, 90, 114, 118,
Cardon Webb, 24, 231 139, 144, 188, 216, 245, 247, qualities of, 30
titling, 174 288
Catherine Casalino, 220 refinement, 33
typeface function, 144–145 And Partners, 203
Catrine Kelty, 34, 38 resolution, 33
typeface tone, 146–147 Peopledesign, 8, 44, 63, 70, 89,
C. Harvey Graphic Design, 59, 149 space and, 22–25
102, 131, 193, 250, 265
7 typographic color, 165–167,
Cheng Design, 40, 158 syntax and grammar of, 21
172–173, 178-179, 246 Pettis Design, 28, 128, 210, 238
Christine Chuo, 172 visual logic and, 30
unity, 180–181 Piscatello Design Centre, 31
3
Christopher Short, 206 visual systems, 274–277
value, 246, 247 Poulin + Morris, 25, 184, 228, 276
Cyr Studio, 198, 206 visual voice rule, 9, 305
voids, 168–171 Red Canoe, 121, 254
Daeun Ko, 61, 268 Vit, Armin, 300
weight, 135 Robert McConnell, 81
Deborah Gruber, 217 Vitale, Alexandra, 124
width, 135 Roycroft Design, 47
Debra Ohayon, 216 Voice, 41, 47, 49, 63, 99, 168, 211,
widows, 160 Sang Zhang, 31, 56, 89
225, 244
wrapping, 163 Declan Zimmerman, 250, 255 Sean Ryan, 196
Von-K, 264
x-height, 134, 136–137, 142 Design Ranch, 283 Sohyun Kim, 118
type and typeface rules, 14–15, Diana Hurd, 86 Sooim Heo, 217

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 317 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 317 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 12/6/20 1:30 PM
Text Page: 317
 CONTRI BUTORS
& WALSH BANGBANG YONG CHOI TRISH ERNE VERA GORBUNOVA H
ANDWALSH.COM BANGBANG.CA C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS TRISHERNE.COM C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS H
292 68, 113 SVA.EDU 258 WWW.SVA.EDU 21
247 149
2 FRESH BARNBROOK ESIETE ID
2FRESH.COM BARNBROOK.NET YOUJIN CHOI ESIETE.COM GOÑI STUDIO ID
215, 238 82 C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS 63, 145, 277, 282 MARINAGONI.COM 51
SVA.EDU 125, 219 20
2XGOLDSTEIN BEETROOT DESIGN GROUP 22, 24, 69 MANUEL ESTRADA
2XGOLDSTEIN.DE BEETROOT.GR MANUELESTRADA.COM ANDREW GORKOVENKO IN
139, 313 91 CHRISTINE CHUO 27, 143, 196, 197, 208, 215, 217, GORKOVENKO.RU IN
C/0 CARNEGIE MELLON 272 23, 200, 201 20
A-SIDE STUDIO CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH UNIVERSITY
A-SIDESTUDIO.CO.UK [email protected] DESIGN.CMU.EDU ESTUDIO PÁNICO GORRICHO IS
305 17, 43, 112, 197 172 WEAREPANICO.COM GORRICHO.COM.AR IS
57, 78, 225, 245, 267, 283 71, 105, 228, 229, 231 19
A10 DESIGN BIG ACTIVE CLASSMATE STUDIO
A10.COM.BR BIGACTIVE.COM CLASSMATESTUDIO.COM EXECUTIVE AGENCY BEN GRANDGENETT IS
116, 204 222 5, 37, 75, 207, 221 EXECUTIVEAGENCY.US C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS IS
48 WWW.SVA.EDU 8
AAD BILLIE JEAN COBRA 312
STUDIOAAD.COM BILLIEJEAN.CO.UK COBRA.NO GREG FALCONI JO
141 211 22, 153, 193, 237, 246 GREGFALCONI.COM GRAPEFRUIT JO
212 GRAPEFRUIT.RO 28
DAVID AIREY BRUKETA+ZINIC COMA 143
DAVIDAIREY.COM BRUKETA-ZINIC.COM COMALIVE.COM FIASCO DESIGN N
97, 103, 143, 199 12, 58, 217 239, 259, 278, 312 FIASCO.DESIGN GRETEL N
16, 36, 42, 54, 232, 287 GRETELNY.COM 28
AKU BLOK DESIGN CONOR+DAVID 46, 76, 167, 209, 214, 227, 240,
AKU.CO BLOKDESIGN.COM CONORANDDAVID.COM FINEST MAGMA 251 JR
218, 240 27 14, 67, 107, 304 FINESTMAGMA.COM JR
147, 217, 237, 255, 311 DEBORAH GRUBER 10
AMES BROS. BR/BAUEN THOMAS CSANO DEBORAHGRUBER.COM
WWW.AMESBROS.COM BRBAUEN.COM THOMASCSANO.COM FOLCH STUDIO 217 H
210, 232 53, 83, 129, 173 22, 82, 104, 123, 199, 252 FOLCHSTUDIO.COM YE
253 JIL GUYON 27
ANAGRAMA BRAND BROTHERS CYR STUDIO JILGUYON.COM
ANAGRAMA.COM BRANDBROTHERS.FR CYRSTUDIO.COM FOR THE PEOPLE 244 Y
23, 284 107, 192, 251, 291 198, 206 FORTHEPEOPLE.AGENCY Y
4, 16, 209, 211, 233, 241, 288 MACIEJ HAJNRICH 97
AND PARTNERS BUREAU MIRKO BORSCHE DAS BURO BRAND IDENTITY NIETYLKO.NET
ANDPARTNERSNY.COM + ANNA MEYER DASBURO.NL FORM 230 JU
203 MIRKOBORSCHE.COM 55 FORM.UK.COM JU
74 45, 54 JANET HANSEN 75
APELOIG DESIGN DESIGN RANCH JANET-HANSEN.COM
APELOIG.COM C+G PARTNERS, LLC DESIGN-RANCH.COM KIM FOSTER 146, 199, 241 LL
27, 143, 207 CGPARTNERSLLC.COM 283 C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS LL
16, 34, 47, 137, 214, 217 WWW.SVA.EDU ETHAN HAYES 21
ARIANE SPANIER DESIGN DESIGNERS UNITED 185 ETHANHAYES.COM
ARIANESPANIER.COM C. HARVEY GRAPHIC DESIGN DESIGNERSUNITED.COM 241 M
13 CHARVEY.COM 33 FROST DESIGN C
59, 149 FROSTDESIGN.COM.AU HELMO W
ASCEND STUDIO DETAIL DESIGN STUDIO 28, 123, 170, 247, 254 HELMO.FR 12
ASCENDSTUDIO.CO.UK CATHERINE CASALINO DESIGN DETAIL.IE 23
44, 55, 58, 63, 70, 73, 173, 179, CATHERINECASALINO.COM 97, 121 FUMAN S
187, 290 220 FUMAN.CO.NZ HELMUT SCHMID DESIGN LO
DIANO & CO. 25, 46, 69, 131, 210, 227 WWW4.FAMILLE.NE.JP/~HSDESIGN 11
ASTRID STAVRO STUDIO MYUNG HA CHANG DIANO.XYZ 143, 177
ASTRIDSTAVRO.COM [email protected] 23, 185, 267 JESSIE GANG K
63, 135, 149, 169, 259 193 C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS SOOIM HEO JO
DISTURBANCE WWW.SVA.EDU C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS 20
ATELIER 480 TAMMY CHANG DISTURBANCE.CO.ZA 82 SVA.EDU
ATELIER480.COM C/0 CARNEGIE MELLON 97, 207 217 D
29 UNIVERSITY GARBETT C
DESIGN.CMU.EDU JELENA DROBAC GARBETT.COM.AU HI (MEGI ZUMSTEIN + W
ATIPUS S.L. 172 WWW.D-IDEASHOP.COM 66, 68, 112, 121, 174, 251, 287 CLAUDIO BARANDUN) 61
ATIPUS.COM 23, 99, 103, 143, 217 HI-WEB.CH
14 CHENG DESIGN MARTA GAWIN 306 D
CHENG-DESIGN.COM DROTZ DESIGN MARTAGAWIN.COM K
B&B STUDIO 40, 158 DROTZDESIGN.COM 153, 164, 213, 247, 289 KATE HOOVER 30
BANDB-STUDIO.CO.UK 99 [email protected]
5, 112 KELLY CHEW GLASHAUS DESIGN 252 L2
[email protected] E-TYPES GLASHAUS-DESIGN.COM D
BACHGÄRDE A.B. 226 E-TYPES.COM 213 HUNGRY STUDIO (SK) L2
BACHGARDE.COM 53, 61, 271 HUNGRY.SK 66
179, 187 CHK DESIGN GOLDEN COSMOS 31, 33, 69, 146, 198
CHKDESIGN.COM EARSAY GOLDEN-COSMOS.COM LA
LUDOVIC BALLAND 152 EARSAY.ORG 9 DIANA HURD LA
LUDOVIC-BALLAND.CH 173 [email protected] 20
165 86

318 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 318 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 318 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 318
 HYATT ASSOCIATES LABORATÓRIO SECRETO MIRELDY ANDREAS ORTAG TIMOTHY SAMARA
HYATTASSOCIATES.CO.UK DESIGN STUDIO MIRELDY.DESIGN ORTAG.AT TIMOTHYSAMARA.COM
213 LABORATORIOSECRETO.COM 131, 212 158, 196, 246 8, 12, 17, 23, 35, 39, 41, 44, 49,
4, 24, 215 65, 92, 95, 97, 99, 107, 114, 123,
IDEAS ON PURPOSE MIXER P+W DESIGN CONSULTANTS 129, 145, 183, 192, 202, 205,
IDEASONPURPOSE.COM EUIKYOUNG LEE WWW.MIXER.CH P-AND-W.COM 209, 213, 216, 231, 244, 246,
51, 70, 97, 137, 167, 185, 186, C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS 217, 228 284 249, 253, 258, 269, 285, 296, 297
208, 259, 299 WWW.SVA.EDU
217 MOLTO BUREAU PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES SAWDUST
INFINITO MOLTOBUREAU.COM PAONEDESIGN.COM SAWDUST.CO.UK
INFINITO.PE HAE JIN LEE 28, 68, 143, 170, 217, 286 11, 15, 28, 39, 63, 71, 75, 81, 90, 308
20, 46, 117, 173, 221, 257, 290 CHOCOICECREAM@HOTMAIL. 114, 118, 139, 144, 188, 216, 245,
COM MONIGLE ASSOCIATES 247, 288 CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER
ISHAN KHOSLA DESIGN 240, 272 MONIGLE.COM [email protected]
ISHANKHOSLADESIGN.COM 73 PARALLAX DESIGN 159, 179, 205, 264, 275
198 LESLEY MOORE PARALLAXDESIGN.COM.AU
LESLEY-MOORE.NL MUBIEN 217, 233 SEA
ISOMETRIC STUDIO, INC. 15, 56, 83, 199, 238 MUBIEN.COM SEADESIGN.CO.UK
ISOMETRICSTUDIO.COM 143, 221, 257 PARÁMETRO STUDIO 105, 293
88, 113, 121, 164, 248, 258, 274 TIEN-MIN LIAO PARÁMETRO STUDIO
TIENMINLIAO.COM MUCHO 34, 44, 86, 118, 125 SELF-TITLED
JOHN JENSEN 13, 216, 220 WEAREMUCHO.COM SELFTITLED.COM.AU
[email protected] 20, 43, 45, 54, 115, 125, 141, 181, PEOPLEDESIGN 71, 105, 134, 219, 241, 285
28 JOHN LIKENS 209, 219, 239, 287 PEOPLEDESIGN.COM
JOHNLIKENS.COM 8, 44, 63, 70, 89, 102, 131, 193, MIN SHAO
NATASHA JIWA 23, 229, 282 MUNDA GRAPHICS 250, 265 C/O UNIVERSITY OF THE ARTS
[email protected] MUNDA.COM.AR/EN/SERVICES UARTS.EDU
289 MICHELLE LIV 76, 200 ERICA PETERSON 201
MICHELLELIV.COM C/O UNIVERSITY OF THE ARTS
JROSS DESIGN 57, 115, 239 OLIVER MUNDAY [GROUP] OMG UARTS.EDU SHINNOSKE, INC.
JROSSDESIGN.COM OLIVERMUNDAY.COM 207 SHINN.CO.JP
104, 177 LOEWY 197 96
LOEWYGROUP.COM PETTIS DESIGN
HYOSOOK KANG 10, 49, 190, 235 MUTABOR DESIGN GMBH PETTISDESIGN.COM KIYOKO SHIROMASA
[email protected] MUTABOR.COM 28, 128, 210, 238 [email protected]
271 LOUISE FILI LTD. 16, 46, 72, 83 115
LOUISEFILI.COM PISCATELLO DESIGN CENTRE
YOO JUNG KANG 106, 141 NAM PISCATELLO.COM CHRISTOPHER SHORT
YOOJUNG.CO N-A-M.ORG 31 CHRISSHORT.COM
97, 110, 216 LSD SPACE 108, 225 206
LSDSPACE.COM PODPUNKT
JUNE KIM 9, 10, 27, 29, 43, 91, 99, 166, 173, NAROSKA DESIGN PODPUNKT.PL SIMPLE
[email protected] 190, 199, 201, 217, 228, 234, 236, NAROSKA.DE 38, 151, 163, 164, 170, 187, 191, INTEGRATED MARKETING
75 238, 257, 273 27, 35, 65, 258 246, 257 SIMPLE.COM.AU
30, 153
LLOYD KIM LUMINOUS DESIGN GROUP NINE POULIN+MORRIS
LLOYDKIMDESIGN.COM LUMINOUS.GR NINE.SE POULINMORRIS.COM LEONARDO SONNOLI
212 26, 47, 69, 134, 170, 191, 211, 116 25, 184, 228, 276 SONNOLI.COM
216, 220, 233, 287 48, 51, 105, 117, 216, 271, 273
MINAH KIM NOT FROM HERE INC. RAIDY PRINTING GROUP S.A.L.
C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS MADE IN SPACE, INC. NORFROMHERE.COM MARIEJOERAIDY.COM SPIN
WWW.SVA.EDU MADEINSPACE.CA 102 199, 216 SPIN.CO.UK
121 36, 44, 121, 143 76
DEBRA OHAYON GUNTER RAMBOW
SOHYUN KIM MAKEBARDO C/O PARSONS SCHOOL OF [email protected] STEREOTYPE DESIGN
[email protected] MAKEBARDO.COM DESIGN 95, 118 STEREOTYPE-DESIGN.COM
N 118 29, 250, 287 NEWSCHOOL.EDU/PARSONS 12, 55, 233, 312
216 RED CANOE
KING 20G [ JOSH KING] MANUAL REDCANOE.COM STRESSDESIGN
[email protected] MANUALCREATIVE.COM OHYESCOOLGREAT 121, 254 STRESSDESIGN.COM
208 29, 53, 64, 65, 66, 67 OHYESCOOLGREAT.COM 41
269, 273 RESEARCH STUDIOS
DAEUN KO ROBERT MCCONNELL RESEARCHSTUDIOS.COM STRUKTUR DESIGN
C/O SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS RMCCONELL.COM MAREK OKON 27, 101, 165, 187, 205, 224, 232 STRUKTUR-DESIGN.COM
WWW.SVA.EDU 81 MAREKOKON.COM 174
61, 268 16, 172 ROYCROFT DESIGN
MEDIA INVIA ROYCROFTDESIGN.COM STUDIO BLUE
DENNIS KOOT MEDIAINVIA.COM ONLAB VISUAL COMMUNI- 47 STUDIOBLUE.US
KOOT.NU 39 CATION GMBH 11, 61, 74, 98, 100, 121, 259
307 ONLAB.CH SEAN RYAN
METAKLINIKA 25, 308 ARTSRYAN.COM STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO
L2M3 KOMMUNIKATIONS- METAKLINIKA.COM 196 DFEIJOO.COM
DESIGN GMBH 45, 70, 103, 187, 215, 225 MARTIN OOSTRA 54, 153, 227, 274
L2M3.COM [email protected] SABOTAGE PKG
66, 82, 137, 147, 281 KRESIMIR MILOLOZA 170 SABOTAGEPKG.COM STUDIO INTERNATIONAL
BEHANCE.NET/ 173 STUDIO-INTERNATIONAL.COM
LA BOCA KRESIMIRMILOLOZA ORDER 40, 76, 108, 236, 241
LABOCA.CO.UK 311 ORDER.DESIGN
201, 309 20, 201, 279 STUDIO JONA
STUDIOJONA.NL
224

319 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 319 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 319 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 319
 STUDIO LESBEAUJOURS THERE WALLACE CHURCH, INC.
LESBEAUJOURS.FR THERE.COM.AU WALLACECHURCH.COM
184 45 206, 208

STUDIO MAKGILL THINK MOTO GMBH HELENA WANG

STUDIOMAKGILL.COM THINKMOTO.DE C/O PARSONS SCHOOL
218, 233 38, 51, 113, 286 OF DESIGN
NEWSCHOOL.EDU/PARSONS
STUDIO MARVIL THINK STUDIO 103, 255
MARVIL.CZ THINKSTUDIONYC.COM
46, 53, 169, 181, 293 59, 109 CARDON WEBB
CARDONWEBB.COM
STUDIO NEW WORK TOORMIX 24, 231
STUDIONEWWORK.COM TOORMIX.COM
33, 313 25, 78, 130/131, 141, 158, 179, WEDGE
201, 223, 230, 237, 251, 269, 288 WEDGE.WORK
STUDIO VIE 268
STUDIOVIE.NET RÉGIS TOSETTI STUDIO
250 REGISTOSETTI.CH LUCY XÍN
225, 307 LUCYXIN.COM
STUDIO WORKS 155
STUDIO-WORKS.COM TRIBORO DESIGN
21, 42, 245 TRIBORO-DESIGN.COM BRETT YASKO
44, 82, 164, 167 BRETTYASKO.COM
SUBCOMMUNICATION 129, 157, 236
SUBCOMMUNICATION.COM TSTO
109 TSTO.ORG SANG ZHANG
309 SANG-ZHANG.COM
SULKI+MIN 31, 56 , 89
SULKI-MIN.COM UMBRELLA DESIGN
8 UMBRELLADESIGN.IN DECLAN ZIMMERMAN
27, 96, 97, 209 HTTP://MOTIONGRAPHICSNYC.
KIYOTAKA SUMIYOSHI COM
C/O PARSONS SCHOOL UNA [AMSTERDAM] 250, 255
OF DESIGN DESIGNERS
NEWSCHOOL.EDU/PARSONS UNADESIGNERS.NL ZIPENG ZHU
281 83, 128, 147 ZZ-IS.IT
197
SUPERBÜRO UNDER CONSIDERATION, LLC
SUPERBUERO.CH UNDERCONSIDERATION.COM ZOVECK ESTUDIO
209 300–301 ZOVECK.COM
197
SUPERSCRIPT RAF VANCAMPENHOUDT +
SUPER-SCRIPT.COM JORIS VAN AKEN
305 RAFVANCAMPENHOUDT@
TELENET.BE
EVA SURANY 310
C/O UNIVERSITY OF THE ARTS
UARTS.EDU MARIELLE VAN GENDEREN+
202 ADRIAAN MELLEGERS
MARIELLEVANGENDEREN.NL
SURFACE ADRIAANMELLEGERS.COM
SURFACEGRAFIK.DE 177, 265
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
27 Assembling material for a book of this kind depends
VBAT
SWIM DESIGN VBAT.COM on the good will of so many busy people. My sincere
[email protected] 131, 275, 287 thanks to all of the contributors who collected
100
VIKTOR MATIC examples of their work for consideration, for their
KRISTIN TEIG + CATRINE KELTY VIKTORMATIC.COM suggestions, and for their great encouragement.
WEBSITE.COM 268, 269, 304
34, 38 I would be remiss if I didn’t acknowledge the efforts
VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH of the team at Rockport, whose diligence and
KENICHI TENAKA UNIVERSITY (VCU) QATAR
KENICHI-DESIGN.COM QATAR.VCU.EDU patience can not be overstated: Thank you, Anne,
73 36, 192, 200, 245 Cora, Joy, Regina, and Renae. And last, but certainly
TEN-DO-TEN ALEXANDRA VITALE not least, I would like to thank my partner Sean, my
TENTENTEN.NET ALEXANDRAVITALE.COM
196 124
family, and all my friends for their support.

FLORENCE TÉTIER VOICE

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
FLORENCETETIER.COM VOICEDESIGN.NET
61, 222 41, 47, 49, 63, 99, 168, 211, 225, Timothy Samara is a New York-based graphic
244
THE LUXURY OF PROTEST
designer who splits his time between professional
THELUXURYOFPROTEST.COM VON K BRAND DESIGN STUDIO practice and teaching; he is a frequent lecturer and
51 VON-K.COM
47, 71, 101, 264 contributor to design publications both in the U.S.
THE NATIONAL GRID and abroad. Samara has written ten books on design
THENATIONALGRID.CO.NZ VRUCHTFLEES
306 VRUCHTFLEES.COM that have been translated into ten languages and
79, 310 are used by educators, students and practitioners
around the world.

320 D ESIG N ELEMEN T S

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 320 4/6/20 1:00 PM

333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition_242-320.indd 320 Title: 333647 - Design Elements 3rd edition 4/6/20 12:56 PM
Text Page: 320