Week 02: Site Investigation – ll

CV3013: Foundation Engineering

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Dr Yi Yaolin
Assistant Professor, CEE
Office: N1-1C-94
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 6790-6309
Week 02: Topics

Overview

Subsurface
exploration or drilling
Planning and In-situ testing
requirements methods
Soil sampling and Geophysical
laboratory testing methods
Groundwater
monitoring

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Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

3
Topic 1: Soil Sampling
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Soil Sampling

Retrieval of soil samples are carried out in pits or boreholes.

There are two types of soil samples:

Disturbed Undisturbed

www.landscapeonline.com Ayala et al. 2013 www.myv-sg.com

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Soil Sampling

Features of disturbed sample:

The soil structure is significantly damaged or completely destroyed.
It still retains the same composition and grain size.
This kind of soil is suitable for soil classification and compaction.
Soil can be excavated from trial pits or obtained from tools used to advance boreholes,
for example, from augers and clay cutter.
Soil recovered from the shell in percussion boring will be deficient in fines and will
not be suitable to be used as a disturbed sample.

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Soil Sampling

Features of undisturbed sample:

The soil structure and water content of undisturbed sample is preserved.
Such samples are mainly used for shear strength, consolidation, permeability tests.
In trial pits, the soil can be cut by hand from pit bottom or sides.
In boreholes, the sample can be obtained by driving or pushing a sample tube into soil at
the bottom of the hole.
Samples should be covered with molten wax immediately to prevent evaporation.
It is impossible to obtain completely undisturbed samples. For example, for clays, swelling
will take place due to the reduction in stresses. Additionally, structural disturbance may
be caused due to boring action.

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Soil Sampling

Possible mechanisms of disturbance

Mechanical disturbance Changes in stresses

Changes in chemical
Changes or migration of
contents (i.e. contamination
moisture content/void ratio
by drilling fluid)

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Soil Sampling

Boring rod

Ideally there is no undisturbed soil sample. Sampler head

Air release valve

Use the area ratio (Ca) as an index.
Overdrive space

When Ca < 10%, the sample is considered as undisturbed.

Tube
=

= Shoe
dc

dw Knappett & Craig 2012 9

Soil Sampling

Samples should be taken at changes of stratum (as observed from the soil recovered
by augering/drilling) and at a specified spacing within strata of not more than 3 m.

All the samples should be clearly labelled.

Each sample should be given a unique serial
number.

Special care is required in handling,

transportation and storage of samples
(particularly undisturbed samples) prior
to testing.

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Soil Sampling

The sampling method used should be related to the quality of the sample requirement.
Quality of the soil can be classified as displayed in the table below. Class 1 is the most useful
and is of the highest quality, with Class 5 being useful only for basic visual identification of the
soil type.

Classes 1 and 2 samples must be undisturbed. Classes 3, 4 and 5 samples may still be disturbed.
Soil property Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Sequence of layers
Strata boundaries
Sample quality related to
Particle size distribution end use (after EC7-2: 2007)
Atterberg limits, organic content
Water content
(Relative) Density, porosity
Permeability
Compressibility, shear strength
Knappett & Craig 2012
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Open Drive Sampler

A The open drive sampler consists of a long steel tube with a screw Boring rod
thread at each end. A cutting shoe is attached to one end, while
the other end is screwed onto a sampler head. Sampler head

B The sampler head incorporates a non-return valve to allow air Air release valve
and water to escape as soil fills up inside the tube. This helps
retain the sample when withdrawn. Overdrive space
C The inner tube should have a smooth surface, and must be
maintained to retain a clean condition.
D The internal diameter of the cutting edge (dc) is ~1% smaller than
the tube. This helps reduce the frictional resistance between the Tube
tube and the sample. This also allows for a slight elastic
expansion of the sample on entering the tube, and therefore
assists in sample retention.
E The external diameter of the cutting shoe (dw) is slightly greater
than the tube. This helps reduce the force required to withdraw. Shoe
dc
=
dw Knappett & Craig 2012 12
Open Drive Sampler

www.cnforsuntools.en
F The open drive sampler is driven dynamically by means of a drop
weight or sliding hammer, or statically by hydraulic or
mechanical jacking.
G Before sampling, loose soil should be removed from the bottom
of the borehole.
H Care should be taken to ensure that the sampler is not driven
Open drive Sampler
beyond its capacity. Otherwise the sample will be compressed
www.eos.tufts.edu
against the sampler head.
I It is suitable for all clay soils. For sand, a core-catcher which has a
shorter length than that of the tube with spring-loaded flaps
should be fitted between the tube and the cutting shoe to
prevent the loss of soil.
J Sample class depends on the soil type. Core-catcher
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Thin Wall Sampler

Thin wall samplers are used in soils sensitive to disturbance, for example soft clays, plastic silts etc.
The sampler does not employ a separate cutting shoe. The lower end of tube is machined to form
a cutting edge.
The area ratio is approximately 10%. Samples of first-class quality can be obtained provided that
the soil has not been disturbed in advancing the borehole.

Boring rod
Cutting edge with
inside clearance
Sampler head
Valve =

Cutting angle
Tube

Cutting edge angle ranges 5-15 degrees

Knappett & Craig 2012
14
Thin Wall Sampler

Source: [HWSconsulting]. (2010, Jan 20). Shelby Tube Sampling [Video file].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HWi6iZKciU
15
Split-barrel Sampler

Boring rod
A split-barrel sampler consists of a tube longitudinally split into
two halves; shoe and sampler head, thereby incorporating air-
Sampler head
release holes which are screwed towards the end.
Air holes

The two halves of the tube can be separated when the shoe
and the head are detached to allow the sample to be removed.
Split tube
The internal and external diameters are 35 and 50 mm
respectively. The area ratio is approximately 100% which is
considerably disturbed (Class 3 or 4).

Split-barrel sampler is mainly used in sands,

as specified in SPT.
= Shoe
http://imby.blogspot.sg
Knappett & Craig 2012
16
Stationary Piston Sampler
Piston rod

Boring rod

Stationary piston sampler consists of a thin-walled tube fit Sampler head

with a piston attached to a long rod which passes through a
Locking device
sampler head and runs inside hollow boring rods. Air vents

The sampler is lowered into a borehole with the piston

located at the lower end of the tube. The tube and piston
are locked together by a clamping device at the top of the Tube
rods. The piston prevents water or loose soil from entering
the tube.
While sampling, the piston is held against the soil (by
clamping the piston rod to casing). The tube is then pushed
past the piston to obtain the sample.
Piston

Knappett & Craig 2012

Contd. 17
Stationary Piston Sampler
Piston rod

Boring rod

Sampler head
On withdrawal, a locking device in the sampler head holds Locking device
the piston at the top of the tube. Vacuum between piston Air vents

and sample helps retain soil in the tube.

It should always be pushed down by hydraulic or mechanical
Tube
jacking. It should NOT be dynamically driven.
This process is generally used for soft clays and can produce
Class 1 samples of up to 1 m in length.

Piston

Knappett & Craig 2012

18
Window Sampler

They are mostly suitable for dry fine-grained soils.

They employ a series of tubes, usually 1 m in length and of
different diameters (typically 80, 60, 50 and 36 mm). A cutting
shoe is attached to the end of the bottom tube.
Tube of the largest diameter is the first to be driven and is
extracted with its sample inside.
Tube of a lesser diameter is then driven below the bottom of
the open hole left by extraction of the larger tube.
Operation is repeated using tubes of successively lower
diameter. Depths of up to 8 m can be reached
Longitudinal slots or ‘windows’ in walls at one of the sides of
tube allows the soil to be examined. This enables the collection
of disturbed samples of Class 3 or 4. Knappett & Craig 2012

19
Window Sampler

www.gouda-geo.com

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Compressed Air Sampler

Air line Boring rod

Cable
They are used to obtain undisturbed samples of sand Peg
(Class 2) below the water table. Spring

Guide head

An outer tube, or bell, surrounds the sample tube.

The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the Guide rod
borehole, which consists of water when placed
below the water table. Spacer

Compressed air is introduced through a tube Weight

leading to the guide head which helps to expel Sampler head
water from the bell. Bell
Sand sample remains in the tube by virtue of arching
and slight negative pore water pressure in the soil. Sample tube

Knappett & Craig 2012 21

Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

22
Topic 2: Laboratory Testing
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Laboratory testing for sand

Laboratory testing for sand

Type of tests Sample quality Results
Sieve analysis Disturbed Grain size distribution
Fines content Disturbed % of silt and clay in the sand mass

Note: It is very difficult to obtain undisturbed sample of sand.

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Challenges of Sampling in Silt/Sand Soils

There is high friction between soil and sampling tube.

Lack of internal cohesion to keep the sample intact.

Lack of adhesion for the sample to stick inside the sampling tube.

Difficulty in handling of samples such as transportation,

laboratory set up.

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Challenges of Sampling in Silt/Sand Soils

Freeze soil below

groundwater table (GWT)
Core the frozen soil
Frost heaving
Cost

Source: Courtesy of Prof An-Bin Huang, National Chiao Tung University

26
Challenges of Sampling in Silt/Sand Soils

Undisturbed sampling in silt/sand soils

Source: Courtesy of Prof An-Bin Huang, National Chiao Tung University
27
Challenges of Sampling in Silt/Sand Soils

Sealing with wax

Source: Courtesy of Prof An-Bin Huang, National Chiao Tung University

28
Challenges of Sampling in Silt/Sand Soils

Freezing samples for transportation

Source: Courtesy of Prof An-Bin Huang, National Chiao Tung University

29
Challenges of Sampling in Silt/Sand Soils

Storing and
trimming samples
in laboratory

Source: Courtesy of Prof An-Bin Huang, National Chiao Tung University 30

Laboratory Testing for Clay

Type of tests Sample Quality Results

Density Undisturbed
Disturbed or
Water content
undisturbed
Disturbed or
Atterberg limits LL, PL and PI
undisturbed
Consolidation Undisturbed , C , C , C and C
UU Undisturbed c
CU or CD Undisturbed c and
Permeability Undisturbed k

31
Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

32
Topic 3: In-situ Testing
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
In-situ Tests

Common use

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Field Vane Test (FVT)
Plate Load Test (PLT)

SPT

More specialised VST PMT DMT

CPT

Pressuremeter Test (PMT)

Dilatometer Test (DMT) In bore holes

Borehole Shear Test (BST)

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Need of In-situ Tests

Limitations of sampling and lab test

To obtain high quality data, undisturbed samples

must be obtained which can be difficult in
some deposits.

In deposits where there are significant features

within macro-fabric (e.g. fissuring in stiff clays)
response of a small element of soil may not
represent behaviour of complete soil mass.

Sampling and lab tests are time-consuming

and expensive.

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In-situ Tests

In-situ tests can overcome

these limitations and provide a
rapid assessment of key
parameters.
In-situ tests should always be
considered as - complementing
rather than replacing sampling
and laboratory testing.
Therefore, a single borehole may be
used very efficiently to gain visual
Most in-situ tests (e.g. SPT, identification, disturbed samples,
FVT, PMT) require prior undisturbed samples and in-situ test.
drilling of a borehole. These independent observations
should be used to support each
parameter.
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Topic 4: Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Standard Penetration Test

The sampler is driven further

&
SPT is one of the oldest and most A split-barrel sampler with a into soil by 300 mm. The blows
widely used in-situ tests worldwide. smaller diameter than the borehole performed by the hammer to
Its popularity is due to low cost and is attached to a string of rods and achieve this penetration is
simplicity and rapidity. driven into the base of the recorded; this is the
borehole by a drop hammer. (uncorrected) SPT blow count, N.

A borehole is drilled just above the test depth. An initial seating drive to 150 mm penetration is
performed to embed the sampler into the soil.

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Standard Penetration Test

Cable
Split spoon head Seating drive
Tripped
automatically at
Winch
notch, releasing 150 mm
Power unit See inset (b) hammer
unit
Split tube

Split spoon barrel

Trip mechanism Test drive
Casing
Boring rod Hammer

300 mm
Anvil
Split spoon shoe See inset (c)
(a) (b) (c)

Knappett & Craig 2012

39
Standard Penetration Test
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
63.5 kg drop Per ASTM D 1586
hammer
Diagrammatic repeatedly Need to correct to a reference
falling 0.76m
representation of Anvil energy efficiency of 60%
(ASTMD 4633)
SPT process Borehole
Drill rod (“N”
or “A” type) Note: Occasional
fourth increment used
Split-barrel (drive)
to provide additional
Sampler (Thick
soil material
hollow tube)
O.D. = 50 mm
I.D. = 35 mm
L = 760 mm
Seating

0.15 0.15 SPT resistance (N-value)

m or “Blow counts” is
N = No. of blows

total number of blows

per 0.3 meters

m
First increment
to drive sampler last
300 mm (or blows per
0.15

Second increment
m

foot)
Third increment

40
Standard Penetration Test

Source: [Hakan Kuru]. (2015, Dec 30). Standard Penetration Test [Video file]. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N93q1e7ITiE
41
Standard Penetration Test
A wide range of equipment is used worldwide. It influences the amount of energy
transferred to the sampler with each blow of drop hammer.
N is corrected for borehole size and depths (<10 m) to a value N60, representing a
standardised energy ratio of 60%.
SPT correction factor (after Skempton, 1986)
Rod length/depth Borehole diameter (mm)
(m)
65-115 150 200 =
60
3-4 0.75 0.79 0.86
: correction factor, : energy ratio
4-6 0.85 0.89 0.98
Knappett & Craig 2012
6-10 0.95 1.00 1.09

>10 1.00 1.05 1.15

Country
&
Common energy ratios in use worldwide (after Skempton, 1986)
ER(%)

UK 60

USA 45-55

China 55-60

Japan 65-78 42
Standard Penetration Test

Measured N-values Corrected N60

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
4 4

ER = 34 (energy ratio) Donut

6 6 Safety
55 45
60 Trend
8 40 8

Depth (meters)
Depth (meters)

56 41
63 41
10 10
63 39
12 63 12
47
Donut
64 56
14 Safety 14
Sequence
69

16 16

Data from Robertson et al. (1983)

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Standard Penetration Test
What can we get from SPT? Crown sheave(s) or pulley(s)

O
Penetration resistance “N” Typically 1 in. (25 mm)
diameter manila rope
Consistency of soil
Disturbed samples
Rotating
Sand relative density and friction angle
-
cathead

Clay undrained shear strength Donut hammer

30 in.
What type of soil is suitable for SPT? Slip or guide pipe (762 mm)
fall
Anvil
Any soil except soft clay and silt Drill rod
Ground surface

Bore hole

18in.(457mm)

http://imby.blogspot.sg 44
Standard Penetration Test in Coarse-grained Soils

SPT is most suited to coarse-grained soils.

Corrected blow counts are further normalised to account for overburden pressure.
vz = vz - a

e
d
E

F
=
Knappett & Craig 2012
45
Standard Penetration Test in Coarse-grained Soils

tutorial slide
should be entered inO
kPa.

A and B vary with density, coarseness and OCR.

For normally consolidated (NC) fine sands ( < 0.5 mm) of =

medium relative density ( –60%), A = 200 and B = 100. +

For overconsolidated (OC) fine sands, A = 170 and B = 70.

Knappett & Craig 2012

For dense coarse sands ( > 0.5 mm, –80%) A = 300

and B = 200.

46
Standard Penetration Test in Coarse-grained Soils

• Skempton (1986) indicated: 35 < / < 85

• Proposed for most natural deposits: / 60
• More precise estimation needs high quality samples which tend to be too expensive.
• For more recent depositions, / reduces.

&
Relative density

=
o

Knappett & Craig 2012

47
Standard Penetration Test in Coarse-grained Soils

SPT involves penetration of soil. Resistance is governed by peak

strength, which is governed by density. four
use
C
Usig
R

N
Compactness (%) '( )
<3 Very loose 0 – 15 28 – 30
3–8 Loose 15 – 35 30 – 32
8 – 25 Medium 35 – 65 32 – 36
dense
25 – 42 Dense 65 – 85 36 – 40

> 42 Very dense 85 - 100 40 - 44

Knappett & Craig 2012

48
Standard Penetration Test in Fine-grained Soils

Principally, SPT maybe used in fine-grained soils to estimate undrained

shear strength. Cu

Correlations between cu and blow-count depend on a number of

factors, including OCR, resultant fissuring, soil plasticity (IP) and
sensitivity (St).
FVT
Normally it is used qualitatively to support other in-situ and laboratory
test data.

If enough experience can be gained in a certain type of soil, reliable

soil-specific correlations can be developed to provide quantitative data
(EC7-2, 2007).

49
Standard Penetration Test in Fine-grained Soils
Schmertmann (1979)

Stroud (1989), overconsolidated UK clays:

/ 5 for > 30% Schmertman (1979): in sensitive soils, sides
For lower plasticity index: / 7 at = 15% of SPT sampler, which contribute ~70% of
(N1) on is not used for penetration resistance, are governed by
day
Non-normalised blow-count & (N60) is used, as cu is the remoulded strength, while base is influenced
total stress parameter, independent of effective stress. by undisturbed undrained shear strength
beneath the sampler:
Clayton (1995), London Clay, if fissuring is removed by
remoulding: / 11
=
0.7 + 0.3 & - sensitivity
US practice: / 10
is the value of for an insensitive clay ( = 1)

50
Standard Penetration Test in Fine-grained Soils

N60 Consistency cu (kPa)

0-4 Very soft < 20
4–8 Soft 20 – 40
8 – 15 Firm 40 – 75
15 – 30 Stiff 75 – 150
30 – 60 Very stiff 150 – 300
> 60 Hard > 300

Liquidity index

= =
Knappett & Craig 2012

51
Standard Penetration Test

Is one number enough?

c = Undrained strength D = Relative density

= Unit weight = Unit weight
I = Rigidity index LI = Liquefaction index
= Friction angle = Friction angle
OCR = Overconsolidation c = Cohesion intercept
K = Lateral stress state e = Void ratio
e = Void ratio Sand q = Bearing capacity
V = Shear wave = Preconsolidation
E = Young’s modulus V = Shear wave
C = Compression index E = Young’s modulus
q = Pile end bearing
f = Pile skin friction Clay
N = Dilatancy angle
q = Pile end bearing
k = Permeability f = Pile skin friction
q = Bearing stress

52
Acknowledgement

The materials for the lecture notes have been

adapted from Prof Teh Cee Ing, Prof Huang An-bin
and Prof Goh Teck Chee.

Their kindness is highly appreciated.

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