RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Module IX Sampling Design

MEANING OF SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality based
on which a judgement or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other
words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by
examining only a part of it. In most of the research work and surveys, the usual approach
happens to be to make generalisations or to draw inferences based on samples about the
parameters of population from which the samples are taken.

The researcher quite often selects only a few items from the universe for his study
purposes. All this is done on the assumption that the sample data will enable him to
estimate the population parameters. The items so selected constitute what is technically
called a sample, their selection process or technique is called sample design and the
survey conducted based on sample is described as sample survey. Sample should be
truly representative of population characteristics without any bias so that it may result
in valid and reliable conclusions.

CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING:-
 Population: Population refers to any group of people or objects that form the
subject of study in a particular survey and are similar in one or more ways.
 Element: An element comprises a single member of the population.
 Sampling frame: Sampling frame comprises all the elements of a population with
proper identification that is available to us for selection at any stage of sampling.
 Sample: It is a subset of the population. It comprises only some elements of the
population.
 Sampling unit:A sampling unit is a single member of the sample.
 Sampling: It is a process of selecting an adequate number of elements from the
population so that the study of the sample will not only help in understanding the
characteristics of the population but also enable us to generalize the results.

NEED FOR SAMPLING

Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:-
 Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than
a census study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.
 Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is
generally conducted by trained and experienced investigators.
 Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many
members.
 Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item
under study.
 Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors.

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METHODS OF SAMPLING:-

A. Probability Sampling Methods

In probability sampling method, each element in the sample frame stands equal
chance of being selected as a sampling element Different probability sampling
methods are:-

(i) Simple Random :-Simple Random Sampling is in a sense, the basic theme of
all scientific sampling. It is primary probability sampling design. A process
that not only gives to each element in the population an equal chance of being
included in the sample but also makes the selection of every possible
combination of cases in the desired size, equally likely, selects a simple
random sample. Lottery method is very commonly employed in simple
random sampling. Each member or item in the ‘population’ is assigned a
unique number. Each number is noted on a separate card or a chip. Each chip
or card should be similar to all the others with respect to weight, size etc. The
cards or chips are placed in a bowl & mixed thoroughly. A blind -folded person
is asked to pick up any chip or card from the bowl. Under these circumstances,
the probability of drawing any one card can be expected to be the same as the
probability of drawing any other card. Since each card represents a member
of the population, the probability of selecting each would be exactly the same.
Random number generator software can also be used for this purpose.

(ii) Systematic Random Sampling:-This type of sampling is for all practical

purposes, an approximation of simple random sampling. e.g. a frame consists
of 1000 members each with a unique number i.e. from 1 to 1000. Let us say
we want to select a sample of 100. We may start by selecting any number
between 1 to 10. Suppose we make a random selection by entering the list &
get 7. We then proceed to select numbers, starting form 7, with a regular
interval of 10. The selected sample would thus consist of elements bearing
Numbers 7, 17, 27, 37, 47….977, 987, 997. These elements together would
constitute a systematic sample.

(iii) Stratified Random Sampling:-In stratified random sampling, the population

is first divided into a number of strata. Such strata may be based on a single
criterion. (e.g. educational level, yielding a number of strata corresponding to
the different levels of educational attainment.) or on a combination or more
criteria (e.g. age & sex) In stratified random sampling, a simple random
sample is taken from each of the strata & such sub-samples are bought
together to form the total sample.

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Two forms of Stratified samples are-
I. Proportionate Stratified Sampling:-In proportionate sampling, cases
are drawn from each stratum in the same proportion as they occur in
the universe. E.g. we know that 60% of the population is male & 40% of
it is female. Proportionate stratified sampling with reference to this
‘population’ would involve drawing a sample in a manner that this
same division among sexes is reflected, i.e. 60:40, in the sample. If the
systematic sampling procedure is employed in a study, the basis on
which the list is made determines whether or not the resulting sample
is a proportionate stratified sample.

II. Disproportionate Stratified Sampling:-A stratified sample in which

the number of elements drawn from various strata is independent of
the sizes of these strata may be called a disproportionate stratified
sample. This same effect may well be achieved alternatively by
drawing from each stratum an equal number of cases, regardless of
how strongly or weakly the stratum is represented in the population.
For example, from a population of 200 male students and 150 female
students, 50 male and 50 female students are selected.

For example-
The population is composed of 10,000 retail banking customers consisting of -
 1500 big account holders (Rs. 10 lakhs.)
 3500 medium account holders (Rs. 2 lakh but less than 10
lakhs)
 5000 small account holders (less than Rs. 2 lakhs.)
Total cost for sampling is fixed at Rs. 20,000 with east sample unit cost to be
Rs. 20. Sample of 100 is supposed to be chosen then,

As per Proportionate stratified sampling -

 Number of big account holders in sample =
(1500) * (100)/10000=15
 Number of medium account holders in sample =
(3500) * (100)/10000=35
 Number of small account holders =
(5000) * (100)/10000=50

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(iv) Cluster Sampling :-In cluster sampling, the researcher first samples out from
the population, certain large groupings, i.e. “cluster”. A cluster is a set of
heterogeneous subjects representing population. These clusters may be city
wards, households, or even several geographical or social units. The sampling
of clusters from the population is done by simple or stratified random
sampling methods. E.g. for collecting data from the students, researcher may
choose any 2 divisions out of 5 randomly and collect data from the students of
the selected divisions.

(v) Multistage Sampling: -Multistage sampling refers to sampling plans where

the sampling is carried out in stages using smaller and smaller sampling units
at each stage. In a two-stage sampling design, a sample of primary units is
selected and then a sample of secondary units is selected within each primary
unit. E.g. In order to conduct survey from employees of public banks, branches
may be selected first using random sampling and from, the selected branches
employees may be selected using stratified random technique.

B. Nonprobability Sampling Methods:

Non-probability sampling methods are called so because each element in the
population does not have an equal chance of being included in the sample. The
major forms of non-probability samples are:

(a) Convenient sampling :

In convenience, sampling the researcher simply reaches out and picks up the
cases that fall to hand, continuing the process till such time as the sample
acquires a desired size. E.g. researcher may take the first 150 persons he meets
on any one of the pedestrian paths of a street, who are willing to be interviewed.

(b) Judgment or Purposive Sampling:-

The basic assumption behind judgment or purposive sampling is that with the
exercise of good judgment & appropriate strategy one can handpick the right
cases to be in included in the sample & thus develop samples that are satisfactory
in relation to one’s research needs. The selection of elements proceeds under the
assumption that errors of judgment in the selection will tend to count.

(c) Quota Sampling:-

The basic objective of Quota sampling is the selection of a sample that is a replica
of the ‘population’ with the respect to which one would wish to generalize. Ouota
sampling, by & large, affords the insurance that diverse elements in the
‘population’ will be included in the sample and that these elements will be taken
account of in proportion in which they obtain in the population.

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 Quota sampling usually proceeds in three steps:
1. The population is classified in terms of properties known or assumed to be
pertinent to the characteristics being studied.
2. The proportion of the population falling into each class is determined on
the basis of the known, assumed or estimated composition of the
population.
3. Lastly, each observer or interviewer is assigned a quota of respondents.
The responsibility of selection the respondents or subjects is theirs.

(d) Snowball Sampling:-

In snowball sampling, each respondent will also act as reference to other
respondent. It is generally employed when subjects are hard to locate. E.g.
suppose, researcher is interested in finding reasons for drug addiction in youth,
then he may contact few respondents and use them as a reference for recruiting
others.

CALCULATION OF A SAMPLE SIZE:

Methods of determining the sample size in practice:

 Researchers may arbitrary decide the size of sample without giving any explicit
consideration to the accuracy of the sample results or the cost of sampling.
 The total budget for the field survey in a project proposal is allocated.
 Researchers may decide on the sample size based on what was done by the other
researchers in similar studies.

Confidence interval approach for determining the size of the sample

The following points are taken into account for determining the sample size in
this approach.
 The variability of the population: Higher the variability as measured by the
population standard deviation, larger will be the size of the sample.
 The confidence attached to the estimate: Higher the confidence the researcher
wants for the estimate, larger will be sample size.
 The allowable error or margin of error: Greater the precision the research
seeks, larger would be the size of the sample.

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 Sample size for estimating population mean - The formula for determining sample
size is given as:

Where ,
n = Sample size ; σ = Population standard deviation; e = Margin of error, and
Z = The value for the given confidence interval

Sample size for estimating population proportion –

When population proportion p is known

. When population proportion p is not known

Where,
n = Sample size; p = Population proportion; q=1-p; e = Margin of error and
Z = the value for the given confidence interval

Consider the following examples,

 An economist is interested in estimating the average monthly household

expenditure on food items by the households of a town. Based on the past data, it
is estimated that the standard deviation of the population on the monthly
expenditure on food items is Rs. 30. with the allowable error set at Rs. 7, estimate
the sample size required at 90 per cent confidence. (Z = 1.645)

Solution:-

Given:-
Population standard deviation (σ) = Rs. 30
Margin of error (e) = Rs. 7
Confidence Interval = 90 percent, Hence corresponding Z value from the table=
1.645

Hence, Required Sample Size required = ((Z2)*( σ2))/e2 = (1.645)2 * (30)2 / (7)2 =
49.7025 = 50

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 A manager of a departmental store would like to study women’s spending per
year on cosmetic. He is interested in knowing the population proportion of
women who purchase their cosmetics primarily from his store. If he wants to
have a 90 per cent confidence of estimating the true proportion to be within +-
0.045, what sample size is needed? (Z = 1.645)

Solution:-

Given:-
Margin of error (e) = 0.045
Confidence Interval = 90 percent, Hence corresponding Z value from the
table= 1.645

Hence, Required Sample Size = (Z2)/ (4e2 ) = (1.645)2 / (4 * 0.0452 )= 334.007 =

335

 A consumer electronics company wants to determine the job satisfaction levels of

its employees. For this they ask a simple question, “Are you satisfied with your
job?”. It was estimated that no more than 30 per cent of the employees would
answer yes. What should be the sample size for this company to estimate the
population proportion to ensure a 95 per cent confidence in result, and to be
within 0.04 of the true population proportion? (Z = 1.96)

Solution:-

Given:-
Margin of error (e) = 0.04
Confidence Interval = 95 percent, Hence corresponding Z value from the table=
1.96
Population proportion (p) = 0.30
Hence, q=1-p = 1-0.3=0.7

Hence, Required Sample Size = (Z2 * p * q)/ = (1.96)2 * 0.3 *0.7/ 0.042 )= 504.21=
505