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Important equation
Important Equations in Physics (AS)

Unit 1: Quantities and their measurements (topics 1 and 2 from AS syllabus)

1 System of units M.K.S system, meter, kilogram, second

C.G.S. system, centimetre, gram, second
F.P.S. system and foot, pound, second
SI system
2 SI system luminous Amount of
Length Mass Time Temp Current
Base units metre Kilogram second kelvin(K) ampere(A)
intensity substance
candela (Cd) mole
3 Multiples Tera Giga Mega Kilo Deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto
of units T G M K d c m µ n p f a
1012 109 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18
4 Celsius to kelvin Add to 273.15 to Celsius scale to convert to
K= θoC +273.15
conversion kelvin scale
5 Accuracy To find the accurate value, we need to know the true value of a physical quantity.
Nothing can be measured absolutely accurate.
6 Precision ...value close to the true value. Can be increase by sensitive instrument.
7 Error Systematic: due to faulty apparatus Random: due to experimenter
8 Calculation error For sum Q=a+b For difference Q=a-b
ΔQ=Δa+Δb ΔQ=Δa+Δb
9 Calculating error For product Q=a×b For division Q=a/b
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
∆ = + × ∆ = + ×
10 Significant figures (sf) 1.234 1.2 1002 3.07 0.001 0.012 0.0230 0.20 190
examples four sf two sf four sf three sf one sf two sf three sf two sf 2 or 3 sf
11 Uncertainty the interval of confidence around the best measured value such that the
∆value measurement is certain not to lie outside this stated interval
= ±
12 Percentage and relative
= × 100 =
uncertainty
∆ ∆
= × 100 =
13 Vector and scalar Scalar→ only magnitude with units
Vector → magnitude with unit and
quantities Eg. density, pressure, speed, distance
direction eg. velocity, force etc
etc
14 Magnitude of resultant a and b same direction: apply simple addition
vector c of two vectors a a and b opposite direction: apply simple subtraction
and b ⊥ to each other: apply Pythagoras theorem = √ +
Not ⊥ to each other: apply cosine rule = + −2× × ×
15 Direction of resultant a and b in same direction then c is also the in the same direction
vector c of two vectors a a and b opposite direction then c is in the direction of bigger vector
and b ⊥ to each other apply = tan
Not ⊥ to each other: use protractor
16 Components of vector F x- component y-component
making θ with x-axis = × cos = × sin
17 Measurement by cathode Time base: Vertical gain:
ray oscilloscope (cro) horizontal scale or x-axis vertical scale or y-axis

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Important equation
Unit 2: Motion, force and energy (topic 3, 4, 5 and 6 from AS syllabus)

1 Average velocity ̅ ̅= s is the displacement in meters and t

is the time in seconds.
2 Instantaneous velocity Velocity of an object at any particular instant of time.
3 Average acceleration ∆ Δv is the change of speed and Δt is
=
∆ the change of time. Unit of
acceleration is ms-2
4 Acceleration and velocity Same direction: acceleration is +ve (if velocity is in +ve direction)
Opposite direction: acceleration is -ve, deceleration, retardation
5 Graphical representation

6 Speed-time graph Area under the graph: distance covered by and object
Gradient of the graph: acceleration
7 Distance-time graph Gradient of the graphs: speed of an object
8 Equation for uniform = only use when acceleration=0 and
motion, constant motion no net force is applied
9 Equations for uniformly = + v is the final velocity in ms-1,
accelerated motion ( + ) u is the initial velocity in ms-1,
- body start motion u=0 = s is the distance/displacement in m,
2
- body come to rest v=0 1 a is the acceleration in ms-2 and
- free fall g=a=9.81ms-2 = + t is the time in s.
2
- horizontal motion s=x = +2
- vertical motion s=h=y
10 Friction→ static and Static = × fs is the static friction in newton,
dynamic Dynamic = × fk is the dynamic friction in newton,
N is the reaction or normal force µs is the coefficient of static friction
perpendicular to the surface µk is the coeff. of dynamic friction
11 Air resistance or viscous - Opposing force to the motion in presence of air or fluid
force or viscous drag - During free fall in the beginning: weight≫air resistance+upthrust
- Later: weight> resistance+upthrust
12 Terminal velocity - at terminal velocity, weight= air resistance + upthrust
13 Projectile: x-component → y-component → horizontal range
Motion in two dimensions, no acceleration acceleration is g
v and angle θ with = cos = sin = 2
horizontal, upward is + = = cos = −½ max range at θ=45o
14 Weight and mass: w is the weight in newton (N), m is
weight is force of gravity, the mass in kg and g is acceleration
= ×
mass is the amount of due to gravity=9.81 ms-2
matter, it never changes
15 Stability of an object Lower the centre of gravity →more stable the object is
Wider the base of an object →more stable the object is
16 Momentum Momentum=mass×velocity unit is kg.m.s-1 or N.s
p= m× v
17 Conservation of linear Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
momentum + = +
18 Elastic collision Total kinetic energy before collision =total kinetic energy after collision
½ +½ = ½ +½
19 Elastic collision for two masses ≠ or = the equation must satisfy
+ = +

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Important equation
20 Inelastic collision Total kinetic energy before collision>total kinetic energy after collision
½ +½ > ½ +½
21 Newton’s first law of Object in motion → stay in motion forever
motion object stationary → stay stationary forever unless force applied
22 Newton’s second law of ⋉ - Net force applied ⋉ acceleration
motion ⋉ 1⁄ - Mass of an object ⋉ 1/acceleration
= -1 N is the amount of force require
= to create an acceleration of 1 ms-2 of
mass of 1 kg; k=1Nkg-1m-1s2
23 Newton’s third law of Action and reaction forces applied by two objects on each other is always
motion equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
24 Momentum and 2nd law of − Rate of change of momentum is
motion = = equal to the net force applied
25 Impulse ∆ = − Constant force acting for short time
26 Density ‘ρ’ in kgm-3 or - ρ of Mercury is 13.6gcm-3
=
gcm-3 - ρ of water is 1gcm-3 at 4oC
m is the mass and V is the volume - ρ of air 0.001293gcm-3
27 Pressure p in pascal (Pa) F is the force in N and A is the area
= on which the force applied in m2
28 Pressure in fluids due to = ℎ ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the
depth h in meters acceleration due to gravity and h is
the height or depth in metre
29 Upthrust: ℎ = ℎ - Object floats if the density of object
- upward force applied by * upthrust is equal to the weight of the is less than or equal to the density of
fluid on an object liquid displaced the fluid and object sinks if the
density of object is more than the
density of fluid
30 Measuring the density of ℎ
liquid using (upthrust) - =
Archimedes principle ℎ
31 Torque or moment of = × sin F applied perpendicular to d
force
32 Torque due to a couple or Couple = one force × perpendicular distance between the two forces
two equal forces =
33 Conditions of equilibrium Σ = 0 -Total or net force applied is zero
Σ = 0 -Total torque applied is zero
34 Work : ∆ = × cos F is the force, s is the displacement
ΔW is the work in joules work that causes motion → Ek in the direction of the force applied
work that store energy →Ep and θ is the angle between F and s
35 External work done by an ∆ = ∆ p is the pressure in Pa and ΔV is the
expanding gas In p-V graph the area under the graph expansion of gas in m3
is the work done
35 Work done in stretching a ∆ = ½ = ½ F is the force applied and x is the
spring Work= area under the F-x graph extension
36 Principal of conservation Loss of gain or Ep=gain or loss of Ek
of mechanical energy Δ = Δ
ℎ= ½
37 Electrical potential , = q is the quantity of charge in
energy: coulomb and V is the potential
Work done in bring the difference between the points.
unit positive charge from
infinity to a point.

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38 Internal energy: ∆ = ∆ +∆ ΔQ heat applied, ΔU increase in the
Sum of the Ek and Ep of internal energy and ΔW is the work
the molecules of a system done by the system
39 Power P is the power in watts, W is the
= = work done, F is the force and t5time

40 Efficiency of a machine Efficiency can be

= × 100 expressed as percentage
Unit 3: Electric charge (topic 17, 19 and 20 from the syllabus)

1 Electric field intensity E: ..between the two parallel plates ..due to point charge Q on charge q
force on a unit charge q
= =
at any point around
another charge Q .. uniform between the plates .. decreases with distance increase,
separation d, unit is Vm-1 unit is NC-1
2 Current: Rate of flow of I is the current in amperes (A),
charges in a conductor = Q is the charge in coulombs (C)
t is the time in seconds (s)
3 Current path In circuits the current always choose the easiest path
4 Conduction of electric ..in electrolyte liquids due chemical reaction, ions → electrolysis
charge ..in liquids (eg mercury) or solids (metals) due to free electrons→ conduction
5 Ohms law Voltage across the resistor is V is the voltage in volts (V),
directly proportional to current, I is the current in amperes (A) and
V⋉ I or R is resistance in ohms (Ω)
=
6 Voltage Energy per unit charge Q is the charge in coulombs (C),
V is the voltage in volts (V)
= Energy is in joules (J)
7 Electromotive force(emf) e.m.f. = lost volts + terminal p.d. the energy transferred to electrical
e.m.f.=Ir+IR energy and when 1C charge passes
unit of emf is volts (V) through a circuit.
8 Max. Power dissipated Max. power P when R=r, E is the emf
by the cell =
( + )
9 Resistance and resistivity R is the resistance a resistor,
= L is the length of a resistor in meters
ρ is the resistivity of resistor in Ω.m A is the area of cross-section of a
resistor in m2
10 Circuit In series circuit→ the current stays the same and voltage divides
In parallel circuit → the voltage stays the same and current divides
11 Resistance in series = + + +⋯
R, R1, R2 and R3 are resistances of
12 Resistance in parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯ resistor in ohms
13 Potential divider V1 voltage across R1
=
V2 voltage across R2
14 Potential divider
= ( )× = ( )×
(V total voltage) + +
15 Power P is the power in watts (W)
= × = × =
16 Power The unit of energy is joules (J)
=
17 I-V Characteristics metals diode filament thermistor LDR
I↑, V↑ I in one direction V↑,T↑,R↑,I↓ T↑, R↓, I↑ L↑,R↓.I↑
18 Kirchhoff`s law ∑I = 0 ∑EMF = ∑IR
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19 Cathode rays Stream of electrons emitted from heated metal (cathode) are called cathode
rays and the process of emission is called thermionic emission.

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Important equation Mahabub Sir | 01912-834020
Unit
Unit 4:
4: Matter
Matter (topic
(topic 9,
9, and
and 10
10 from
from the
the syllabus)
syllabus)
11 Density:
Density: ratio
ratio of
of mass
mass to
to = ρ=m/V
ρ=m/V where
where m
m is
is the
the mass
mass and
and V
V is
is
volume, gcm -3
-3, kgm-3 = the vol.
volume, gcm , kgm-3 the vol.
22 Kinetic
Kinetic molecular
molecular tiny
tiny particles,
particles, in
in constant
constant collision,
collision, held
held by
by strong
strong electric
electric force,
force, large
large empty
empty
theory
theory of
of matter
matter space, temp increases the speed of particles,
space, temp increases the speed of particles,
33 Kinetic
Kinetic molecular
molecular Solids:
Solids: Liquids:
Liquids: Gases:
Gases:
theory
theory of
of matter
matter -- vibrates at mean position vibrational energy
vibrates at mean position vibrational energy and and Vibrational,
Vibrational,
energies
energies called vibrational
called vibrational energy
energy translational
translational (movement)
(movement) translational and
translational and
energy
energy rotational energies
rotational energies
44 Brownian
Brownian Motion
Motion Random,
Random, zigzag
zigzag motion
motion of
of particles
particles
55 Pressure,
Pressure, pp ℎ Unit
Unit is
is pascal
pascal (Pa)
(Pa)
= ℎ
=
66 Pressure
Pressure due
due to
to liquid
liquid =
= ×
× ×ℎ
× ℎ ρ
ρ is
is density,
density, gg is
is gravity
gravity
and h is depth
and h is depth
77 Kinetic
Kinetic energy
energy of of the
the proportional
proportional to
to the
the thermal
thermal energy
energy of
of aa substance
substance
particles of
particles of aa substance
substance
88 Potential
Potential energy
energy ofof the
the Due
Due to
to electrostatic
electrostatic force
force between
between particles
particles of
of aa substance
substance
particles of a substance
particles of a substance
99 Types
Types of
of solids
solids (based
(based Crystalline
Crystalline solids:
solids: Non-crystalline
Non-crystalline or
or amorphous
amorphous
on
on the arrangement of
the arrangement of Atoms
Atoms or molecules
or molecules are
are arranged
arranged in
in solids:
solids:
atoms or
atoms or molecules)
molecules) regular three
regular three dimensional
dimensional pattern
pattern Atoms or
Atoms or molecules
molecules are
are not
not
arranged in regular pattern
arranged in regular pattern

Polymer
Polymer solids
solids are
are either
either crystalline
crystalline polymer
polymer if
if the
the molecules
molecules areare arranged
arranged inin
some form
some form of of regular
regular pattern
pattern oror amorphous
amorphous polymer
polymer if if there
there is
is no
no particular
particular
systematic arrangement
systematic arrangement
10
10 Hooke’s
Hooke’s Law
Law The
The extension of a spring Δx is directly proportional
extension of a spring Δx is directly proportional toto the
the force
force applied
applied FFapp
app
provide the elastic limit is not
provide the elastic limit is not reached reached
=
= or
or
= −
= −
kk is
is the
the spring
spring constant
constant andand F Fss is
is the
the restoring
restoring force
force of
of spring
spring
11
11 Elastic
Elastic limit
limit Gradient
Gradient or slope of the graph between force F (y-axis) and
or slope of the graph between force F (y-axis) and extension
extension xx (x-
(x-
axis) is
axis) is the
the elastic
elastic limit
limit of
of aa spring
spring
12 Stress
12 Stress σσ (unit
(unit pascal)
pascal) F is
F is the
the force
force applied
applied and
and AA is
is the
the
=
= area of cross-section perpendicular
area of cross-section perpendicular
to
to the
the force
force
13
13 Strain
Strain εε (no
(no unit)
unit) xx is
is the
the change
change in
in length
length and
and LL is
is
=
= the original
original length
length
the
14 Young
14 modulus E
Young modulus E × ratio of
ratio of stress
stress over
over strain
strain
×
(unit is
(unit is pascal)
pascal) =
= =
= =
= ×
×
15
15 Young
Young modulus
modulus E
E Gradient
Gradient or slope of the graph between
or slope of the graph between stress
stress (y-axis)
(y-axis) and
and strain
strain (x-axis)
(x-axis)
is the Young modulus of a
is the Young modulus of a springspring
16 Elastic
16 Elastic Hysteresis
Hysteresis loop
loop The difference
The difference between
between the the areas
areas covered
covered byby force-
force- extension
extension during
during the
the
expansion to when it is returning back to its original shape is
expansion to when it is returning back to its original shape is called elasticcalled elastic
hysteresis
hysteresis loop.
loop. The
The area
area under
under this
this loop
loop is
is the
the energy
energy dissipated
dissipated byby change
change inin
length for example rubber it is used as vibration
length for example rubber it is used as vibration absorber. absorber.
17 Strain
17 Strain energy
energy 1
1 1
1 It is
It is the
the energy
energy stored
stored in
in an
an object
object
=
= 2 =
= 2 due to change of shape or size.
2 2 due to change of shape or size.
The
The area
area under
under force-extension
force-extension
graph
graph is strain energy
is strain energy

Important
Important Equations
Equations for
for AS
AS Physics
Physics -- 9702
9702 Prepared
Prepared by
by Faisal
Faisal Jaffer,
Jaffer, Nov
Nov 2011
2011

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Important equation Mahabub Sir | 01912-834020
18 Strain energy per unit 1 The area under the stress-strain
18 Strain
volumeenergy per unit =1× × The
grapharea under strain
is called the stress-strain
energy per
volume = 2× × graph is called
unit volume. Thestrain energy
unit of peris
energy
1 2
=1× × unit volume.
joules (J). The unit of energy is
= 2× × joules (J).
2
19 Ductile and brittle Ductile: Brittle:
19 Ductile
materialand brittle → drawn into wireDuctile:
without breaking → cannot drawn Brittle:
into wire
material →
→ drawn into wire
small elastic without
region and breaking
large ductile →
→ cannot
small ordrawn
largeinto wireregion
elastic
→
→ small elastic
eg copper region and large ductile
wire →
butsmall
smallor large region,
ductile elastic region
eg glass
→ eg copper wire but small ductile region, eg glass

Unit 4: Nuclear physics (topic 27 from the syllabus)

Unit 4: Nuclear physics (topic 27 from the syllabus)
1 Elementary particles Proton: Electron: Neutron:
1 Elementary
of an atom particles Proton:
Positive charge, Electron:
negative charge, Neutron:
no charge,
of an atom Positive
inside thecharge,
nucleus, negative
revolve aroundcharge,
the nucleus, no the
inside charge,
nucleus,
inside
same the as
mass nucleus,
neutron revolve mass isaround
1/1836theof nucleus,
proton insidemass
same the nucleus,
as proton
2 Nucleon no ‘A’ samecalled
also mass mass
as neutron
number ormass is 1/1836
atomic weight,ofit proton
is sum of protonssame mass as proton
and neutrons
23 Nucleon
Proton no no‘Z’
‘A’ also
also called
called mass
atomic number
number, or total
atomic weight,
number of itprotons
is sum of protons and neutrons
34 Proton no ‘Z’
Alpha particles also called
Helium nucleusatomic number, total number of protons
4 Alpha particles
α-particles Helium
Stoppednucleus
by paper or
α-particles Stopped by paper potential
Highest ionization or
Highest ionization potential
5 Beta-particles Fast moving electrons
5 Beta-particles
β-particles Fast moving
Stopped electrons
by aluminum or
β-particles Stopped by aluminum
Less ionization potential or
Less ionization potential
6 Gamma-particles Electromagnetic radiation
6 Gamma-particles
γ-particles Electromagnetic
Only stopped by thick radiation
a sheet of lead
γ-particles Only stopped by thick
Least ionization potential a sheet of lead
7 Alpha decay Least ionization potential Parent nuclei X emit two protons and two
7 Alpha decay ⇒ + + Parent nuclei X emit twoparticle
protons and two
⇒ + + neutrons to make alpha
8 Beta decay neutrons to make alpha particle
In parent nuclei X one of the neutrons
8 Beta decay ⇒ + + In parentinto
changes nuclei X oneand
neutron of the neutrons
electron. The
⇒ + + changes into neutron
electron emits as beta and electron. The
9 Gamma decay electron
Gamma decay emits as betasimple loss of energy
is the
9 Gamma decay ⇒ Gamma
from thedecay is the simple loss of energy
+
⇒ + nucleus
10 Radioactivity is a from the nucleus
Does not depend upon the environmental factors eg atm. Pressure,
10 Radioactivity is a
spontaneous process Does not depend
temperature, upon the
humidity, environmental
brightness etc factors eg atm. Pressure,
spontaneous process
11 Radioactivity is a temperature, humidity, brightness etc
All the nuclei have equal probability of decay at any time, cannot predict
11 Radioactivity
random process is a All the nucleus
which nuclei have
will equal probability of decay at any time, cannot predict
emit radiation.
12 random
Half-lifeprocess which
Time innucleus
which will emit radiation.
the activity or mass of a radioactive substance becomes half
12 Half-life
13 Atomic symbol Time in which the activity or mass of a radioactive A issubstance
the total becomes half and
no of protons
13 Atomic symbol A is the
neutrons total no of protons and
neutrons
Z is the total no of protons
Examples: , , Z is the total no of protons
Examples: , ,
14 Isotopes Elements having atoms of same number of Eg , or , , or
14 Isotopes Elements
protons but having atoms
different of same
number of number
neutronsof Eg , or , , or
protons but different number of neutrons , ,
, ,

Important Equations for AS Physics - 9702 Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, Nov 2011
Important Equations for AS Physics - 9702 Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, Nov 2011

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Unit 5: Waves (topic 15 and 16 from the syllabus)

1 Wave equation 1 = × v is the speed of wave in ms-1

f is the frequency in Hz
λ is the wavelength in metre
2 Wave equation 2 1 T is the time period of wave in
= second
3 Movement of the particles Longitudinal waves=> back and forth same direction as waves
of the medium Transverse waves=> perpendicular to the direction of waves
4 Wavelength ′ ′ Distance between two crests or two troughs, unit metre (m)
5 Frequency ‘f’ Total number of waves in one second, unit hertz (Hz)
6 Time period ‘T’ Time taken for one complete wave, unit second (s)
7 Speed of wave motion ‘v’ Distance move by crest in direction of wave in 1second, unit ms-1
8 Displacement of particle Distance move by a particle from its mean position in either
‘s’ direction, unit metre (m)
9 Amplitude ‘a’ The maximum distance move by the particle, unit metre (m)
10 Wave fronts Representation of crests of a wave by straight line perpendicular
to the direction of wave. Distance between two wave fronts is
wavelength.
11 Progressive wave Continuous waves created by a source
12 Phase difference When the crests and troughs of two waves do not overlap each
other then two waves have phase difference
13 Coherent waves Two waves of same properties and originate from same source
14 Intensity of a wave ‘ I’ P the amount of wave energy
= per second at particular point
Unit of intensity is Wm-2 falling on surface area A
15 Intensity of a wave ‘I’ Intensity of wave is directly proportional to the amplitude square
⋉
16 Compression region When particles of a medium come close to each other
17 Rarefaction region Where particles of a medium move further apart from each other
18 Diffraction When waves pass through a narrow gap, they spread out.
19 Interference of light waves Constructive interference: Destructive interference:
When the crests-crests and When crests-troughs of two
troughs-troughs of two waves waves overlap each other,
overlap each other, amplitudes amplitudes cancel each other
become added
20 Young double slit For bright fringes: For dark fringes:
experiment ( + 1)
= =
a is the distance between the two slits, D is the distance between
slits and the screen, λ is the wavelength of light, n is the order of
bright or dark fringe counting from the first bright fringe at the
centre, x is the distance of nth fringe from the centre
21 Diffraction grating d is the gap between two grating lines, θ
is the angle of the order of maxima, n is
=
the order of a maxima and λ is the
wavelength
22 Polarized light When the electric and magnetic field of light waves oscillates
only in one dimensions, this process of transforming un-polarized
light into polarized light is called polarization.
23 Standing or stationary A wave results when two waves which are traveling in opposite
waves direction, and which have the same speed and frequency and
approx. equal amplitudes, are superimposed (overlapped)

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24 Stationary waves in a Fundamental mode First overtone or Second overtone or

string of length ‘L’ and or first harmonic: second harmonic: third harmonic:
speed of wave is ‘v’ = or = = or = = or =
(one loop) (two loops) (three loops)
25 Stationary waves in a For nth harmonic frequency:
string of length ‘L’ = where n= 1, 2, 3,....
26 Stationary wave in an air Fundamental mode First overtone or Second overtone or
column one end open one or first harmonic: second harmonic: third harmonic:
end close = or = = or = = or =
(½ loop) (1 ½ loops) (1 ½ loops)
For nth harmonic frequency:
( )
= where n=1,2,3.
27 Speed of light In air: 3×108m/s In glass: 2×108m/s In water: 2.25×108m/s
28 Electromagnetic Spectrum:→ this way the frequency decreases and wavelength increases
Gamma rays ↔ X-rays ↔ UV ↔ Visible light ↔ IR ↔ Micro waves ↔ Radio waves
29

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