What is the psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior in humans and non-
humans. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena,
including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope,
crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences.

What is biological foundation of behavior? (Write in short form)

Explain Gestalt’s law of perceptual organization.

Explain Gestalt’s law of perceptual organization.

Developed by German psychologists, the Gestalt principles, also known as

the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization, describe how we interpret the

complex world around us. They explain why a series of flashing lights appear
to be moving and why we can read a sentence like this: notli ket his ort hat.

These are just a few real-life examples of the six Gestalt principles or laws,
which are:

1. Law of similarity
2. Law of prägnanz
3. Law of proximity
4. Law of continuity
5. Law of closure
6. Law of common region
History of the Gestalt Principles
Have you noticed how alternately flashing lights, such as neon signs or
strands of lights, can look like a single light that is moving back and forth?
This optical illusion is known as the phi phenomenon. Discovered by German
psychologist Max Wertheimer, this illusion of movement became a basis for
Gestalt psychology.1

According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens because

our minds fill in missing information. Motion pictures are based on this
principle, with a series of still images appearing in rapid succession to form a
seamless visual experience.

Gestalt psychology focuses on how our minds organize and interpret visual
data.2 It emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts.

Based upon this belief, Wertheimer along with Gestalt psychologists

Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, developed a set of rules to explain how we
group smaller objects to form larger ones (perceptual organization). They
called these rules the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization.
It's important to note that while Gestalt psychologists call these phenomena
"laws," a more accurate term would be "principles." Gestalt principles are
much like heuristics, which are mental shortcuts for solving problems.

Law of Similarity
The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear grouped
together. Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory stimuli.

In the image at the top of this page, for example, you probably see two
separate groupings of colored circles as rows rather than just a collection of
dots.

Law of Prägnanz
The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or
the law of simplicity. This law holds that when you're presented with a set of
ambiguous or complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple
as possible.3 For example, when presented with the Olympic logo, you see
overlapping circles rather than an assortment of curved, connected lines.

The word prägnanz is a German term meaning "good figure."

Law of Proximity
According to the law of proximity, things that are close together seem more
related than things that are spaced farther apart.4

In the image at the top of the page, the circles on the left appear to be part
of one grouping while those on the right appear to be part of another.
Because the objects are close to each other, we group them together.

Law of Continuity
The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight or
curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. In other
words, elements in a line or curve seem more related to one another than
those positioned randomly.
Law of Closure
According to the law of closure, we perceive elements as belonging to the
same group if they seem to complete some entity.1 Our brains often ignore
contradictory information and fill in gaps in information.

In the image at the top of the page, you probably see the shape of a
diamond because your brain fills in the missing gaps in order to create a
meaningful image.

Law of Common Region

The Gestalt law of common region says that when elements are located in
the same closed region, we perceive them as belonging to the same group. 1

Look at the last image at the top of the page. The circles are right next to
each other so that the dot at the end of one circle is actually closer to the
dot at the end of the neighboring circle. But despite how close those two
dots are, we see the dots inside the circles as belonging together.

Creating a clearly defined boundary can overpower other Gestalt laws such
as the law of proximity.
Explain with example Latent learning.

What is Latent Learning?

Latent learning is the process of subconsciously retaining
information without motivation or reinforcement. You aren’t
consciously thinking about the consequences of what you are
learning while you are learning it. Just because there is no cheese
at the end of the maze doesn’t mean we aren’t learning our way
around.

When we read about studies in psychology, learning, and behavior, we

read a lot about rewards and punishments. Most of these rewards
involve food. And for years, psychologists believed that learning was
only done through a series of reinforcements.
But that’s not exactly how the world works. Our learning is not always
reinforced. We may observe or engage in a skill without any tests to take
later or punishments to fear. And the fact that you have learned these
things isn’t apparent until much later, when you are asked to apply the
information in order to get a reward.

Latent learning offers an explanation for retaining information that was

never enforced by teachers, authority figures, or yourself!

How Does Latent Learning Take

Place?
During latent learning, information takes place subconsciously. For
example, you may watch the TV show Survivor as you wind down from a
long day. You have no intention of using survival skills. The show is just
interesting and you like watching it with friends. If you were to try and
learn from it, you’d likely watch with a notebook in hand. Instead, you
just turn it on, eat some popcorn, and enjoy the show.

You may be surprised, after watching a few seasons of Survivor, that

you actually have survival skills. Maybe, a few years after watching the
show, you go on a hike and accidentally get lost. You have to set up
camp for the night and light a fire. As you search for materials to start the
fire, information from years of watching Survivor comes back to you.
Even though you have never taken a survival course or thought too
much about learning how to build a fire, your latent learning pays off and
you can successfully light the fire and keep it going.

Not all latent learning is kismet. You might not learn life-saving skills or
anything that is particularly useful for many years until after you learn it.
That doesn’t mean that the time you spent learning new information or
skills is wasted, though!
Is Latent Learning Operant Conditioning or
Classical Conditioning?
Neither! Conditioning requires rewards and punishments for the behavior
to stick. There is no such thing as latent conditioning; only latent learning
that involves no reinforcements.

Difference between Insight and Latent

Learning
There are many forms of learning that lead to solving problems or
performing behaviors. Often, latent learning is confused with another
form of learning – insight learning. But these two processes are slightly
different.

Insight learning occurs when you’ve faced a problem, taken a pause,

and then suddenly put together memories and information that will help
you solve the problem. Many people refer to this as an “a-ha” moment.
Maybe you are facing a conflict at work and don’t know the best solution
that will make all your team members happy. You’ve read plenty of
books and have tons of experience with conflicts like this, but the right
answer just isn’t coming to you. So you take a walk around the block,
make a cup of coffee, and let your mind think about other things.

All of a sudden, the answer comes to you! You realize that by piecing
together a few different strategies that you’ve learned, you can solve the
problem. This is insight learning.

Latent learning may also “catch you by surprise,” but the answers that
come to you may be information that you didn’t even know you retained!

Who Introduced The Idea of Latent

Learning?
Almost five decades after Pavlov used dogs to support his theories
on classical conditioning, Edward Tolman used rats to support his
theories on latent learning. Tolman did not discover latent learning, but
his experiment brought the idea into mainstream psychology.

Tolman’s Rats
Tolman recruited three groups of rats for this study. The first group of
rats was placed in a maze for 17 days. When the rats completed the
maze, they would receive food as a reward. The second group of rats
was placed in a maze for 17 days too, but they didn’t get any rewards for
completing the maze. The third group of rats was placed in the maze for
10 days without any food. On the 11th day, the rats began to receive
food for completing the maze. They were also left in the maze for 17
days.

It’s no surprise that the first group of rats got to know the maze pretty
darn well. It may also not be a surprise that the second group of rats just
kind of wandered around without any particular aims to get to the end of
the maze.

The third group’s results, however, were very surprising. Once the third
group started receiving rewards for getting to the end of the maze, they
started displaying more knowledge of the maze than even the first group.
They took fewer wrong turns by the end of the 17 days than any other
group.

What Does This Say About Latent Learning?

This shows that the rats had retained at least some of the information
about the maze before they started getting rewarded for their learning. If
we only learned things when motivated by rewards, the rats who
received rewards later might not have been able to learn the maze as
fast as the first group in the remaining 7 days of the study.
So what was happening? In the first 10 days, even though they were not
asked to display their knowledge, the rats in the third group had been
making “cognitive maps” of the maze. The rats didn’t even display their
learning on their own – until they were asked. Once they were motivated
to display their knowledge, they pulled from what they had learned in the
first 10 days.

This is latent learning in action.

Examples of Latent Learning In Everyday Life

Observational
Latent learning can be done in many ways. Let’s say you observe your
parents time and time again as they tended to their garden. You’re never
given this task, but years later find yourself joining a community garden.
You pick up your gloves and start weeding and tending to the garden as
your parents did.

This is an example of both observational learning and latent learning.

You observed someone else’s actions and retained the information even
though you were never asked to display your knowledge of working in a
garden.

But latent learning isn’t just observational.

Examples of latent learning

You may use latent learning in all areas of life.
At home

Putting away cleaning supplies in your new home you realize the water valve
is in the way. Months later when a pipe breaks, you know the water valve is in
the closet where the cleaning supplies are kept.

At work

Working in a multi-level office, the conference rooms are on the second floor.
You always take the elevators but today, they’re not working. You take the
stairs to the right of the hall because you know they lead to the room you need
to go to.

At school

During science class, you sit next to a wooden shelf full of textbooks. When
your personal book gets damaged later in the year, you immediately check the
shelf where you know there’s a row of science textbooks.

Latent Learning Examples

 Becoming our parents: A teenager observes their loving
mother instructing him to clean his room. A few decades later,
when he has a child of his own, he repeats those same
instructions to his child.
 Stepping up in your role: One employee is a diligent but quiet
worker for many years. Later, when promoted to a leadership
position, all of a sudden, they display the same charisma they
had observed from their previous supervisor.
Turning on the charm: A high-school teenager isn’t much
interested in history. Then, when trying to impress a girl, he is
surprised at how much he knows about the Industrial Revolution
and American Civil War. What is Latent Learning?
Latent learning is the process of subconsciously retaining
information without motivation or reinforcement. You aren’t
consciously thinking about the consequences of what you are
learning while you are learning it. Just because there is no cheese
at the end of the maze doesn’t mean we aren’t learning our way
around.

When we read about studies in psychology, learning, and behavior, we

read a lot about rewards and punishments. Most of these rewards
involve food. And for years, psychologists believed that learning was
only done through a series of reinforcements.

But that’s not exactly how the world works. Our learning is not always
reinforced. We may observe or engage in a skill without any tests to take
later or punishments to fear. And the fact that you have learned these
things isn’t apparent until much later, when you are asked to apply the
information in order to get a reward.

Latent learning offers an explanation for retaining information that was

never enforced by teachers, authority figures, or yourself!

How Does Latent Learning Take

Place?
During latent learning, information takes place subconsciously. For
example, you may watch the TV show Survivor as you wind down from a
long day. You have no intention of using survival skills. The show is just
interesting and you like watching it with friends. If you were to try and
learn from it, you’d likely watch with a notebook in hand. Instead, you
just turn it on, eat some popcorn, and enjoy the show.
You may be surprised, after watching a few seasons of Survivor, that
you actually have survival skills. Maybe, a few years after watching the
show, you go on a hike and accidentally get lost. You have to set up
camp for the night and light a fire. As you search for materials to start the
fire, information from years of watching Survivor comes back to you.
Even though you have never taken a survival course or thought too
much about learning how to build a fire, your latent learning pays off and
you can successfully light the fire and keep it going.

Not all latent learning is kismet. You might not learn life-saving skills or
anything that is particularly useful for many years until after you learn it.
That doesn’t mean that the time you spent learning new information or
skills is wasted, though!

Is Latent Learning Operant Conditioning or

Classical Conditioning?
Neither! Conditioning requires rewards and punishments for the behavior
to stick. There is no such thing as latent conditioning; only latent learning
that involves no reinforcements.

Difference Between Insight and Latent

Learning
There are many forms of learning that lead to solving problems or
performing behaviors. Often, latent learning is confused with another
form of learning – insight learning. But these two processes are slightly
different.

Insight learning occurs when you’ve faced a problem, taken a pause,

and then suddenly put together memories and information that will help
you solve the problem. Many people refer to this as an “a-ha” moment.
Maybe you are facing a conflict at work and don’t know the best solution
that will make all your team members happy. You’ve read plenty of
books and have tons of experience with conflicts like this, but the right
answer just isn’t coming to you. So you take a walk around the block,
make a cup of coffee, and let your mind think about other things.

All of a sudden, the answer comes to you! You realize that by piecing
together a few different strategies that you’ve learned, you can solve the
problem. This is insight learning.

Latent learning may also “catch you by surprise,” but the answers that
come to you may be information that you didn’t even know you retained!

Who Introduced The Idea of Latent

Learning?
Almost five decades after Pavlov used dogs to support his theories
on classical conditioning, Edward Tolman used rats to support his
theories on latent learning. Tolman did not discover latent learning, but
his experiment brought the idea into mainstream psychology.

Tolman’s Rats
Tolman recruited three groups of rats for this study. The first group of
rats was placed in a maze for 17 days. When the rats completed the
maze, they would receive food as a reward. The second group of rats
was placed in a maze for 17 days too, but they didn’t get any rewards for
completing the maze. The third group of rats was placed in the maze for
10 days without any food. On the 11th day, the rats began to receive
food for completing the maze. They were also left in the maze for 17
days.

It’s no surprise that the first group of rats got to know the maze pretty
darn well. It may also not be a surprise that the second group of rats just
kind of wandered around without any particular aims to get to the end of
the maze.
The third group’s results, however, were very surprising. Once the third
group started receiving rewards for getting to the end of the maze, they
started displaying more knowledge of the maze than even the first group.
They took fewer wrong turns by the end of the 17 days than any other
group.

What Does This Say About Latent Learning?

This shows that the rats had retained at least some of the information
about the maze before they started getting rewarded for their learning. If
we only learned things when motivated by rewards, the rats who
received rewards later might not have been able to learn the maze as
fast as the first group in the remaining 7 days of the study.

So what was happening? In the first 10 days, even though they were not
asked to display their knowledge, the rats in the third group had been
making “cognitive maps” of the maze. The rats didn’t even display their
learning on their own – until they were asked. Once they were motivated
to display their knowledge, they pulled from what they had learned in the
first 10 days.

This is latent learning in action.

Examples of Latent Learning In Everyday Life

Observational
Latent learning can be done in many ways. Let’s say you observe your
parents time and time again as they tended to their garden. You’re never
given this task, but years later find yourself joining a community garden.
You pick up your gloves and start weeding and tending to the garden as
your parents did.

This is an example of both observational learning and latent learning.

You observed someone else’s actions and retained the information even
though you were never asked to display your knowledge of working in a
garden.

But latent learning isn’t just observational.

Examples of latent learning

You may use latent learning in all areas of life.

At home

Putting away cleaning supplies in your new home you realize the water valve
is in the way. Months later when a pipe breaks, you know the water valve is in
the closet where the cleaning supplies are kept.

At work

Working in a multi-level office, the conference rooms are on the second floor.
You always take the elevators but today, they’re not working. You take the
stairs to the right of the hall because you know they lead to the room you need
to go to.

At school

During science class, you sit next to a wooden shelf full of textbooks. When
your personal book gets damaged later in the year, you immediately check the
shelf where you know there’s a row of science textbooks.

Latent Learning Examples

 Becoming our parents: A teenager observes their loving

mother instructing him to clean his room. A few decades later,
when he has a child of his own, he repeats those same
instructions to his child.
 Stepping up in your role: One employee is a diligent but quiet
worker for many years. Later, when promoted to a leadership
position, all of a sudden, they display the same charisma they
had observed from their previous supervisor.
Turning on the charm: A high-school teenager isn’t much interested
in history. Then, when trying to impress a girl, he is surprised at how
much he knows about the Industrial Revolution and American Civil
War.
(a) Define the following terms:

(i) (i) Sensation,Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to

specific types of stimuli. When sensory information is detected by a
sensory receptor, sensation has occurred. For example, light that
enters the eye causes chemical changes in cells that line the back of the
eye.
(ii) (ii) Perception, Perception refers to the way sensory information is
organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception
involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up
processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory
input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is
influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our
thoughts. This is called top-down processing
(iii) (iii) Absolute threshold Absolute threshold: Absolute threshold refers to
the minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the
stimulus to be detected 50% of the time. Another way to think about this
is by asking how dim can a light be or how soft can a sound be and still
be detected half of the time.

Eg :. It has been estimated that on a clear night, the most sensitive sensory cells
in the back of the eye can detect a candle flame 30 miles away Under quiet
conditions, the hair cells (the receptor cells of the inner ear) can detect the tick
of a clock 20 feet away

Enlist various sub-fields of psychology.( Done)

Define learning.Learning is a process based on experience that results in a relatively consistent
change in behavior or behavior potential.

learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that

results from experience. In contrast to the innate behaviors discussed above,
learning involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience
learning are a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that
results from experience. In contrast to the innate behaviors discussed above,
learning involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience

Describe the basics of classical conditioning and how they relate to learning.

Classical conditioning is a learning paradigm from behavioral point of view.

Consider any stimulus (S1) capable of eliciting a natural response (R1). Imagine
any other neutral stimulus (S2) that does not elicit this particular response. Suppose
within the experimental situation, these two stimuli (S1 and S2) are consistently
presented together.

After a few exposures of S1 and S2 together, the natural response to the first
stimulus (R1) would occur in the presence of the second stimulus (S2) also, even if
the first stimulus (S1) is absent. Thus after conditioning, the second stimulus,
originally incapable of eliciting the specific response, becomes capable of doing
the same.

The term classical conditioning is define as learning by association, whereby a

neutral stimulus, by virtue of its occurrence in close time and space with a natural
stimulus that gives rise to a natural response, becomes capable of eliciting that
natural response, even in absence of the natural stimulus.

Classical conditioning is applicable only for reflexive and spontaneous responses,

and not for voluntary responses. Classical conditioning is a learning paradigm from
behavioral point of view. Classical conditioning is applicable only for reflexive
and spontaneous responses, and not for voluntary responses.

Explain the basics of operant conditioning of learning.

Explain Thematic Apperception Test of personality.

The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective measure
intended to evaluate a person’s patterns of thought, attitudes, observational
capacity, and emotional responses to ambiguous test materials. In the case of the
TAT, the ambiguous materials consist of a set of cards that portray human figures
in a variety of settings and situations. The subject is asked to tell the examiner a
story about each card that includes the following elements: the event shown in the
picture; what has led up to it; what the characters in the picture are feeling and
thinking; and the outcome of the event.

Because the TAT is an example of a projective instrument—that is, it asks the

subject to project his or her habitual patterns of thought and emotional responses
onto the pictures on the cards—many psychologists prefer not to call it a “test,”
because it implies that there are “right” and “wrong” answers to the questions.
They consider the term “technique” to be a more accurate description of the TAT
and other projective assessments.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The test is based on Murray’s Need theory,
and is developed by Morgan & Murray(1935).

TAT consists of 30 black and white picture cards (four overlapping sets of nineteen
cards, each for boys, girls, men, and women) depicting people in ambiguous
situations, plus one blank card. The usual procedure for administering the TAT
begins by asking the examinee to tell a complete story about each of the 10 or so
picture cards selected as appropriate for his or her age or sex.

The examinees asked to devote approximately 5 minutes to each story, telling what
is going on now, what thoughts and feelings the people in the story have, what
events have led up to the situation, and how it will turn out rom stories such as this,
a skilled examiner obtains information about the dominant needs, emotions,
sentiments, complexes, and conflicts of the story teller and the pressures to which
he/she is subjected.

As revealed by this story, responses to TAT pictures can be especially useful in

understanding the relationships and difficulties between a person and his or her
parents. When interpreting TAT stories, it is assumed that respondents project their
own needs, desires and conflicts into the stories and characters. Interpretation of
the stories is a fairly subjective, impressionistic process centering on an analysis of
the needs and personality of the main character (hero/heroin), who presumably
represents the examinee, and the environmental forces (press) impinging on the
main character.

The frequency, intensity and the duration of the story are all taken into the account
in the interpretation.

The following TAT responses are considered indicative of mental disorders of

various kinds:

• Slowness or delays in responding may indicate depression; 65 Other Measures of

Personality

• Stories by men that involved negative comments about women or affection for
other man may point to homosexuality;

• Over cautiousness and preoccupation with details are suggestive of obsessive

compulsive disorder.

Although the usual methods of scoring and interpreting TAT stories are highly
impressionistic, scores determine by one of the more systematic procedures are
fairly reliable and can be interpreted in terms of norms based on standardization
studies

Asking a person to tell stories about pictures would also seemed to have
potentially greater validity than asking for responses for ink blots. The content of
TAT stories is influenced by the particular environmental context, in which the test
is taken, and the test does not always differentiate between normal and mentally
disordered person

The TAT has been used with a range of ethnic and chronological age groups, and
various modifications have been constructed for Blacks, children, and older adults.

Discuss about self-actualization.

Explain about difference threshold of sensory stimuli with Weber’s Law.

Have you ever blown a dog whistle and watched pets respond to a sound you cannot hear? You are
simply amazed by their power of sensation. The fact is that the some stimuli that people simply are not
capable of perceiving. And, of course, some people are better re are able to pick up sensory information
than are others. The science that ow the physical environment is integrated into our personal, subjective
at what we are capable of responding to, this knowledge can be translated into . The absolute threshold
is an uli. A billboard might have the n would not be seen together. A consumer's ability to detect a n
nineteenth century, a p found that the amount of change that is be e focuses on h world is known as
`psychophysics'. By understanding some of the physical laws th govern ' marketing strategies.
Thresholds work at the following levels. 4.5.1 The Absolute Threshold When we define the lowest
intensity of a stimulus that can be registered on a sensory channel, we speak of a threshold for that
receptor. The absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected on
a sensory channel. The sound emitted by a dog whiltel is too high to be detected by human ears, so this
stimulus is beyond our auditory absolute threshold important consideration in designing marketing stim
most entertaining copy ever written, but this genius is wasted if the print is too small for passing
motorists to see it from the highway. 4.5.2 The Differential Threshold The differential threshold refers to
the ability of a sensory system to detect changes or difference between two stimuli. A television
commercial that is intentionally produced in black-and-white, might be noticed on a colour television
because this decrease in the intensity of colour differs from the program that preceded it. The same
commercial being watched on a black-and-white televisio as different and might be ignored al difference
between two stimuli is relative. A whispered conversation that might be unintelligible on a noisy street
can suddenly become public and embarrassing knowledge in a quiet library. It is the relative difference
between the decibel level of the conversation and its surroundings, rather than the loudness of the
conversatio itself, that determines whether the stimulus will register. 4.5.3 The JND and Weber's Law
The minimum change in a stimulus that can be detected is also known as the JND, which stands for just
noticeable difference. hi the psycho hysicist named Ernest Weber necessary to be noticed is
systematically related to the original intensity of the stimulus. The stronger the initial stimulus, the
greater the change must be for it to noticed. This relationship is known as Weber's Law. Many
companies choose to update their packages periodically, making small changes that will not necessarily
be noticed at the time. When a product icon is updated, the manufacturer does not want people to lose
their identification with a familiar symbol. On the other hand whenever product improvements are
made marketers would like them to be above th level of JND so that they are noticed and responded to.

Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-87), the founder of psychophysics, attempted to measure j.n.d. with a
view to achieving a higher goal that is, formulation of a law relating stimulus intensity to sensory
magnitude. Fechner was of the view that such a law could be built upon an empirical generalisation first
proposed by E.H. Weber (1795-1878), a German physiologist, in the year 1834. Weber gave the
observation that the size of the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the standard
stimulus. This ratio is constant. The size of the difference threshold, a constant ratio of the standard
stimulus, is often referred to as Weber Fraction. This example will make this law more clear. Suppose
that you can just tell the difference between 100 and 104 grams then you will be ableto just distinguish
between 200 and 208 grams, 400 and 416 grams and so forth. Fechner labelled it as Weber’s law which
is algebraically put as DI/I = C Where DI is the increment in stimulus intensity (i.e. the j.n.d.) I is the
stimulus intensity (the standard stimulus) C is constant Many studies were conducted in the past to
see whether Weber’s law holds for all of the sensory modalities. It was verified in most of the cases
except a few where the nervous system geared to notice relative differences rather than absolute ones.
This law allows us to compare the sensitivities of different sensory modalities. Suppose you want to
know, whether eye is more sensitive than the ear. This can be seen using Weber’s law. If Weber’s ratio is
small, the discriminative power of the sense modality is great and vice-versa. This law helps in
understanding the salient features of different sense modalities. It has been found out, using this law,
that humans are keen in discriminating brightness than loudness, the Weber’s fraction being 1/62 and
1/11 respectively.

Broadly define Intelligence.

Intelligence involves a number of abilities together. It is the ability to understand

the incoming information and make sense out of it. It is the ability to acquire new
skills and use the existing knowledge to complete a task or deal with a situation.
Intelligence includes the capacity to understand novel stimuli, learning language
and communicate with others, being aware of the environment, have the ability to
reason, plan, and solve the problems creatively. “Intelligence is the aggregate or
global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
effectively with his environment.” Intelligence is as adaptive potentiality of a
person in different domains of life. It is not limited to cognitive domain only. This
adaptive potentiality consists of a range of skills that help one to overcome the life
problems, to grow and become what one wants to be

What is role of social network in human behavior?

Social media is an important tool put into the hands of an ordinary person. He or she can express
views without going to conventional means of mass communication like TV, radio, etc. Of all
the creatures, only human beings have the faculty of expressing themselves through language,
written or spoken. It is for this purpose; freedom of speech is the most basic rights protected in
all democratic setup. But at the same time, it should not eat away other rights through the spread
of misinformation. A coordinated regulation is necessary so that it is put to good use, not the bad.
Whether social media is a boon or a bane entirely depends on how we use it.
PROS OF SOCIAL MEDIA
1. MAKES IT EASIER TO MAKE FRIENDS- One of the biggest positives of social media is
that it has never been easier to make friends. Just a few decades ago it was pretty tough to
connect with people, unless you were the overly outgoing type able to make conversation with
anyone and everyone at a party. The rise of smartphones helped change this, connecting people
in a new way, but then social networks sprang up and the whole idea of friendship changed
again. And there's no going back. It's entirely possible to have hundreds of friends on Facebook.
They may not be friends you spend time with in the real world, but they're friends nonetheless.
There are several people I consider friends who I have never met in real life, but that doesn't
lessen the connection we have thanks to our interactions on social media.
2. ALLOWS FOR SPEEDY COMMUNICATION- Writing a Tweet takes all of 20 seconds,
and with cross-posting to other social networks switched on, that update can reach everyone you
want it to reach (and probably more besides) in an instant. One of the reasons many people
dislike making phone calls is the unnecessary banter they necessitate. You can't just say what
you want to say and then hang up. Because doing so is seen as rude. Instead, you have to swap
pleasantries before saying what you want to say, and then swap more pleasantries before the
conversation comes to a natural conclusion.
3. MAKES THE WORLD SEEM SMALLER- It isn't just your inner circle of close friends
and even closer family members that social networking sites allow you to communicate with
easily and effectively. One of the good things about social media is its power to open the world
up to you, making it a smaller place than it has ever been before. So much so that I actually
haven't a clue where many of my contacts reside. When it comes to social media, everyone is
equal, regardless of location .Family members living abroad can be kept abreast of the latest
happenings in your world as quickly as those living next door. Friends you haven't seen since
school, and who have since moved away, are able to keep in touch. Social networking sites mean
someone's physical location has become a lot less important.
4. HELPS YOU BUILD RELATIONSHIPS- There is no doubting that having social
networking in our lives can lead to relationships breaking up. But there is another side to the
story, which is that people are moving onto other, perhaps better, relationships. Social networks
can put you (back) in touch with people who you have lots in common with, and that common
ground is often the starting point for long-lasting relationships.
5. HELPS YOU FIND COMMON GROUND- social networking sites can help you find
people you share interests with. Facebook, for example, asks you to list who and what you are
interested in right from the start. This makes it much easier to find common ground with other
user. On Twitter you should be following those who have something to say that you're interested
in, making connections with like-minded individuals much easier than you would offline. This
does require the sharing of information and giving up a certain amount of privacy. Which is
enough for some people to reject social networking outright? Keeping key personal information
private is necessary, but sharing your likes and dislikes and interests and obsessions can actually
contribute to an open society.
CONS OF SOCIAL MEDIA
1.DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY– Social media lets you see the selected parts of everyone
lives, which then compare to the negatives in your own life. Comparing yourself to other people
is a path to anxiety and unhappiness. Spending too long on social networking sites could
adversely affect your mood.
2.CYBER BULLYING – Perpetrators of bullying can use the anonymity that social networks
provide to gain people trust and then terrorize them. They might create a fake profile and act
friendly to a classmate, then later betray and embarrass them online. These online attacks often
leave deep mental scars and even drive people to hurt themselves.
3.FEAR OF MISSING OUT– It is a phenomenon that became prominent around the same time
as the rise of social media. It is a like that you are scared of missing out on a positive experience
that someone else is having.
4.UNREALISTIC EXPECTATIONS– Social media sites have a severe lack of online
authenticity. People use Snapchat to share their exciting adventures, but in reality, it’s not true it
looks like good, but actually they are more with problems in their life. You should not judge
others life by seeing their post on Instagram or Facebook.
5.NEGATIVE IMAGE– It’s really important that you are not influenced by others personality
they should take themselves as negative. You should love yourself who you are, and you
shouldn’t try to copy with their image.
6.UNHEALTHY SLEEP PATTERNS– Another bad thing about social media is that spending
too much time on it, can lead to poor sleep. Numerous studies have shown due to excessive use
of social media lead to poor quality sleep.
7.GENERAL ADDICTION– social media can be more addictive than cigarettes and alcohol.
Social media sites want to keep you scrolling for as long as possible. You can’t spend full day
without checking any social media accounts.
Balancing is important in every phase of life. We should try to balance social media witreal life.
It makes your life happier and simpler and your life will not move around getting likes or
accepting friend requests.
CONCLUSION
The effects from social media are very complex and vary from person to person. The pros and
cons of social media actually depend on how we use them. It is the user who decides whether
they want to use it as a boon or a bane.

Explain cognitive approach of motivation.

This approach states that “motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations and
goals’ Thus, a student will be motivated to study for examination based on his/ her expectation
whether studying will lead to obtaining good marks in examination.

This theory also helps differentiate between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.Individuals are
more likely to work on a certain task or towards achieving a certain goal when they are
intrinsically motivated as opposed to extrinsically motivated. And it may so happen that attempts
to increase extrinsic motivation may lead to decrease in intrinsic motivation

Cognitive analyses of motivation suggest that significant human motivation comes not from
objective realities in the external world but from subjective interpretations of reality.

The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy Theory and the Goal-Setting
Theory. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains why and how an individual chooses
one behavioural option over others. On the other hand, the Goal-Setting Theory states the
importance of creating goals in motivation a person.

Expectancy Theory
 Proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy Theory explicates the behavioural
process in which a person selects a behavioural option over another, and how this decision is
made in relation to their aim of achieving their goal. In this theory, three variables were
introduced by Vroom to explain the said behavioural process. These include “V” for valence,
“E” for expectancy, and “I” for instrumentality.

Expectancy

Expectancy is a variable that represents the belief that the effort (E) of an individual is an
outcome of a a need to attain the performance (P) goals that he desires. The theory states that
there are three factors that influence the expectancy perception of a person, which include:

1. Self efficacy – the individual’s belief regarding his own ability to perform a specific behaviour
successfully.
2. Goal difficulty – occurs when the desired performance goals are too high that might result to
low expectancy perceptions.
3. Control – the degree of a person’s perceived control over his performance.
Valence

Valence refers to the value that a person sets on the reinforcements or rewards. Setting values are
usually based on an individual’s values, needs, goals and intrinsic or extrinsic sources of
motivation. Valence include -1, which means the person is trying to avoid the outcome, 0, which
means the person feels indifferent towards the results, and +1, which means that he welcomes the
results.

Instrumentality

Instrumentality refers to the notion that a person will get a reward upon the satisfaction of the
expected performance. The reward may present in various forms – it can be intrinsic or extrinsic,
monetary or non-monetary. If this reward is similar for all the activities that a person must
perform, instrumentality is said to be low. There are three factors influencing instrumentality:
policies, control and trust.

Motivational Force The product of the three aforementioned variables – expectancy,

valence and instrumentality – is called the motivational force. This is the proper formula
for motivational force:

Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

If these three variables are “high” or strong in an individual, then his motivation is also greater.

Goal-Setting Theory
Another cognitive theory of motivation, the Goal-Setting Theory was proposed by Edwin Locke
in the 1960s. The theory explains that goal setting has an influence on task performance. Specific
and challenging goals are more likely to motivate a person and lead to a better execution of tasks,
whereas vague and easy goals may result to poor task performance. In application, therefore, the
goals should be set must be SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-
Bound.

Describe how we sense sound.

Our basic energy transformations must take place:

(1) Airborne sound waves must get translated into fluid waves within the cochlea
of the ear,

(2) the fluid waves must then stimulate mechanical vibrations of the basilar
membrane,

(3) these vibrations must be converted into electrical impulses,

(4) the impulses must travel to the auditory cortex.

In the first transformation, vibrating air molecules enter the ears. Some sound
enters the external canal of the ear directly, and some enters after having been
reflected off the external ear, or pinna.

The sound wave travels along the canal through the outer ear until it reaches the
end of the canal. There it encounters a thin membrane called the eardrum, or
tympanic membrane. The sound wave’s pressure variations set the eardrum into
motion. The eardrum transmits the vibrations from the outer ear into the middle
ear, a chamber that contains the three smallest bones in the human body: the
hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. These bones form a mechanical chain that
transmits and concentrates the vibrations from the eardrum to the primary organ of
hearing, the cochlea, which is located in the inner ear.

In the second transformation, which occurs in the cochlea, the airborne sound wave
becomes “seaborne.” The cochlea is a fluid-filled coiled tube that has a membrane,
known as the basilar membrane, running down its middle along its length.
When the stirrup vibrates against the oval window at the base of the cochlea, the
fluid in the cochlea causes the basilar membrane to move in a wavelike motion the
cochlea’s distinctive spiral shape provides greater sensitivity to low frequency
sounds than would be possible without the spiral

In the third transformation, the wavelike motion of the basilar membrane bends the
tiny hair cells connected to the membrane. The hair cells are the receptor cells for
the auditory system. As the hair cells bend, they stimulate nerve endings,
transforming the mechanical vibrations of the basilar membrane into neural
activity.

in the fourth transformation, nerve impulses leave the cochlea in a bundle of fibers
called the auditory nerve. These fibers meet in the cochlear nucleus of the brain
stem. Similar to the crossing over of nerves in the visual system, stimulation from
one ear goes to both sides of the brain. Auditory signals pass through a series of
other nuclei on their way to the auditory cortex, in the temporal lobes of the
cerebral hemispheres. Higher-order processing of these signals begins in the
auditory cortex.

The four transformations occur in fully functioning auditory systems.

(b) Define the following:

(1) Sensory memory: Sensory memory is a very short-term memory store for information being
processed by the sense organs. Sensory memory has a limited duration to store information,
typically less than a second.

It is the first store of the memory. Sensory memory is a brief storage of information in humans
wherein information is momentarily registered until it is recognized, and perhaps transferred to
short-term memory

(2) short-term memory,Short-term memory refers to information that people can remember for a
short period of time immediately after receiving it.People with short-term memory loss have
problems remembering pieces of information they just received. Short-term memory,
in psychology, the concept involving the extremely limited number of items that humans are
capable of keeping in mind at one time.

(3) Long term memory Long-term memory refers to the transfer of information from short-term
memory into long-term storage in order to create enduring memories. This type of memory is
unlimited in capacity and stable—lasting for years or even a lifetime. Long-term memory
consists of memories that the brain has stored over an extended period of time. These memories
can be from an hour ago or from decades earlier.

(4) Flash bulb memory: A flashbulb memory is a highly vivid and detailed ‘snapshot’ of a
moment in which a consequential, surprising and emotionally arousing piece of news was
learned. People often experience these memories in photographic detail, and can recall aspects
like what they were doing when the event occurred or how they learned about what happened.
Flashbulb memories tend to endure over long periods of time, although it’s not clear if people
continue to remember the events with accuracy.

Write a note on Personality.

Definition
Personality refers to the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique
adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and
emotional patterns. Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
that distinguish a person from others. A product of both biology and environment, it remains
fairly consistent throughout life.

Examples of personality can be found in how we describe other people's traits. For instance, "She
is generous, caring, and a bit of a perfectionist," or "They are loyal and protective of their
friends." The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical
mask worn by performers to play roles or disguise their identities.

Personality is the dynamic organization with in the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his unique adjustment to his environment. Personality is the more or less stable
and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique that
determine his unique adjustment to his environment

Personality Characteristics
Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important roles, and so do these fundamental
characteristics of personality:

 Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors.

Essentially, people act in the same way or in similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Both psychological and physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but
research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
 Affects behaviors and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and
respond in our environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.
  Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be
seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

Personality Types there are four types of personality. They are:

 Type A: Perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed, achievement-oriented,

aggressive, stressed
 Type B: Low stress, even-tempered, flexible, creative, adaptable to change, patient,
tendency to procrastinate
 Type C: Highly conscientious, perfectionist, struggles to reveal emotions (positive and
negative)
 Type D: Worrying, sad, irritable, pessimistic, negative self-talk, avoidance of social
situations, lack of self-confidence, fear of rejection, appears gloomy, hopeless

The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator identifies a personality based on where someone is
on four continuums: introversion-extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-
perceiving.

Personality traits are

 Agreeable: Cares about others, feels empathy, enjoys helping others

 Conscientiousness: High levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, goal-directed
behaviors
 Eager-to-please: Accommodating, passive, and conforming
 Extraversion: Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of
emotional expressiveness
 Introversion: Quiet, reserved
 Neuroticism: Experiences stress and dramatic shifts in mood, feels anxious, worries
about different things, gets upset easily, struggles to bounce back after stressful events
 Openness: Very creative, open to trying new things, focuses on tackling new challenges

Personality Disorders
Personality disorders include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality
disorder, antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder (BPD), and narcissistic
personality disorder , some common signs include:

 Aggressive behavior
 Delusional thinking
 Distrust of others
 Flat emotions (no emotional range)
 Lack of interest in relationships
 Violating others' boundaries

Explain the basic structure of the eye.

Structure and Functions of the Human Eye

The human eyes are the most complicated sense organs in the human body. From the muscles
and tissues to nerves and blood vessels, every part of the human eye is responsible for a certain
action. Furthermore, contrary to popular belief, the eye is not perfectly spherical; instead, it is
two separate segments fused together. It is made up of several muscles and tissues that come
together to form a roughly spherical structure. From an anatomical perspective, the human eye
can be broadly classified into external structure and internal structure.

The External Structure of an Eye

The parts of the eye that are visible externally include the following:-
Sclera: It is a white visible portion. It is made up of dense connective tissue and protects the
inner parts.
Conjunctiva: It lines the sclera and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium. It keeps our
eyes moist and clear and provides lubrication by secreting mucus and tears.
Cornea: It is the transparent, anterior or front part of our eye, which covers the pupil and the iris.
The main function is to refract the light along with the lens.
Iris: It is the pigmented, coloured portion of the eye, visible externally. The main function of the
iris is to control the diameter of the pupil according to the light source.
Pupil: It is the small aperture located in the centre of the Iris. It allows light to enter and focus on
the retina.

The Internal Structure of an Eye

The internal components of an eye are:
Lens: It is a transparent, biconvex, lens of an eye. The lens is attached to the ciliary body by
ligaments. The lens along with the cornea refracts light so that it focuses on the retina.
Retina: It is the innermost layer of the eye. It is light sensitive and acts as a film of a camera.
Three layers of neural cells are present in them, they are ganglion, bipolar and photoreceptor
cells. It converts the image into electrical nerve impulses for the visual perception by the brain.
Optic nerve: It is located at the posterior portion of the eyes. The optic nerves carry all the nerve
impulses from the retina to the human brain for perception.
Aqueous Humour: It is a watery fluid present between the cornea and the lens. It nourishes the
eye and keeps it inflated.
Vitreous Humour: it is a transparent, jelly-like substance present between the lens and the
retina. It contains water (99%), collage, proteins, etc. The main function of vitreous humour is to
protect the eyes and maintain its spherical shape.
What are biological bases of behavior in psychology?(Please refer written notes)

Discuss the influence of observational learning in acquiring skills.

According to observational learning the cognitive processes plays important role in learning
behavior. Observational learning has the potential to teach and reinforce or decrease certain
behaviors based on a variety of factors. Particularly prevalent in childhood, observational
learning can be a key part of how we learn new skills and learn to avoid consequences.

According to social learning theory, learning occurs in a social setting by observing others
behavior and its outcome. This observational learning can occur in two ways: (i) direct
observation, and (ii) indirect observation. In direct observation, you learn behavior by observing
others (called as a model), directly, while in indirect observation you learn by observing or
hearing others experiences.

This kind of indirect learning is known as vicarious learning. Suppose you wanted to go on a trip
to the Northeastern states of India. One of your friends who recently came back from his trip of
north-east suggests you to carry an umbrella or raincoat, as it can rain anytime. What will you
do? There are very high chances that you will listen to his experience and carry an umbrella. This
kind of learning is an example of vicarious learning

Learning understanding of observational learning.

Bandura and his colleagues conducted an experiment on children to investigate the role of
observational and imitation in learning social behaviour, such as aggression. They selected 72
children between the age group of three to six years.
Children were randomly assigned to three groups: one control and two experimental conditions.
In one group of experiment condition, children were shown a movie with an aggressive model,
beating, hitting and abusing a bobo doll.

In another experimental condition, a non-aggressive model was shown playing peacefully and in
a friendly way with a Bobo doll. Whereas, in control condition children were not shown any
movie. Later, all groups of children were placed in a room full of varieties of toys. It was
observed that children who were exposed to the aggressive model imitated the model’s
behaviour.

They also punched, hit, and used abusive words for Bobo dolls. In contrast, the children of the
second experimental group, who were exposed to non-aggressive model, did not demonstrate any
aggression with bobo doll. This was one of the landmark studies in psychology. It suggested that
observation and imitation play a crucial role in learning.

Process Involved in Observational Learning

Attention: In order to learn, one needs to focus his or her attention on a model. This process is
influenced by the characteristics of the model as well as characteristics of the observer.

Retention: It is important to remember the observed behaviour for future reproduction. This
process depends on one’s ability to rehearse and mentally represent the observed behaviour.

Production: In the third step, learned behaviour is produced by the observer. However,
production of a retained behaviour depends on the capability to perform it, i.e., whether the
observer possesses the required skills or not.

Motivation: An observed behavior will be performed only when there is an appropriate

motivation or reason to do so.

Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory.

Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, is information that can be intentionally and
consciously recalled and explained (like your presentation) and information that you have to
consciously work to remember. Examples of explicit memories are: Birth dates of friends and
family Graduations, weddings, and other events

Implicit memories are our unconscious and automatic memories. We do not have to actively
recall implicit memories (like you might struggle to remember the capital of Lithuania with your
explicit memory). We sometimes refer to implicit memory as non-declarative memory since it
cannot consciously be brought into awareness. For example, I’ve been typing on computers for
about twenty-five years. I can type over seventy words a minute and I don’t have to look at my
keyboard to type. Knowing how to type is an implicit memory;

Differences between Explicit and Implicit Memory

Explicit Memory
  Encoded to memory and later retrieved
 Often formed deliberately through rehearsal
 Often encoded unconsciously and tied to emotions
 May be drawn into awareness through associations
Implicit Memory
 Becomes automatic over time with repetition
 Begins with learning skills and mastering a task
 Can result in priming, or responding the same way to similar stimuli
 Often dependent upon context and cues
Illustrate the process of behavior modification.
Behaviour modification or behavioural counseling is a form of psychotherapy that is based on
the learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. It applies these learning
principles to bring about positive changes in behaviour and reduce or eliminate undesirable
behaviour. Behaviour modification employs empirically tested behaviour change techniques to
improve behaviour and/or reduce maladaptive/undesirable behaviour. It refers mainly to
techniques for increasing adaptive behaviour through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive
behaviour through extinction or punishment.

Thus Behaviour modification can be described as an approach to psychotherapy which is based

on learning theory and aims to address the client’s problems through techniques designed to
reinforce desired and eliminate undesired behaviours. The behaviour modification approach
involves the development and encouragement of desirable behaviours and removal and reduction
of undesirable behaviours by methods based on the learning and reinforcement principles. In
simple terms, behaviour modification assumes that behaviours can be acquired/ learned and can
also be unlearned. Hence if the child has learned any negative behaviour, it can also be unlearend
and new desirable behaviour can be learned. Thus the relationship between observable stimuli
and response is important; and reward and punishmnet can be used to control and regulate this
relationship between stimulus and response.

Steps/Procedure of Behaviour Modification

The goal of behaviour modification is always to bring about a change in the behaviour.

The change may be in terms of:

● a newly developed behaviour

● increase or strengthening of a behaviour

● maintaining a behaviour at a particular rate or pattern of occurrence

● decrease or change in a behaviour

Deciding the goal is only one part of the entire procedure for behaviour modification. First of all
we need to analyse the problem behaviour through a process of behavioural assessment.
Behavioural assessment helps us to understand the problem in its different aspects, in different
contexts and across different settings/situations.

The problem is studied in detail:

Frequency – how often the behaviour occurs, e.g., how many times the child has used abusive
language in a class duration

Duration – how long the problem behaviour lasts, e.g., the child goes on talking abusive
language or uses it for a while only

Intensity – how severe is the behaviour, e.g., the child uses extreme abusive language or mild
abusive language Thus baseline data forms an important step in the behaviour modification plan.
Specific information about the behaviour is collected .

The ABC model of behavioural analysis, also called functional analysis is used. The ABC model
refers toThe ABC model refers to 10 Cognitive Behavioural Counseling ●

A antecedent it: describes what happens just before the occurrence of the behaviour

● B behaviour: it describes the client’s behaviour

● C consequence: it describes the consequence, i.e. what happens after the behaviour

Antecedents help in understanding the problem in detail, what precipitates the problem, when it
occurs, at what setting it occurs, who are present, what type of event/ situation usually leads to
the behaviour/ problem in question. Behaviour refers to the behaviour shown or demonstrated.
Consequences determine the client’s behaviour. Consequences refer to what does the behaviour
lead to- how do parents, teachers, peer respond to the child’s behaviour – this determines
whether the behaviour will continue or be modified or decrease or increase.

In other words, the ABC model can be described as follows: What comes directly before the
behaviour?”, “What does the behaviour look like?”, and “What comes directly after the
behaviour?” respectively. Once enough observations are made, the data are analysed and patterns
are identified. If there are consistent antecedents and/or consequences, an intervention should
target those to increase or decrease the target behaviour.

If the behaviour pattern shows a particular antecedent or trigger, then intervention can be to
avoid that trigger as far as possible and to learn a new behaviour in the presence of the trigger. If
a problem behaviour occurs because it achieves some purpose, then there is a requirement to
teach an alternative behaviour which will achieve the same purpose without creating any
problem. The functional assessment helps in understanding the behaviour .
This facilitates in planning the appropriate intervention technique. The following steps can be
delineated in the behavioural assessment process:

The problem behaviour is described in detail with example of its occurrence.

● All the antecedent factors are also elaborated.

● The consequences are noted down.

● The goals are specified.

● Accordingly the target response is stated in precise terms.

● The particular intervention to be used is finalised and implemented.

● Follow up and evaluation is done. If the intervention did not bring in the desired result, then
we again go back to the first step of analysing the problem in detail in terms of the antecedent
factors and then deciding on the intervention strategies to be adopted. For instance, the problem
is the aggressive behaviour of the child in the playground. Examples of occurrence of the
aggressive behaviour by the child in the playground is cited. When did it occur, how did it start,
what was the duration and intensity etc.

The consequences: how did the teacher react to the aggressive behaviour of the child, how did
other classmates present reacted , and any other consequence, may be punishment by the
principal of the school are also noted. Analysis of the antecedent and consequences of the
problem then leads to the setting of goals. The goal may be to reduce the aggressive behaviour of
the child.

To achieve this goal, the target response, i.e. the response which need to be changed are
specified. In this case, the target responses may be reduction in hitting behaviour, using abusive
language, overcoming getting angry very quick. Thereafter, the appropriate intervention
technique to be used are decided and implemented

Describe in detail cognitive approach to motivation.

This approach states that “motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations and goals’
(Feldman, 2015, pg 289). Thus, a student will be motivated to study for examination based on his/ her
expectation whether studying will lead to obtaining good marks in examination. This theory also helps
differentiate between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Individuals are more likely to work on a
certain task or towards achieving a certain goal when he/ she is intrinsically motivated as opposed to
extrinsically motivated. And it may so happen that attempts to increase extrinsic motivation may lead to
decrease in intrinsic motivation

Determine the importance of perceptual illusions.

Explain why we forget information.

Explain how psychological factors affect person’s physical and mental health.

List the major subfields of psychology.

Cognitive Psychology: It is the area where psychologists study how the human mind, thinks,
remembers and learns. Psychological principles are applied to understand the decision-making
process and how we perceive the world.

Clinical Psychology: The field is concerned with assessment, diagnosis, causes and treatment of
mental disorders. Most of the clinical psychologists are engaged with state mental hospitals or
community mental health centres, schools, private practice, research and teaching.

Counselling Psychology: Counseling psychologists deal with people having problems of milder
emotional or personal intent.Generally, people who need help in making a career choice or
deciding which educational program to opt for, seek help from a counseling psychologist. They
may use a variety of assessments such as tests or interviews to assess interest, aptitude,
intelligence or personality attributes.Some counselors may also help people having family
problems or marital problems.

Environmental Psychology: The focus is on human-environment interrelationship.

Psychological principles are applied to improve interaction among people and for sustainable
living.

School Psychology: The major focus of this field is psychology of learning and effectiveness of
school programs. School psychologists work with elementary, and secondary school children,
teachers, parents and school administration. They provide counseling and guidance in schools
and assess students’ interests, aptitude, adjustment, learning ability, intelligence, and such related
factors. Testing also helps to diagnose students who have behavioral difficulties. Counselling is
given to those students who need special attention.

Educational Psychology:The focus of this area is on psychology of teaching. Educational

psychologists are involved in more general kind of problems that are not of immediate concern.
They guide the students to enhance their efficiency in learning in school by working on the
school curriculum and motivational skills.

Experimental Psychology: The field is concerned with the study of different facets of behavior
like, learning, memory, perception, etc. using controlled experiments in the laboratory or the
field. They try to understand the basis of behavior and thought and try to develop certain
modification techniques on the basis of their research findings. They try to investigate how
mental processes or behaviours are experienced and how behavior can be directed.
Physiological Psychology: The field examines the relation between brain and behavior in
humans and animals. Impact of nervous system and glandular system on behavior is the focus of
physiological psychologist.They use invasive and non-invasive techniques to study the biological
basis of behavior.

Organizational Psychology: Psychological principles are applied to work-settings to enhance

the well-being and performance of employees. Organizational psychologist uses various
psychological tests to select and place employees in the jobs they are suited for.Many
organizations employ organizational psychologists to hire people, train them, manage their
interpersonal skills and job satisfaction, employee-employer communication, etc.The research in
this field pertains to finding solutions to the problems faced in the organizational sector with
respect to the employees or the work output or any other emotional problem faced by the
employees.

Social Psychology: Social psychology studies groups of people, their relationship to one another,
their characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, their decision-making process and communication with
other members of their group, group cohesion, etc.The emphasis is to understand the behavior of
an individual in a group.

Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychology is concerned with behavior across the

life span, that is, from beginning of childhood, through adolescence into adulthood and how the
behavioural patterns change across different developmental stages. Developmental psychologists
particularly try to examine any behavioral disorders that occur during childhood.They also try to
understand the cognitive, perceptual, social, moral, and language development that takes place in
children.

Community Psychology: It is a new area of psychology that deals with community problems,
principles, social issues, and health issues. Psychologists help the people living in one
community to deal with their problems, seek out their traditional forms of psychotherapy, stress,
child-rearing practices, social systems etc.

Sports Psychology: It is also a new area that focuses on psychological aspects of sports
behavior. Sports psychologist works with professional teams at school/ college level or national
and international level to enhance performance in sports by working on exercise and team work.

Health Psychology: This is an emerging area that is concerned with the physiological processes,
behavior, and social factors that influence health and illness. Health psychologists work in
clinical settings, and are involved in research and teaching in higher educational institutes.

Forensic Psychology: It is a new field in psychology that applies psychological principles in the
area of criminal justice system and legal investigations. Forensic psychologist works on the
rights of victims, rights of accused, criminal profiling, policy-making, and other related areas.
How do psychological factors affect physical and mental health?

Describe sensation, attention and perception for a traumatic memory and its
effects on behavioral psychology.

What are some of the differences between collectivist and individualist cultures?
How do structuralism and functionalism differ?

How have psychologists demonstrated the role of expectations in perception?

Define and explain the use of operant conditioning principles with a hypothetical
example.

Define social dilemma.

Discuss possible behaviors of a student diagnosed for terminal disorder.

Give difference between absolute thresholds and difference thresholds for

Sensation with situational example.

Describe fight-or-flight response.

Differentiate fixed-ratio schedule and variable-ratio schedule with example.

Explain classical conditioning and its possible uses in training animals in circus.

Enlist the secondary emotions.

List biological, psychological, and social-cultural contributors to eating behavior.

Explain the memory conceptualized in terms of Types, Stages, and Processes.

Define Prejudice and Discrimination.

Explain the biology of memory.

Describe the helpful memory techniques based on psychological research.

Define physiognomy.
physiognomy (from the Greek φύσις, 'physis', meaning "nature", and 'gnomon', meaning "judge"
or "interpreter") is the practice of assessing a person's character or personality from their outer
appearance—especially the face. The term can also refer to the general appearance of a person,
object, or terrain without reference to its implied characteristics—as in the physiognomy of an
individual plant

Describe the five-factor model of personality.

Explain the psychological methods to measure intelligence.

Differentiate fear and phobia.

Describe psychodynamic approach.

Describe the role of beliefs for problem solving and decision making.

Explain in brief : Psychology as a Science

Describe the difference between values and fact.

Outline the basic schools of psychology and how each school has contributed to
psychology.

Define: Sensation, attention and perception.

Explain the Problem of Intuition.

Summarize the capacities and limitations of human sensation.

Write a short note on Levels of Explanation in Psychology.

Describe limitations of human sensation.

Limits of our senses

Our senses of vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste, temperature, balance, and
6th sense are all limited. We may also have senses of electrical fields and
magnetism, but they are so limited that we can't notice them

Limits of vision

We can only see a certain range of colors. Also, we need the light to be
bright enough to see things.
Brightness

Nocturnal animals, such as owls do not need much light to see at night. On
the other hand, they cannot see well in bright sunlight. Humans are just the
opposite. Our eyes need more light to see. Some people can see better at
night than others. Apparently, a lack of vitamin A can affect ability to see at
night.

Of course, there is a limit to the brightness allowed. Looking directly at the

sun can injure your eyes.

Range of colors

We consider light to be the combination of colors we can see: red, orange,

yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. But if you study wave theory of light,
you will know that visible light is just a small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. There are animals that detect electromagnetic radiation beyond
the limitations of the human eyes, and there are physical detectors that go
even beyond what animals can see.

For example, moths and bees detect ultra-violet light, which humans cannot
see. The ultra-violet or "black lights" used to make things glow give us just a
glimpse of what things look like to these creatures. On the other end of the
spectrum, animals that hunt at night are able to see infra-red light. We can
use "night scopes" to see the infra-red.

Limits of hearing

Humans, animals and even some insects have a range of wavelengths or

pitches they can sense or hear. Within this range, there is also a minimum
and maximum volume that can be heard.

Range of volume

There is a minimum volume or loudness of a sound that most people can

hear. The ears of dogs and cats are much more sensitive to volume, such
that they can hear the rustling of a mouse. Some owls use their hearing to
catch prey, too.

A high volume can cause pain and even injury to the ear of a person or
animal. Certainly people can withstand higher volumes than many animals.
Younger people can hear a wider range of sounds than older people. But
listening to very loud music can damage a young persons hearing and
reduce the range of sound to less than an old person.

Range of pitch

Just as light is a spectrum of wavelengths, so is sound. The human ears

have a limited range of wavelengths or pitches they can detect, while other
animals and insects can often sense sounds beyond our range.

Some animals can hear sounds beyond the range of the human ear. Dogs
can hear high pitched sounds that humans cannot detect. Likewise, bats use
very high pitched chirps to detect prey, which are beyond the human range
of hearing.

On the other hand, elephants communicate with extreme low pitched

sounds. Scientists in Africa noticed elephants would suddenly perk their ears
and go off running in a direction. They heard a very low pitched sound given
off by other elephants that humans could not detect. They could hear those
sounds up to 5 miles (7.5 km) away.

Limits of touch

Obviously, when something barely touches your skin, you may not detect it
or feel it. An example is when a mosquito lands on your skin. You often don't
feel anything until she starts to suck your blood. On the other end of the
scale, there may be pressures that are so great that they damage your
sensors in your skin and injure you.

There really have not been any good studies on the sensitivity of touch for
animals or insects.

Limits of 6th sense

This is an interesting area. It seems that there is a 6th sense, although

many scientist do not believe it, because it hasn't been proven. Also, there is
the problem that we don't know the form of energy nor where the sense
exists.

What we do know is that some people seem to be more sensitive the the 6th
sense signals than are other people.
Limits of taste and smell

There are only certain chemicals and molecules that we can taste or smell.
Also, the amount of the material must be such that we can detect it. Dogs
have more sensitive noses than humans. Not only can they detect smaller
amounts of a substance, they can also smell compounds that we can't.

Seeing
We are surrounded by an electromagnetic spectrum.
Our eyes can only perceive about 3% of this spectrum, a
portion known as the visible spectrum. So, not being
able
to see the remaining 97% of this spectrum proves to be
a
limitation, since we certainly are affected by the
remaining portion if the spectrum.

Explain the moon illusion.

Have you ever noticed that the size of the moon when it is coming over the horizon? If yes, then
you must have noticed that it looks bigger on the horizon than when it comes overhead.
However, in reality, there are no differences in the size of the moon. Our perception of the moon
having different sizes at horizon and zenith is known as moon illusion. This illusion occurs
because of our perception of the sky as a flattened dome and thus forcing our brain to reduce the
size of the moon at zenith.
The moon often looks huge as it begins to peek up over the horizon, but hours later as you glance
up into the night sky you will note that it now appears much smaller. This phenomenon is known
as the moon illusion.
Apparent Distance Theory
According to this possible explanation for the moon illusion, depth perception plays an important
role in how we see the moon at the horizon versus high in the sky. This theory is centered on the
idea that when you view the moon at the horizon, you are seeing it in the presence of depth
cues such as trees, mountains, and other scenery. When the moon has moved higher into the sky,
those depth cues disappear. Because of this, the apparent distance theory suggests, we tend to see
the moon as further away on the horizon than we see it when it elevated in the sky.
Angular Size-Contrast Theory

This explanation focuses instead on the visual angle of the moon in comparison to surrounding
objects. When the moon is on the horizon and surrounded by smaller objects, it appears larger.At
its zenith, the moon appears much smaller because it is surrounded by the large expanse of the
sky.

Factors That Influence the Illusion includings:

 Color: When the moon appears red (due to smoke or dust in the air), it appears larger.
Those who live in rural areas may notice this effect during harvest season when the
horizon is often clouded with dust and other particulates.
 Atmospheric Perspective: When it is hazy or smoky outside, the moon appears larger on
the horizon. After a forest fire or on a day when it seems particularly smoggy, you might
notice that the moon illusion seems more pronounced.
 Visual Factors: Convergence of the eyes when viewing things on the horizon also causes
objects to appear larger.

Draw a picture of the ear, label its key structures and functions, and describe the
role they play in hearing.
  he External ear or the outer ear consists of
 Pinna/auricle is the outermost section of the ear.
 The external auditory canal links the exterior ear to the inner or the middle ear.
 The tympanic membrane, also known as the eardrum, separates the outer ear from the inner ear.
 The Middle ear comprises:
 Ossicles are the three tiny bones connected to each other that transmit sound waves to the inner ear. These three tiny bones are
stapes, malleus, and incus.
 Eustachian Tube is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the nose. It helps to maintain equal pressure in the middle
ear which facilitates the proper transmission of sound waves.
 The Inner ear consists of
 Cochlea that comprises the nerves of hearing.
 Semicircular canals contain the receptors that help in maintaining balance.
 Vestibule also contains the receptors for body balance.

Explain Perceiving Motion in brief.

Movement perception is our ability to judge the direction and speed of a moving object.
Psychologists have tried to answer the questions on movement perception by applying following
four factors: 1) Retinal motion: When an object moves its image on retina also moves. This
motion of the retinal image is detected by special visual neurons which are sensitive to change in
motion and direction. In this way, we perceive movement. 2) Motion after-effect (MAE): If you
fixate your gaze on a moving object for some time (few seconds to minutes) and then move your
gaze to a stationary object. Then the stationary object will be perceived as moving in opposite
direction to the original moving object. This phenomenon is known as MAE and occurs due to
motion adaption. 3) Induced movement: When a smaller stationary body is surrounded by larger
moving body then smaller body is perceived to move in the direction opposite to the larger body.
Due to this phenomenon, we perceive moon as moving when it is surrounded by slowly moving
clouds.Apparent movement: Also called as phenomenal motion, it was first proposed by Gestalt
theorist Wertheimer (1912). In this phenomenon, when stationary stimuli are presented in
succession, it is perceived in a motion. Perceived motion occurs without any energy movement
across the receptor surface.That is, when the eyes, head and body are static, and there is no
movement of the object, motion is still perceived. Phi-phenomenon: This effect can be seen in a
string of decorative lights, when the lights are turned in sequence, they appear to move, that is
the light appears to move across the distance. The series of light goes on and off in a sequence,
and movement is perceived. Stroboscopic Effect: This effect is seen in movies. The example is a
movie projector which places successive pictures of a moving scene onto a screen. When the
frames are examined separately, there is still a picture that is different from the preceding one.
When the frames are presented at the right speed, continuous and smooth motion is perceived.
Autokinetic Effect: If a person stares or fixates on a stationery spot of light in a completely dark
room, the spot will eventually appear to move or drift. The movement may cover as much as 20o
of the visual field and is apparently not due to eye movements. It is also called as autokinetic
illusion or phenomenon.

Draw the key structures of the eye.

Describe how sensation and perception work together.

Explain fixed-interval schedule.

What Is a Fixed Interval Reinforcement?
Why are people so motivated to work when they only get paid every other week? This
reinforcement model is called fixed interval reinforcement, meaning that reinforcement or
rewards are given at a regular and fixed interval of time. In this case, every two weeks, the
person receives the reward of a paycheck.
A fixed interval is a set amount of time between occurrences of something like a reward. In
psychology, fixed interval reinforcement is used as operant conditioning and helps prevent the
extinction or reduction of desired behaviors. In operant conditioning, when a participant is
training to do a certain behavior, rewards and punishment may be used to encourage their proper
behavior or discourage any unwanted behavior. A fixed-interval reinforcement is when the
reward only happens after a certain amount of time. For example, every 5 minutes, a reward will
be given when the right action occurs; participants do not get a reward between intervals.

What Is a Fixed Interval Schedule?

A fixed-interval schedule is the actual scheduling of the reinforcement or occurrence of an
activity. This would be like a monthly meeting that happens every first Thursday or the biweekly
paychecks mentioned earlier. In operant conditioning, the fixed interval schedule is set before
any training occurs. The researcher or trainer decides beforehand how often they will reinforce
the behavior. In the 5-minute example, the timer would start at the beginning of the activity or
after the successful and rewarded behavior, and after 5 minutes is passed, then
a reinforcement will be given on the next correct action. This means that it may be more than 5
minutes because if the participant does not immediately perform the action at the 5-minute mark,
then the reinforcement only occurs after they do perform the correct action. Then the timer
restarts at 5 minutes to allow the researcher or trainer to know when to provide reinforcement
again.

How a Fixed Interval Reinforcement Works

When a fixed interval reinforcement schedule is used, it is determined ahead of the practice time.
It can be any interval of time from 1 minute to 1 day to 1 week, etc. But it is fixed and
unchanging. This can have some benefits as well as some drawbacks. One benefit is that the
trainer knows exactly when to reinforce the behavior, thus making sure that the behavior is
consistently reinforced. Another benefit is that it provides some stability for the participant if
they know the schedule ahead of time or if they figure it out.
A drawback is also linked to the participants' knowledge. If they know they will only get a
reward every 5 minutes, they may see no need in practicing when the reward is not available.
Another drawback is from the interval itself. If the interval is too long, the participants may get
discouraged and stop practicing. If the interval is too short, then the participant may not be doing
the behavior for appropriate reasons but only for the reward.
Fixed Interval Example
a teacher gives reinforcement every 5 minutes in her class when a student
appropriately raises their hand to answer.

Teacher and Class

 a teacher takes a weekly spelling test on Fridays.

 a monthly bill for electricity at a person's home.
 a quarterly newsletter (it comes out every three months).
 a boss gives an annual review.
 a weekly check-in at the office.
 a daily check of health after a vaccine is given.
 parent serves dinner at 7 pm each night.

Describe how you would use operant conditioning principles to teach a dog a new
trick.

Describe how Pavlov’s early work in classical conditioning influenced the

understanding of learning.

List out some common nonverbal communication explain any one with example.

What is the two-factor theory of emotion?

Summarize the negative health consequences of prolonged stress. From notes

Explain “Mind as Iceberg”.

This ca be explained by:

Topographical Model (State of Consciousness)

Freud’s topographical model represents his configuration of the mind. From his
work, Freud concluded that mental functioning could be described in terms of three
states of consciousness.

First and most obvious, is the conscious state. This includes whatever one is
thinking about at the moment. For example, you are consciously reading these
pages, comprehending the words. In other words, conscious state is related to the
immediate experiences. As a result conscious state represents the short and limited
aspect of personality

Second is the subconscious or preconscious state, which referred to all of the

stored memories which are not part of our current thoughts but which can be
brought into consciousness. For example what you have taken in your breakfast
today? Even though you were probably not aware about the breakfast menu before
the question was asked, but it is now in your consciousness. The desires, wishes,
thoughts and feelings which are not conscious at present but could be recalled after
making some efforts are stored in it.

The third is the state of unconscious, containing all of the memories and desires
and elements of which we are unaware.

According to Freud, some of this material was never conscious, but much of it
consists of material which caused so much anxiety that it was thrust out of
consciousness and repressed. Presumably, some of our hostile feelings, sexual
craving, and most desperate fears are so threatening that we must repress them,
keeping them under lock and key in the recesses of the unconscious. This material
sometimes reaches the conscious in bits and pieces.

Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly accessible to awareness. In
part, he saw it as a dump box for urges, feelings and ideas that are tied to anxiety,
conflict and pain.

These feelings and thoughts have not disappeared and according to Freud, they are
there, exerting influence on our actions and our conscious awareness. Material
passes easily back and forth between the conscious and the preconscious. Material
from these two areas can slip into the unconscious.

Truly unconscious material cannot be made available voluntarily, and we need a

psychoanalyst to bring out the materials from the unconscious to the conscious
realm.

We can use the metaphor of an iceberg to help us in understanding Freud’s

topographical model.
Only 10% of an iceberg is visible (conscious) whereas the other 90% is beneath the
water (preconscious and unconscious).

The Preconscious is allotted approximately 10% -15% whereas the Unconscious is

allotted an overwhelming 75%-80%.

Define: intelligence & list out the different types of intelligences psychologists
study.

Describe the strengths of the psychodynamic approach to explaining personality.

What is Brainstorming?

Brainstorming is a technique which helps the human beings to mobilize their

creative forces for the generation of ideas. The purpose of brainstorming is to
accumulate alternatives for any problem. Brainstorming is a strategy with which a
problern can be attacked, in fact literally stormed by dozens of ideas. This
technique can be used by teachers in schools to promote creative thinking among
students.

Describe different Aspects of Critical Thinking in brief.

Write a short note on Focusing on the Self: Humanism and Self Actualization .