Hydrograph

• Streamflow data in the form of stage g or discharge

g
is collected to analyse its flow characteristics.

• This analysis is done using a ‘hydrograph’.

• A graph of any hydrological quantity (stage,

velocity,
l it discharge,
di h etc.)
t ) against
i t time
ti i known
is k as
a hydrograph.

– Discharge Hydrograph
– Stage Hydrograph
– Velocity Hydrograph
• Discharge Hydrograph
– Graphical
G hi l representationi off discharge
di h against
i time.
i
Generally a hydrograph means discharge hydrograph.

• Stage Hydrograph
– Graphical representation of stage against time.
time Used
mainly for designing flood‐protection works like
embankments, levees.

• Velocity Hydrograph
– It is the graphical representation of velocity against
time
 Effective rainfall
• Portion of rainfall that actually goes to mix in
the stream/channel or river p passingg through
g
the area to increase its flow (discharge).

• This is the rainfall after deducting all the

losses.
 Basin Lag or Time Lag
• Used to identify the location of hydrograph
p
peak.

• Ti
Time diff
difference between
b the
h center off mass
of the rainfall (hyetograph) and the peak
discharge.
Components of Hydrograph
 Components of Hydrograph
• A hydrograph normally consists of the four
p
components:
– Channel Precipitation
– Direct Runoff (DRO)
– Inter Flow or Sub‐surface Flow
– Ground or Base Flow
• Channel Precipitation
– Amount of the precipitation that falls directly on
the stream. But its amount is so small to be
neglected

• Direct Runoff
– After all the losses,
losses component of flow that runs
over the ground constitutes Runoff
• Inter Flow or Sub Surface Flow
– This is the flow which flows laterally in the
upper
pp strata and reaches the stream after a
couple of days of the storm

• Ground water flow or Base Flow

– This flow is consisted of deep percolation and
can take even months or years to reach the
stream after the storm
Separation of Hydrograph components
• A hydrograph is normally a graph of total runoff
against time.

• Total runoff is the summation of direct runoff and

base flow.

• Empirical methods are proposed,

proposed as to separate the
flows exactly is almost impossible which are
– Straight Line Method
– Fixed Base Length Method
– Variable Slope Method
– Recession Curve Equation
– From point ‘A’, the lowest point on previous
recession curve, draw a straight horizontal line
which meets the falling limb of hydrograph at
point ‘B’.
‘B’

– The
h line
l is based
b d on the h assumption that
h a
constant amount of base flow is maintained
during the storm runoff.
runoff

– Above
b li ‘AB’
line ‘ ’ is
i the
h direct
di runoff
ff and
d below
b l this
hi
line is the base flow.
• As per Linsely (1992),
N=0.8 A0.2

Where A = catchment area

• Variable Slope Method
– This method is based on the fact that if water rises
in the stream the water level in the stream
becomes greater than the adjoining ground water
table level.

– As a result the flow occurs from the stream to the

groundwater and is stored there as bank storage.

– Take a point ‘A’ on the previous recession curve,

and the line ‘AE’ by extending the previous
recession curve. Point ‘E’ is under the peak.
– Now take a point ‘B’ on the recession curve and
e tend it backward.
extend back ard Take a point ‘C’ on recession
curve where the recession curve is changing slope.

– This point is called the point of inflexion. Draw a

vertical line from the point ‘C’.
‘C’

– It cuts the
h line
l drawn backward
b k f
from point ‘B’,
‘ ’ at
point ‘D’. Join point ‘E’ and point ‘D’.

– The area under the line ‘AEDB’ shows the base

flow component
fl
 Hydrograph

600

500
Extended
400 Recession
C
Curve Point of Inflexion
harge, Q

300

200
Disch

B
100 A E
D
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time, t

DRO Hydrograph
– Straight Line Method is the simplest and easiest
but also the least accurate.

– Fixed Base Method is widely used and gives

practically
i ll good
d results.
l

– Whereas Variable Slope Method is not commonly

used and is difficult but can ggive better results
depending upon the expertise of the person using
it.
• Recession Curve Equation
– The recession side of the hydrograph is
formed of the surface recession,
recession interflow
recession and base flow recession.

– Although the interflow, because of similar

characteristics is taken as part of the
characteristics,
surface runoff in the hydrograph analysis.

– There are means to separate the three

components on the basis of the exponential
recession equation of the form
• The equation is:
Q = Q0 e –δt
Where,
Q0 = initial discharge
Q = discharge, a time interval afterwards
δ = recession constant
• The equation can be written in a general form.
Q t+1 = Q t e ‐δt
δt

• Taking log on both sides

l (Q t e ‐δt
llog ( Qt+1) = log δt)

log Qt+1 = log Qt ‐ δt log e

• G
Graph
h off this
thi equation
ti ffor diff
differentt recession
i
constants ‘δ’ will give the components of
hydrograph
 Factors Affecting Shape of the Hydrograph
• Storm Characteristics
– Intensity of rainfall
– Duration of rainfall
– Weather conditions

• Catchment Characteristics
– Size of the catchment
– Shape of the catchment
– Elevation of the catchment
– Slope of the catchment
• Intensity of Rainfall
– The intensity of rainfall has a predominant effect
on the shape
p of the hydrograph.
y g p

– If other conditions remain the same,

same a higher
intensity storm will produce a rapid rise in the
hydrograph and a higher peak than that in case of
a low intensity rainfall.

– Such floods give little warning time and so are

dangerous.
• Duration of Rainfall
– The duration of rainfall is important if it is greater
than the time of concentration Tc (defined as the
time of travel from the farthest point in the
catchment area to the gauging station).
station)

– In
I such h a situation,
i i if the
h rainfall
i f ll off certain
i
intensity occurs uniformly, the whole of the
catchment
t h t area is
i contributing
t ib ti runoff
ff att the
th
gauging station and the hydrograph attains its high
peak.k
• Weather
– The
Th shape
h off the
h hydrograph
h d h greatly
l depends
d d on theh
seasonal distribution of rainfall. During summer losses
due to evaporation may produce a relatively small
peak hydrograph.

– On the other hand, in winter, losses are small with the

result
lt that
th t even a smallll intensity
i t it storm
t may produce
d a
relatively rapid rise and high peak of the hydrograph.

– Antecedent soil moisture conditions (generally being

hi h
higher i winter)
in i ) are important
i as for
f hi h soilil
high
moisture; the storm will produce more runoff.
• Size of Catchment
– The
Th catchment
t h t area affects
ff t the
th stream
t fl
flow i a
in
variety of ways.

– Even if the intensity and depth of precipitation is

assumed d to
t be
b constant,
t t

– The hydrograph of a smaller catchment rises to its

peak and then recedes more rapidly than that for
a larger catchment,
catchment because for the latter,
latter it takes
longer for the runoff to reach the gauging station.
– The hydrograph of a larger catchment area,
th f
therefore, h broader
has b d base
b th that
than th t off a smaller
ll
one.

– Moreover, the larger the area, the greater will be

the heterogeneity in soil and vegetation cover,
with a consequent effect on the stream flow of
each part of the catchment.

– The vegetation cover increases the time of

concentration.
concentration
• Shape of the Catchment Area
– The
h shape
h off the
h catchment
h area affects
ff stream flow
fl b
by
altering the time of concentration and the pattern of
drainage tributaries.

– If the length
g of the catchment alongg the main stream is
less than the width across the same stream, separate
runoff peaks generated by a heavy rainfall are likely to
reach the gauging station at the same time from the
tributaries, with the result that the flood peak in the main
stream increases.

– Thus a hydrograph with a high peak and narrow base is

obtained.
bt i d
– However, if the length of the catchment along the main
stream is larger than width,
width the tributaries will be of
shorter length and contribution from each tributary area
is likely to reach the gauging stations at intervals.

– After an intense storm over the whole of the catchment

area there will be some lag between the times at which
the peak from each tributary reaches the gauging station.

– The hydrograph will therefore, have a low peak and

broader base,
base because the remote tributaries will
continue contributing for some time even after the rain
fall
a has
as sstopped.
opped
• Elevation of the Catchment
– The elevation of the catchment also plays an important
role in some hydrologic characteristics of hydrograph,
particularly due to variation in temperature and
precipitation.

– The temperature reduces with the increase in elevation

with the result that above a certain elevation, the
temperature becomes so low that all precipitation falls as
snow.

– In the Indo‐Pakistan Sub‐continent, contribution from

areas, at altitude 15,000 ft. above the mean sea level, is
mainly due to snowmelt.
snowmelt

– The floods from snowmelt are of usually low peak and

broader base.
• Catchment Slope
– The slope of the catchment affects stream flow by
reducing the rate of infiltration due to increased
speed of water‐movement towards drainage
channels.

– The steeper the slope the faster will be the flow

and rise in the hydrograph. The hydrograph in
such a situation will have higher peak and smaller
base.
Unit Hydrograph Concept
• While designing hydraulic structures,
structures we are
mostly interested in estimating maximum
probable
b bl rate
t off runoff.
ff

• Various methods of estimating maximum

probable rate of runoff are as under:

• Frequency Analysis
– It may be used provided adequate stream flow
records are available.
• Empirical Formulae
– Involving various physical characteristics of the basin i.
e.
Q = C I A (Rational Formula)
Where,
I = Intensity of rainfall,
C = Constant, and
A = Area of cross‐section.
– Very detailed rainfall‐runoff
rainfall runoff models have been
developed which estimate losses separately and
hence calculate the direct runoff
 Unit Hydrograph
• Flood Routing
– Flood Routing will be discussed in detail later.

• Unit Hydrograph
y g p Method
– Of the four methods of estimating maximum
probable rate of runoff, the unit hydrograph
method is being discussed in detail in this
discussion.
 Unit Hydrograph
• The T‐hour unit hydrograph may be defined as a
hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from unit
rainfall excess (say 1 cm) of a duration ‘T’ hours
having occurred uniformly all over the catchment
and having a constant rate for specific duration say T
hours.
• The unit hydrograph theory is based on principles of
linearity of runoff to rainfall excess and
superposition. This is a linear process applied to a
non‐linear situation.
 Unit Hydrograph

• The definition of unit hydrograph implies the

following
– Unit hydrograph represents the lumped response of the
catchment to the unit rainfall excess of T‐hrs, to produce
di t runoff
direct ff to
t rainfall
i f ll excess.
– The rainfall is considered to have an average intensity of
excess rainfall (ER) of (1/D).(cm/hr)
(1/D) (cm/hr) for duration D‐hr
D hr of the
storm.
– The distribution of the rainfall/storm is considered to be
uniform all over the catchment
 Unit Hydrograph
• Physical characteristics of the basin remain
relativelyy constant. The variable characteristics
of the storm cause variation in the shape of
resulting hydrograph.
hydrograph
• The storm characteristics as discussed earlier
are theh rainfall
f ll duration, time‐intensity
pattern, areal distribution of rainfall and the
amount of rainfall.
 Unit Hydrograph
• Rainfall Duration
– The volume under unit hydrograph is always the same for
a given catchment and is equal to one unit say one inch of
runoff (note that volume of one inch of runoff means that
one inch of rainfall excess over the whole catchment.
catchment

– The actual volume will be the catchment area multiplied

by one). Peak value for a lesser duration unit hydrograph is
higher
g and is sharp,p, but the p peak value for a higher
g
duration unit hydrograph is lower with larger base length.
 Unit Hydrograph
• Time Intensity Pattern
– An infinite number of hydrographs
y g p would be
required if an attempt is made to draw separate
unit hydrograph
y g p for each of the p possible time‐
intensity patterns.
– Practically the unit hydrograph may be based only
on an assumption of uniform intensity.
Higher‐intensity
Higher intensity storms will have higher peak with
low base, and vice versa.
 Unit Hydrograph
• Areal Distribution of Rainfall
– The unit hydrograph
y g p is based upon p uniformlyy
distributed rainfall over whole of the catchment.

– So the actual flood hydrograph has to be

estimated accordingly from the unit hydrograph
taking into account the effect of areal distribution
of rainfall.
rainfall
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
` The following steps are followed in deriving a unit
hydrograph:
◦ Select an isolated storm,
storm for which reliable rainfall and
runoff data are available.
◦ Separate the base flow from the total runoff
hydrograph and calculate the volume of direct runoff.
◦ Divide the ordinates of direct runoff by the effective
rainfall. The resulting hydrograph is a unit hydrograph
for the catchment area for the ggiven duration of excess
rainfall.
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
• A unit
i hydrograph
h d h derived
d i d from
f a single
i l storm may have
h some
error, and it is desirable to average the unit hydrograph from
several storms of the same duration.

• This should not be an arithmetic average of concurrent

coordinates; since, if peaks do not occur at the same time, the
average peak will be lower than many of the individual peaks.

• The proper procedure is to compute the average of the peak

flows and times to peak. The average unit hydrograph is then
sketched to conform to those of the other graphs, passing
through the computed average peak, and having a volume of
one inch
one‐inch.
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
• Example 1
– From the data ggiven in Table 1 below,, derive a 6‐
hour unit hydrograph if this data is obtained from
a six‐hours duration storm and the catchment
area is 3,200 square kilometers.
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
Date Time Discharge
g Base Flow
(day) (m³/s) (m³/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
11-Jan
11 Jan 1st 21 21
12-Jan 2nd 21 21
13-Jan 3rd 21 21
ph
Tablle 1: Dataa for Unit hydrograp

14 J n
14-Jan 4th 20 20
15-Jan 5th 20 20
16-Jan 6th 20 20
17-Jan 7th 20 20
18-Jan 8th 20 20
19-Jan 9th 521 11
20-Jan 10th 160 21
21-Jan 11th 82 29
22-Jan 12th 63 35
23-Jan 13th 59 47
24-Jan 14th 53 53
25-Jan
5 Ja 155th 47 47
26-Jan 16th 45 45
27-Jan 17th 38 38
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
• Solution
– The calculations are shown in Table 2.
– The Direct Runoff (DRO) is obtained by subtracting base flow
from discharge values.
– The DRO is then multiplied by time interval to get total
volume. This total volume is divided by catchment area to get
depth of effective rainfall in centimeters spread uniformly
over whole catchment.
catchment
– By definition of unit hydrograph, its ordinates are obtained by
dividing ordinates of DRO by effective rain.
rain
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
Date Time Discharge Base Flow DRO Volume Ordinates of Unit Hydrograph
(day) (m³/s) (m³/s) (m³/s) (x106 m³) (m³/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(3)-(4) (6) (7)=(5)/Eff. Rain
11-Jan 1st 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
12-Jan 2nd 21 21 0 0 00
0.00 0 00
0.00
drograph
h

13-Jan 3rd 21 21 0 0.00 0.00

14-Jan 4th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
15-Jan
J 5th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
Data for Unit hyd

16-Jan 6th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00

17-Jan 7th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
18-Jan 8th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
19-Jan 9th 521 11 510 44.06 255.00
20-Jan 10th 160 21 139 12.01 69.50
21-Jan 11th 82 29 53 4.58 26.50
Table 2: D

22-Jan 12th 63 35 28 2.42 14.00

23-Jan 13th 59 47 12 1.04 6.00
24-Jan 14th 53 53 0 0.00 0.00
T

25-Jan 15th 47 47 0 0.00 0.00

26-Jan 16th 45 45 0 0.00 0.00
27-Jan 17th 38 38 0 0.00 0.00
Total Volume 64.11 x106 m³
Area 3200 x106 m² Volume 32.05x106 m³
Effective Rain 2.00cm Effective Rain 1.00 cm
 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph
` The resulting unit hydrograph and DRO hydrograph are shown in Fig
Fig. 6

One-Day Unit Hydrograph

600

500
s)
arge (m³/s

400

300
Discha

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20

Time (Day)

Total Hydrograph DRO Hydrograph One Day Unit Hydrograph

Fig 6 Developing a 6-hr unit hydrograph