A Framework for

Fire Safety in
Informal Settlements
 Foreword

Contents Three years ago, we set out to understand the nature

and scale of fires in informal settlements. Our objective
was to identify risks and points of intervention to improve
fire safety. We quickly realised there is a gap in fire
Foreword............................................................................03
safety knowledge, experience, assessment tools and
Introduction........................................................................05 construction guidance for informal settlements.
We also acknowledged the need for a common language
What is the framework?......................................................06
around fire safety in informal settlements. Within the
Understanding fire safety..................................................08 professional fire safety community, attentions are
commonly focused on the formal built environment, to the
Structure of the framework.................................................10 neglect of informal communities. Amongst stakeholders
working to support informal settlements, fire is often
Mitigation............................................................................12
recognised as a significant risk. However, in the absence
Preparedness.....................................................................14 of practical tried and trusted solutions, fire risk reduction
is seldom given the investment it requires. We, therefore
Response...........................................................................16 developed this Framework for Fire Safety in Informal
Settlements to facilitate collaboration and alignment of
Recovery............................................................................18 global efforts to create safer and more resilient informal
settlement communities.
International insights..........................................................20
This framework is an initial step. With it, we aim to
Research behind the framework.......................................24 motivate investments in fire safety by providing a way
for stakeholders to engage with the issues. We are
Next steps..........................................................................25
also exploring opportunities to develop robust, holistic
and accessible tools that empower communities and
organisations to assess fire risks and prioritise fire risk
reduction efforts and investments. Generally, there
is a need to consider fire within holistic strategies for
the resilience of communities and cities in the face of
multiple hazards. As such, we hope that this framework
will also support the incorporation of fire safety within
wider disaster planning.

October 2018

Dr Barbara Lane FREng FRSE CEng Jo da Silva, Director and Arup Fellow
Arup Fellow, Fire Safety Engineering Leader of Arup International Development
Member, UKIMEA Board and Arup University Council

© Arup 2018

arup.com/services/fire

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 Fire in Imizamo Yethu informal settlement, 11th
March 2017, Cape Town, South Africa

Introduction
Photo credit: Bruce Sutherland City of Cape Town

A fire in an informal settlement can affect Limited resources and a myriad of competing
thousands of people. Fires take lives, cause needs and risks inhibit communities’ ability to
serious injuries, destroy property and have long- improve fire safety. Where resources are devoted
term impacts on livelihoods. Recovery is a long to fire safety, investments are seldom informed by
and difficult process, which can be exacerbated a holistic consideration of fire risk and potential
in informal settlements where financial instability, risk reduction options. Local fire safety lessons
insecure tenure and a lack of insurance are learned and success stories are also rarely
common. But this global fire problem remains shared between settlements, let alone across
largely neglected. borders.
Fire events in informal settlements are rarely It is time to empower communities with fire safety
reported in international media, even when they knowledge, resources, and support so that they
amount to major community-wide disasters. can become resilient to fire. This framework is an
Moreover, there are too few investments in fire risk initial step towards facilitating this movement.
reduction for informal settlements globally.

Fires cause over 130,000 deaths In 2016, approximately one fifth

globally per year. This is more than of the world’s population live in
double the annual average deaths low/low-middle SDI countries.
due to natural disasters.1 However, almost half of the world’s
deaths due to fire occur in these
countries.2

Informal settlements are unplanned and often densely-populated residential areas where inhabitants
may lack security of tenure, have poor-quality housing, limited supporting infrastructure, and services
(including health care and emergency services) and high vulnerability to fires and other hazards. Informal
settlements include slums, refugee camps and internally displaced persons’ camps. One billion people
live in informal settlements today.3
Socio-demographic index (SDI) is a summary measure that identifies where countries or other
geographic areas sit on the spectrum of development. Expressed on a scale of 0 to 1, SDI is a composite
average of the rankings of the incomes per capita, average educational attainment, and fertility rates of all
areas in the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study.4

1
Between 2000 and 2016. Retrieved from Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org) on 14th September 2018.
2
Retrieved from Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org) on 14th September 2018.
3
“Slum Almanac 2015/2016, Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers,” Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme Team Nairobi,
Nairobi, 2016.
4
Retrieved from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (http://www.healthdata.org/taxonomy/glossary/socio-demographic-index-sd) on 19th
September 2018.

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Arup | A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements
 What is the framework?
Fire risk in informal settlements is a multi-faceted intended as the first step in the development of
problem. It is framed by a variety of underlying tools to assess fire risk in informal settlements and
socio-cultural, economic and political factors, target effective and efficient investments in fire risk
and is comprised of many different aspects, at reduction.
scales ranging from the household to the national We hope that this framework will be a point
government. Improving fire safety in informal of reference for a wide range of stakeholders
settlements is, therefore, a complex challenge. seeking to better understand fire safety in informal
The framework provides a structured way settlements. For a particular informal settlement,
of approaching the challenge and supports the framework could be used to support a
consideration of fire risk reduction. It has been holistic consideration of fire risk and potential risk
developed to be flexible so that it can be applied reduction options.
to different contexts and settlement typologies. We Examples of the anticipated users of this
recommend using the framework in conjunction framework include:
with analysis of the local context, in order to
- Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
understand the unique and often complex
dynamics of a particular informal settlement. - Community groups
Stakeholder mapping should be undertaken to - Fire and rescue services
identify community groups and organisations - Researchers and practitioners working on the
which may influence, support, or implement subject
actions to improve fire safety.
- Public or private sector investors
This framework does not seek to evaluate or
- Government bodies
quantify fire hazards or safety measures. It is

Cox’s Bazar refugee camp Bangladesh

© European Union 2018

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 Understanding fire safety
Photo credit: Sullivan Photography

What are we trying to achieve? In the past century, fire safety science has advanced
significantly. Across the world, research has been
The performance objectives for fire safety in the built undertaken on a wide range of topics, including fire
environment focus on protecting life whilst minimising development, smoke movement, heat transfer, the
the effects of fire on livelihoods, property and the response of building materials and structures to fire,
environment. The fundamental principles consider the and human behaviour in the event of a fire. Codes and
following: standards have been developed to share knowledge and
- Alerting people to the presence of fire best practices. They continue to evolve as lessons are
learned from further fire events, as well as from applied
- Providing suitable routes for evacuation, including for and fundamental research. Combinations of fire safety
persons who require assistance to escape measures are typically proposed as part of a layered
- Reducing the potential for rapid fire spread so that fire safety approach, commensurate with the risks and
escape is not inhibited characteristics associated with a particular component of
the built environment.
- Limiting fire size to enable evacuation, firefighting
and rescue operations, and to minimise damage to
property
Fire safety in informal settlements
- Protecting structural elements to prevent premature or
disproportionate collapse In informal settlements, factors such as the high density
of buildings and the use of combustible construction
- Preventing fire spread to other buildings and materials can cause fire spread to be rapid. Prompt
surrounding urban infrastructure evacuation and firefighting intervention are therefore
- Providing access routes and facilities to support critical to protect life, minimise property damage and limit
firefighting and rescue operations the impacts on livelihoods.
Communities that are resilient to fire can withstand,
respond to and recover from severe fire incidents,
The evolution of fire safety thereby contributing to residents’ broader wellbeing
and long-term development. This requires action
Fire safety considerations for the built environment have throughout the entirety of the disaster management cycle

Fire safety
evolved over time, through lessons learned from major – mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.
fire events and the development of fire safety science. Improvements in fire safety may be realised through

considerations for
For example, following the Great Fire of London in 1666, direct investments in fire risk reduction or as co-benefits
in which over 13,000 houses were destroyed, a new, from investments in informal settlements more broadly.
more fire-conscious approach to urban development was The most effective investments will require a holistic
adopted to prevent such an event from occurring again.
The early fire brigade was born, London streets were
consideration of the physical and social nature of fire risk
and fire safety. informal settlements
must be holistic
widened and restrictions on the use of wood and thatch
in favour of less combustible materials, such as brick and
stone, were established.

and take account

of the wide range of
competing risks and
challenges, which
are often unique to
local context.
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 Structure of the framework
The framework links the key considerations for fire safety Further discussion on the aspects most relevant to each
in informal settlements. Underlying contextual factors of the disaster cycle stages is provided in the following Context The disaster cycle
are placed at its centre, emphasising their universal and pages, highlighting key challenges and providing
constant relevance to all strands of the topic. practical examples of how fire risk can be reduced at There are a wide variety of drivers that lead to Commonly used in the context of natural disasters
different scales. the development of informal settlements (e.g. such as flooding, storms, earthquakes, landslides,
The framework is organised around the four stages of and wildfires, the disaster cycle may also be applied
economic migration, conflict, disasters), which can
the disaster cycle and identifies twelve key aspects of to fires in informal settlements, which are often
be formed as emergency settlements, transitional
fire safety. The rings represent the different scales at community-scale disasters. The disaster cycle
settlements, or permanent settlements.
which action to improve fire safety should be considered has four key stages, any of which may be used
(household, community, city). Fire risk in informal settlements must be considered as a starting point for considering vulnerability or
alongside other shocks and stresses and in light of resilience:
competing constraints and objectives.
Mitigation – measures to prevent or reduce the
There are a range of underlying contextual factors,
likelihood, severity, and consequences of fire.
which compound disaster vulnerability within
informal settlements. The factors can be broadly Preparedness – strategies, procedures, resources
categorised as follows: and training that influence and inform stakeholders’
Socio-cultural – including demographics, cultural fire response and recovery.
beliefs about fire, attitudes towards risk and
Response – actions taken during a fire incident to
societal cohesion.
save lives, protect property and critical infrastructure.
Economic – vulnerabilities brought about or framed
by economic limitations and a variety of immediate Recovery – actions taken in the aftermath of a fire
daily challenges (e.g. access to food, healthcare, incident, both immediately to assist with healthcare
education). and welfare, and longer-term to return communities
to normal life and bring about improvements in fire
Political – relationships between stakeholders and safety.
the political will of a local government to support
investments in safety and resilience of informal
settlements.

Aspects Scales
The framework identifies twelve aspects of fire The disaster cycle stages and fire safety aspects
safety – three aspects for each stage of the disaster can be considered at different scales, and
cycle. Their importance overall, and in relation to by stakeholders at each of these scales. The
each other, will depend on the specific context of framework considers three scales:
each informal settlement. In practice, these aspects
Household – an individual or a group of people
may also be relevant for more than one stage.
(e.g. a family) living in a single dwelling.
Community – a group of households living in
a close geographical area, having a particular
characteristic in common.

d
ol
City – a place where people gather, either by

eh
s

ity
ou
choice or by circumstance.

un
H m
m The interactions and relationships between
Co stakeholders at each scale, and across scales, has

it y
C
a significant bearing on fire safety.

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 Mitigation Natural Environment

Fire risk can be greatly influenced

Built Environment

Construction typologies of informal

Causes & Catalysts

The cause of a fire is the way a

by natural conditions. For example, settlements vary widely depending fire physically starts (e.g. ignition
arid and hot climates present on the local context and availability source). Human behaviours that
Mitigation measures should be based on the fire risks additional risks over wetter and of suitable construction materials. may influence the likelihood or
in each specific informal settlement. Effective mitigation cooler environments in terms of Combustible construction materials severity of fire are considered
measures can prevent or reduce the likelihood, severity, ignition and readily burnable fuel (e.g. timber) and linings (e.g. catalysts to fire risk. Fires in
sources (e.g. dry vegetation). plastic sheeting) can increase informal settlements are most
and consequences of fires. The key aspects to consider
Informal settlements built at the both the likelihood and severity of commonly caused by open flame
when developing fire mitigation measures are the Natural Wildland-Urban Interface (i.e. fires. Poor building stability can sources (for cooking, heating, and
Environment, Built Environment, and Causes & Catalysts. where homes are built near or exacerbate fire spread through lighting) and overloaded or poorly
Investments in mitigation are generally a cost-effective among lands prone to wildland an informal settlement. Limited maintained (and often illegal)
use of fire risk reduction resources. Where possible, fire) have an increased fire space is a common issue in electrical connections. Fire risk
risk. Weather and topography informal settlements, resulting may change with seasons. For
investments in mitigation should draw on lessons learned
can influence fire behaviour, in minimal separation distances example, an increased reliance
from previous fires. particularly the direction and rate between dwellings. Fire spread on heating devices during cold
of fire spread. Fire spread could between dwellings and through seasons can increase fire risk.
be exacerbated by strong winds entire settlements is therefore Examples of catalysts include
or the position of settlements common. Limited access through children playing with fire, alcohol
on hillsides or sloping sites. settlements is also common intoxication and smoking. Fire
Other natural disasters, such as causing significant challenges with safety training can help create
flooding, can impact fire escape evacuation and firefighting. awareness of the risks associated
routes or firefighting access with these types of behaviours
routes, increasing a community’s and activities (see Preparedness).
vulnerability to fire. The above description of catalysts
relates to accidental fires. Arson,
the human act of maliciously and
deliberately starting a fire is, in
fact, a cause of fire.

-- Remove dry vegetation from -- Use construction materials -- Replace open flame cooking,
around and between dwellings (structure and linings) which do lighting and heating appliances
-- Avoid building in areas where not propagate rapid fire growth with safer alternatives
Household access for firefighting vehicles (e.g. avoid plastic sheet walls -- Practice safe storage of fuels
may be challenging, such as in and roof coverings) used for cooking, lighting, and
areas prone to flooding -- Provide multiple escape routes heating
-- Avoid building on steep from each dwelling -- Use surge protectors, circuit
hillsides, where fire may spread -- Maximise separation distance breakers, insulated electrical
rapidly upwards to adjacent dwellings wiring and equipment with
fuses
-- Store waste safely and remove
waste regularly

-- Manage vegetation at -- Establish and maintain fire -- Organise refuse collection

settlement boundary breaks, evacuation routes, and services where not officially
-- Avoid settlement development vehicle access routes provided
Community in naturally hazardous -- Maximise separation distance
areas, such as wetlands and between dwellings and
floodplains of rivers minimise density of dwellings
-- Locate vulnerable or critical -- Avoid settlement development
buildings (e.g. schools, clinics, near high hazard areas, such
community centres) in upwind as landfills and industrial
or less hazardous areas premises

-- Implement wildland fire -- Implement policies relating to -- Provide safe electricity

management policies and land tenure and land use -- Provide refuse collection
strategies to help prevent fire -- Implement policies that allow -- Subsidize cost of safer cooking,
City spread to informal settlements for upgrading of informal lighting and heating appliances
-- Improve wildland firefighting settlements and the use of and/or promote market-driven
response to help prevent fire robust building materials distribution to communities
spread to informal settlements -- Commit to city planning which -- Implement standards for safer
promotes and supports the cooking, lighting and heating
use of appropriate building appliances and enforce
materials and fire safety regulations to help prevent
principles for dwelling and unsafe appliances entering the
settlement design marketplace

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 Preparedness Organisation & Planning

Roles and responsibilities of

Awareness & Training

The perception of fire risk

Fire Safety Resources

The ability of stakeholders to

communities, local organisations, influences stakeholders’ respond effectively to a fire
fire and rescue services, and other behaviours with respect to fire is highly dependent on the
Preparedness includes the strategies, procedures, stakeholders should be clearly safety, including their tendency availability of fire safety resources.
resources, and training that influence and inform defined to enable an effective to invest in fire mitigation and Ideally, each household should
stakeholders’ fire response and recovery. Preparedness fire response and recovery. preparedness measures. Fire have a device that warns them of a
Coordination minimises duplication risk perception is influenced fire (e.g. smoke alarm) and access
strategies should leverage resources, organisational
of efforts and ensures stakeholders by a multitude of factors, such to firefighting equipment (e.g. fire
structures, and capacities of communities and relevant work together to achieve common as past experiences with fire, blanket or bucket of sand) so they
stakeholders. The main aspects to consider during goals, namely to save lives, culture, competing risks, and can extinguish the fire early. Fires
preparedness in informal settlements are Organisation protect property and livelihoods, immediate needs. Fire safety that spread beyond the dwelling
& Planning, Awareness & Training, and Fire Safety and return communities to normal awareness campaigns and of origin can pose significant
life as soon as possible. Fire training can empower individuals challenges, emphasising the
Resources.
safety management plans that and communities to identify importance of personal protective
are ‘owned’ by communities and hazards in their own community equipment to protect firefighters.
supported by other stakeholders and take action to improve fire Appropriate emergency vehicles,
can be both cost-effective and safety. Organisations supporting firefighting equipment and tools,
sustainable. By empowering communities should coordinate and a reliable water supply (e.g.
communities, local knowledge their efforts to deliver consistent hydrants) can help improve fire
and expertise can be leveraged, fire safety messages and response. Alternate extinguishing
responsibilities of community standardised training programmes, agents are needed where water
members can be established potentially targeted towards is not appropriate (e.g. electrical
and technical and organisational specific groups (e.g. child-friendly, or oil-based fires). Provisions for
capacities can be strengthened. gender specific). Fire response persons who require assistance
teams (e.g. community firefighting to escape during a fire should be
teams, fire and rescue services) considered (e.g. accessible egress
should coordinate their training routes).
and response structure to the
specific challenges of informal
settlement fires.

-- Develop an evacuation plan -- Identify household fire hazards -- Device to detect fire and warn
and practice it in advance (and develop appropriate risk residents (e.g. smoke alarm)
-- Memorise emergency services mitigation measures) -- Firefighting equipment, such as
Household phone number(s), save to -- Use safe cooking, lighting and buckets of sand or water, pot
phone contacts and keep a heating practice (e.g. do not covers, fire blankets
written record leave appliances unattended, -- Evacuation aids for persons
-- Notify neighbours, community keep clothing/furniture away who require assistance to
firefighting teams and other from appliances, etc.) escape
response organisations (e.g. -- Share knowledge and ideas
fire and rescue services) of with neighbours
assistance needed to escape -- Teach children about fire safety
during a fire and promote safe behaviour

-- Make a community fire -- Identify ‘community level’ -- Community warning systems

response plan fire hazards (e.g. electrical -- Community firefighting
-- Coordinate fire response plan wiring, burning of waste, equipment including personal
Community with other stakeholders cooking fuel storage – LPG, protective equipment, fire
-- Support the development wood, kerosene, etc.) and extinguishers, firefighting tools
of personal emergency develop appropriate mitigation (e.g. crow bar, beater, hook,
evacuation plans for persons measures to reduce community axe)
requiring assistance to escape fire risk -- Community water taps
-- Establish a community -- Coordinate training and
firefighting team and develop awareness sessions on fire risk
community firefighting and fire safety
procedures

-- Support community fire -- Deliver fire safety awareness -- Provide emergency vehicles
response planning and campaigns and training for that can access (and supply/
coordination individual households and the pump water to) informal
City -- Develop procedures to shut off wider community settlements (e.g. 4x4s, fire
electricity supply during a fire -- Provide firefighting training motorcycles)
-- Allocate funding and develop for fire response teams (e.g. -- Provide firefighting equipment
policies and plans to support community firefighting teams, for fire and rescue services
the community after a fire fire and rescue services) that is (e.g. personal protective
specific to informal settlements equipment, hoses, axes)
and consistent with the -- Install fire hydrants with
coordinated fire response plan suitable hose connections
between stakeholders -- Provide local water reservoirs
for firefighting

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 Response Communication

Effective communication is critical

Evacuation

The potential for rapid fire spread

Firefighting

If a fire is detected early, there may

during an informal settlement and unstable structures in informal be an opportunity to extinguish
fire. There are a wide range settlements makes prompt it using simple equipment such
A fire in an informal settlement can spread rapidly and of emergency communication evacuation crucial. However, as a bucket of sand or water.
affect thousands of people. Coordination between the systems found in informal insufficient provisions for evacuation However, as a fire grows, so
community, emergency services and other stakeholders settlements, from residents are common in informal settlements. does the risk and complexity of
using verbal alarms (shouting Delays in fire detection and warning firefighting operations. While a
can significantly improve fire response. The key actions
“fire”) to hand-cranked alarms can cause a loss of critical time for spontaneous firefighting response
during a fire are Communications, Evacuation, and and text-message systems that safe evacuation; this is especially may be formed by the community
Firefighting. An effective response can reduce the loss of warn the affected community. common when residents are (e.g. bucket brigades), organised
life, property damage, the impact on livelihoods and the Communication systems that sleeping. Dwellings with one narrow community firefighting teams
effort, time and investment required to return the affected address the needs of deaf/hard escape route leave residents with no can be much more effective
of hearing people are beneficial. alternative way out if the single exit (see Preparedness). In some
community to normal life.
Mobile phones are prevalent is blocked by fire or smoke. Persons instances, wildfire tactics may
in many informal settlements requiring assisted evacuation are prove useful, such as creating fire
around the world and can be particularly vulnerable if others are breaks by deliberately knocking
used to activate fire response not aware of their needs. It is not down dwellings to remove fuel
teams (e.g. community firefighting uncommon for residents to return to and prevent further fire spread
teams, fire and rescue services). their homes to save their belongings across the settlement. Significant
However, potential challenges with (e.g. furniture) during a fire. This challenges with emergency
mobile phone battery charging, puts their lives in danger and can vehicles getting to the fire location
phone credit and awareness of interfere with others’ evacuation, are common due in part to
emergency phone numbers should firefighting and rescue operations. inaccurate fire location reporting,
be considered. Also the complexity Residents who evacuate to an traffic congestion and narrow
of local or national emergency assembly point need to maintain streets. A lack of suitable water
communication systems varies, awareness of the potential dangers supply for firefighting is also
which can affect the response time as fires in informal settlements can common.
of emergency services. be extensive and unpredictable
due to the scale and nature of the
settlement.

-- Alert children and family -- Assist children and family -- Try to extinguish small fires if it
members of a fire members who need support is safe to do so (e.g. using pot
-- Alert neighbours of a fire evacuating and leave dwelling cover, sand, water, fire blanket,
Household -- Activate community warning immediately fire extinguisher)
system -- Walk to assembly point via -- Shut off electricity supply to the
-- Alert community fire response evacuations routes house if possible
teams (e.g. community -- Notify fire response teams of
firefighting teams, fire and persons requiring rescue
rescue services) as per -- Do not return to dwelling until
community response plan firefighters confirm it is safe to
do so

-- Communicate accurate -- Notify fire response teams of -- Community firefighting teams

location of fire and information persons requiring rescue can try to extinguish fires where
relevant to persons who -- Implement a method of they have appropriate fire
Community require assistance to escape to checking in at assembly point safety resources and training
community fire response teams to monitor who has/has not appropriate for the specific fire
-- Alert neighbouring escaped incident (see Preparedness)
communities of fire -- Support persons requiring
assistance to escape (if they
not able to self-evacuate)

-- Activate fire and rescue -- Fire and rescue services to -- Shut off electricity supply
operations upon notification rescue persons in danger during a fire
of fire -- Fire and rescue services to -- Fire and rescue services
City -- Coordinate response with support persons requiring should carry out firefighting
other emergency services (e.g. assistance to escape (if not and rescue operations as per
police, ambulance) able to self-evacuate) their training, policies, and
-- Activate welfare support procedures
services as necessary

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 Recovery Welfare & Support

A range of welfare and support

Lessons Learned

A post-fire investigation should

Reconstruction

Reconstruction after fire is not

services may be required during be completed, which includes always achieved in informal
and after an informal settlement an assessment of fire causation settlements. This is often a
Recovery is a dynamic process during which the fire (albeit they are not always and fire spread, a review of the sensitive political topic due to
immediate needs of survivors need to be balanced with available). There may be an performance of fire mitigation a variety of issues, including
long-term strategic objectives. Recovery includes the immediate need for treatment of measures and of the efficacy of land tenure, property rights
burns, smoke inhalation or other fire response (communications, and immigration status. Where
actions taken in the aftermath of a fire, both immediately
injuries. First-aid assistance may evacuation and, firefighting). reconstruction is supported and
to assist with healthcare and welfare, and longer-term be provided by the community, Data on the fire causes and adequate finance is available,
to return communities to normal life and bring about emergency responders or NGOs, consequences (number of there is an opportunity to build
improvements in fire safety. The primary considerations but more serious injuries could injuries/fatalities/displaced, back better. Lessons learned from
during recovery are Welfare & Support, Reconstruction require medical attention from a property loss, etc.) should be the fire incident and wider fire
local hospital. In addition, shelter, collected and recorded in a safety considerations should be
and Lessons Learned.
food, water, sanitary facilities, national or international fire implemented in the reconstruction
direct financial support, and statistics database. Specific process. There are inherent
psychological support may be lessons learned should be shared planning challenges with rehousing
required for persons affected by with the community and other the existing population density
the fire. The process of replacing relevant stakeholders (e.g. other when trying to achieve reasonable
important documentation (e.g. communities, NGOs, fire and fire safety standards (e.g.
proof of identification, registration rescue services, international emergency vehicle access and fire
documents) lost during the fire researchers). These lessons breaks between dwellings). Design
could require substantial support, learned can inform evidence- and implementation processes that
coordination and time. If the fire based, practical enhancements are driven by the community and
caused fatalities, funeral and burial to future mitigation, preparedness coordinated amongst stakeholders
support will be required. and response to fire. Furthermore, can lead to a significant
direct experience of a fire can improvement in fire safety.
increase thr perception and
awareness of fire risk, which could
influence behaviour and motivate
further investments in fire safety.

-- Seek medical attention, legal -- Participate in the post-fire -- Re-build houses and
assistance, mental health investigation as appropriate community buildings
services and other support as to allow accurate data to be -- Communicate their needs
Household needed developed to community leaders to be
-- Share lessons from direct incorporated into community
experience in the fire incident reconstruction
with other stakeholders

-- Provide first-aid medical -- Contribute to the post-fire -- Re-build houses and

treatment investigation as appropriate community buildings
-- Identify community members’ -- Review the post-fire -- Leaders to lobby for
Community needs and communicate those investigation and data record reconstruction and for the
needs to stakeholders who are for accuracy and to learn community’s needs to be taken
providing welfare and support lessons for community fire risk into account in reconstruction
-- Advocate for additional support reduction -- Identify and engage with
if needs not met organisations supporting the
-- Develop support groups/ reconstruction process (e.g.
mechanisms which focus on NGOs, local government)
affected residents

-- Provide healthcare (including -- Perform a post-fire -- Re-build houses and

mental healthcare) and medical investigation to reveal lessons community buildings
supplies from the fire incident -- Facilitate engagement with the
City -- Provide legal assistance, -- Record data in national or community and help prioritise
welfare services, and facilities international fire statistics their needs
to meet the needs of the local database -- Support communities in
community -- Share lessons learned from reconstruction with financial
-- Coordinate support provided the incident with relevant and material support, as well
to the community to avoid stakeholders (e.g. other as technical design support
duplication and assure the communities, NGOs, fire and -- Coordinate organisations
actual needs of the community rescue services, international supporting reconstruction (e.g.
are met. researchers) NGOs, local government)

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 International Insights
The Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements provides a
platform for considering fire safety and fire risk reduction through
the four stages of the disaster cycle (mitigation, preparedness,
response, recovery), at different scales (household, community,
city).
On the following pages, real-world examples are presented to
demonstrate how the framework relates to different informal
settlements globally, and how local context is integral to fire safety
considerations.

Fire risk reduction in India’s

urban slums by addressing
energy poverty

There is a lack of reliable data on the causes of fires living in economic and energy poverty in India’s urban
in informal settlements. However, unsafe electrical slums. Empowering door-to-door sales agents called
connections and open flame sources used for cooking, ‘Pollinators’, their long-lasting clean energy solutions
heating, and lighting are the primary causes of fires in improve the health, safety, quality of life and immediate
informal settlements around the world. environment of families who need them the most. Their
products have reached 130,000 people in over 1,000
Programmes that address energy poverty by providing
communities so far [2]. One of Pollinate Energy’s most
safer cooking, lighting and heating appliances/sources
popular products is the solar light, which replaces the
can therefore significantly reduce the likelihood of fire.
reliance on kerosene in households and effectively
The vast majority of the 400 million people in India that
eliminates the risk of fires caused by lighting sources.
live in energy poverty rely on kerosene for lighting [1].
According to Pollinate Energy, their products have
Open flame cooking appliances using a wide range of
prevented the use of over 4 million litres of kerosene [2].
fuels, such as firewood, kerosene, and LPG are also
Solar lights also improve lighting levels, which can help
common.
people cook more safely, reducing the risk of burns and
Pollinate Energy is a social enterprise that aims to fires caused by unsafe cooking practices.
bring clean energy solutions to the millions of people

“We used to get oil from the market and pour

it into the lamp and light it; the house used
to get full of soot and dirt. After we got this
solar lamp a lot of things improved. Now we
don’t worry that there will be a fire.”
- Abdul, a slum-dweller in Bangalore who lives
in a hut made of wooden board and tarpaulin.

Photo credit: Pollinate Energy

20 A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements | Arup Arup | A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements 21
 Fire prevention and
preparedness in Syrian
refugee camps in Lebanon

Fire is perceived to be one of the top two ‘most to scale and assures that consistent fire safety messages
concerning hazards’ by displaced persons in Lebanon, are delivered to communities.
according to a survey conducted by the Lebanese
SCI Lebanon also supports communities directly, by
Red Cross [3]. However, a 2016 fire risk assessment
training men, women, and children in how to prevent,
by Operation Florian, a UK registered fire and rescue
prepare for and respond to fires in their homes and
service humanitarian aid charity, revealed that there is
communities. This fire safety training is audience-
a low level of fire safety knowledge among displaced
specific. For example, the child friendly training uses
populations and that local fire services are inadequately
a ‘fire story’, consisting of simplified messages with
funded and equipped [4]. Operation Florian proposed a
illustrations and a series of interactive activities. Children
holistic approach to improve fire safety, which included
are taught how to respond to fire by actively acting out
community prevention and awareness activities.
‘stop, drop and roll’ as a group.
The Lebanon Shelter Cluster, a group of humanitarian
According to the ‘Guidelines for Fire Prevention,
organisations which supports displaced persons with
Preparedness and Response’, community firefighting
shelter, recognised that fire safety activities require a
teams should be established. There is a particular
coordinated, cross-sectoral approach. The cluster formed
emphasis on the creation of spontaneous fire breaks in
a technical committee, which developed ‘Guidelines for
response to large fires; the technique to create these fire
Fire Prevention, Preparedness and Response (FPPR)’.
breaks is described as follows:
These guidelines include guidance specifically for
informal settlements, as well as for residential and non- “To create a spontaneous fire break, community
residential buildings housing Syrian refugees. firefighting teams must… dissemble the third tent/
structure to a tent/structure afire, taking into consideration
The technical committee was led by Save the Children
wind direction. The risk of the adjacent tent/structure
(SCI) Lebanon, an international non-governmental
catching fire in a short period of time (less than 2
organisation that promotes children’s rights, provides
minutes) is high” [3].
relief and helps support vulnerable Lebanese and Syrian
refugee children in Lebanon. SCI Lebanon developed SCI Lebanon distributes ‘Fire Leaflets’, which summarise
fire safety training tools and resources for implementing key fire safety messages (with visuals), and information
partners (other humanitarian organisations in the sheets on how to ‘use a fire extinguisher, check if fire
Lebanon Shelter Cluster) with support from UNHCR extinguishers are valid, and call emergency services’.
(United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). These In addition, SCI Lebanon provided fire safety resources,
‘train-the-trainer’ courses include guidance on distribution including smoke alarms, fire extinguishers, and
of fire safety resources (‘fire safety minimum standards’) firefighting tools (beaters and hooks) to 29,000 children
and training for communities. Coordination of the and their families in 2017 [3].
Lebanon Shelter Cluster enables fire safety programmes Photo credit: Save the Children Lebanon

22 A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements | Arup Arup | A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements 23
 Impact of cultural beliefs on fire
response in Southeast Asia

A series of internal conflicts in Myanmar (formerly in a community’s identity and should, therefore, be
Burma) since 1984 has led to thousands of refugees respected. Organisations supporting communities with
from a variety of ethnicities fleeing into Thailand. Over fire safety interventions should perform a contextual
the years, Thai authorities have established nine refugee analysis with an emphasis on identifying relevant cultural
camps near the Myanmar border, with refugee numbers beliefs.
peaking at 150,000 in 2005 [5]. Following third-country
While fire safety training can raise awareness of fire risks
resettlement programmes, the numbers currently stand at
and influence behaviours, it is often not appropriate to try
98,000. Mae La, with a population of 37,000, is by far the
to change deeply rooted cultural beliefs. Education in fire
largest [6].
safety should be appropriate and sensitive to the context
The camps are operated by the Committee for and traditions of each particular community.
Coordination of Services to Displaced Persons in
In addition, specific mitigation and preparedness
Thailand (CCSDPT).
measures could be considered to address the risks
In 2014, Operation Florian, a UK registered fire and introduced or heightened by cultural beliefs. For
rescue service humanitarian aid charity, carried out a fire example, providing alternative exits from all dwellings to
needs assessment of four of the camps in partnership help alleviate the aforementioned issue.
with FIRE AID, an umbrella organisation, which brings
together its members to deliver humanitarian aid globally.
The primary aim was to advise on fire risk reduction Major fire in the Ban Mae Surin refugee
across the camps. camp in Thailand
As part of a contextual analysis, Operation Florian On 22nd March 2013, a fire broke out in the Ban
learned about several cultural beliefs that relate to fire Mae Surin camp in Thailand. Extensive fire spread
safety. For example, it is believed that if your neighbour’s has been attributed to dry conditions and firebrands
house is on fire and you follow them escaping, this will (i.e. burning embers) from grass thatched roofs by
bring bad spirits to your house. This presents challenges eyewitnesses. More than 400 bamboo dwellings
in approaching fire safety, such as evacuation strategies and several community buildings were destroyed in
and undertaking fire drills. the fire.
Not all cultural beliefs have a rational basis and many The fire left 37 people dead, over 100 injured and
may seem counterintuitive to people from a different 2,300 homeless [7].
culture. However cultural beliefs can be deeply rooted

Photo credit: Toby Keller, burnblue.com

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 “Governments
attitudes to informal
settlements range
from opposition
and eviction to
reluctant tolerance
and support for
legislation and
The difficult road to recovery
in South African townships upgrading.”
- William Robert Avis, Urban governance topic guide
On 11th March 2017, a fire swept through the Imizamo with the public consultation process. Many residents
Yethu township in Cape Town, South Africa. Four lives started rebuilding independently of the City’s super-
were lost, 2,194 structures were destroyed and 9,700 blocking process, which inhibited the community-wide
people were displaced. It was one of the worst fires in reconstruction effort. This prompted the city to obtain a
the history of Cape Town [8]. court interdict against anyone who continued to erect
structures before super-blocking commenced. Violent
Left with little or no belongings, victims of the fire relied
protests erupted in response to contested issues such as
on support from neighbours, NGOs, the City of Cape
the City’s demolition of structures, inadequate emergency
Town, and various departments from the Western
housing, fears of permanent relocation and significant
Cape Government in the immediate aftermath of the
delays in the reconstruction of Imizamo Yethu [13].
fire. This included food, supplies and temporary relief
accommodation in tents and community halls. Medical Following the protests and subsequent meetings
treatment and trauma counselling were also provided to between the Mayor and the community leadership, a joint
residents affected by the fire [9]. statement was released to proceed with super-blocking.
The project completion date was adjusted to July 2019,
On March 12 2017, just one day after the fire, the City of
two years after the initial estimated completion date [14].
Cape Town announced plans to rebuild Imizamo Yethu
[9]. The City normally provides housing kits to residents By March 2018 however, one year after the fire,
whose dwellings have been destroyed in a fire [10]. minimal progress on the super-blocking had taken
However, in an effort to improve living conditions and place. As a result, Imizamo Yethu community members
prevent such an extreme event from occurring again, held a peaceful demonstration and handed over a
the City of Cape Town proposed a new approach to memorandum of grievances to City’s officials. Residents
reconstruction termed ‘re-blocking’. The Executive Mayor demanded to be allowed to rebuild their homes without
described this scheme as follows: fear of demolition and court interdicts. They also called
for the provisions of basic services, a means to engage
“Super-blocking... provides for blocks separated
directly with the City and “that the upgrade be done in
by roads and pedestrian/service corridors, with
a collaborative manner, with input from residents” [15].
electrification and communal taps and toilets provided
Following this, the City re-affirmed their commitment to
per block. Road access, electrification, fire-breaks, and
supporting the community through super-blocking.
fire hydrants are anticipated to significantly reduce fire
risk in an area such as Imizamo Yethu” [11]. This example of post-fire reconstruction highlights
some of the challenges and complexities associated
The ‘super-blocking’ of Imizamo Yethu was estimated
with the recovery stage of the disaster cycle. Recovery
to take three months (estimated completion July 2017)
is a dynamic process where the immediate needs of
[12] and it was intended to be completed in partnership
survivors must be balanced and aligned with long-term
with the local community. However, several media
strategic objectives to build back better.
reports stated that the community was dissatisfied
Photo credit: Sullivan Photography

26 A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements | Arup Arup | A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements 27
 Research behind the framework Next steps
The framework concept and thoughts outlined in The key questions that have guided this research This framework was developed to facilitate Ultimately, fire risk reduction needs to be
this publication have been informed by numerous so far are as follows: collaboration and alignment of global efforts to integrated into local, national and global disaster
avenues of learning, drawing on the research and create safer and more resilient informal settlement management policy and practices.
-- How significant is the problem of fire in the
experiences of Arup and others. communities. Further research is needed to
hierarchy of risks? The UN Sustainable Development Goal 11,
learn from previous disasters and to quantify fire
Arup’s Fire Safety in Informal Settlement’s research Target 11.5 sets out to “by 2030, significantly
-- What are the causes of fire in these contexts incidence, impacts, and causal factors. There is a
programme is led by our international development reduce the number of deaths and the number
and what differentiates the causes and effects need for:
group and fire safety engineering group. Arup of people affected… by disasters… with a focus
in different urban contexts/typologies?
International Development (AID) partners with -- Improved knowledge of the causes, behaviour, on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable
development and humanitarian organizations to -- How effective are the current/proposed fire and impacts of fires in informal settlements situations”. With this overarching goal in mind,
create more sustainable and resilient communities mitigation and response measures? we hope that this framework will support the
-- Improved understanding of the context and
globally. Arup Fire comprises an international incorporation of fire safety within wider disaster
-- Which stakeholders are most engaged with, or characteristics of different informal settlement
team of 200+ fire safety specialists dedicated planning and within holistic strategies for the
could have the most influence on, fire safety? typologies globally and how those factors
to protecting people, properties, assets and resilience of communities and cities in the face of
influence fire safety
operations from the various fire hazards and risks -- What is the most effective application for fire multiple hazards.
that exist in the built environment. safety engineering to influence fire safety? -- Data collection (fire statistics, settlement
This framework is intended to support further
characteristics, local experience of fires, fire
Over the past three years, we have visited We continue to study fire safety in informal research, encourage knowledge sharing and
safety success stories, etc.)
numerous informal settlements and conducted settlements through active engagement with other promote investments in fire risk reduction in global
interviews with community leaders, fire and rescue researchers and practitioners via workshops, -- Development of tools to assess fire risk in informal settlements.
services, NGOs, academic institutions and social conferences, collaborative publications, and informal settlements and target effective and
An exciting group of interested parties has
businesses, primarily in South Africa but also in projects. efficient investments in fire risk reduction
emerged through FIRE AID / Operation Florian
other locations around the world. Our research has
-- Fire safety advice based on practical solutions which includes fire fighters, fire safety engineers,
also been informed by several desktop studies and
that take into consideration the vulnerabilities, international development professionals,
reviews of technical and academic literature.
challenges, capacities, and resources of researchers and field staff from the public sector,
different informal settlement typologies academia, private sector and NGO world. We look
forward to working with this group and the many
-- Development of construction materials, fire
other interested parties, to create and promote
safety products, equipment and systems
solutions for fire safety in informal settlements.
which can help improve fire safety in informal
settlements To find out more about the framework or to
contribute to further research on fire safety in
Improved evidence of the likelihood and impact of
informal settlements, please get in touch (contact
fires in informal settlements is needed to enable
details included at the end of the document).
advocacy and continued engagement with
those in position to influence policy, governance,
legislation, and construction practices.

Photo credit: Sullivan Photography

28 A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements | Arup Arup | A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements 29
 Acknowledgements References
[1] Pollinate Ener-gy, “The Is-sue: understanding ur-ban slum poverty and the ac-cess
Our research on fire safety in informal settlements would
gap,” [Online]. Available: https://pollin-ateen-er-gy.org/issue/. [Accessed 13 September
not have been possible without the hard work and 2018].
dedication of the following Arup staff: [2] Pollinate Ener-gy, “Our Impact: measuring how we are do-ing,” [Online]. Available:
https://pollin-ateen-er-gy.org/impact/. [Accessed 13 September 2018].
Danielle Antonellis, Arup Fire [3] In-ter-agency Shelter Sector Coor-di-na-tion Working Group, “Guidelined for the Fire
Prevention, Prepared-ness, and Re-sponse (FPPR),” Shelter Core Working Group,
Kenneth Wynne, Arup Fire 2018.

Darren Gill, Arup International Development [4] Opera-tion Florian, “Fire Risk Reduction As-sessment of Vulnerable Displaced Syrian
Popu-la-tions and Host Communities in Lebanon,” Save the Children, 2017.
[5] The Border Consortium, “Brief Histo-ry of the Border,” [Online]. Available: https://www.
theborderconsor-tium.org/about-us/his-to-ry/. [Accessed 13 September 2018].
Special thanks go to [6] The Border Consortium, “Where We Work,” [Online]. Available: https://www.
theborderconsor-tium.org/where-we-work/camps-in-thailand/. [Accessed 14
Eoin O’Loughlin, Arup Fire, and Sandra Cuffe, Stewart September 2018].
Ramsdale and Roman Svidran, Arup Graphics, for their [7] Opera-tion Florian, “CCSDPT Thailand Fire Needs As-sessment,” Opera-tion Floran,
Machester, 2014.
role in creating this framework document.
[8] City of Cape Town, “Out of the ashes comes a far better Imizamo Yethu,” 20 June
2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.capetown.gov.za/Media-and-news/Out%20
of%20the%20ashes%20comes%20a%20far%20bet-ter%20Imi-zamo%20Yethu.
[Accessed 28 August 2018].
[9] State-ment by the City’s Acting Executive Mayor, Alderman Ian Neilson, “Con-sol-
idated re-lief ef-forts under way in Imizamo Yethu,” 12 March 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.capetown.gov.za/Media-and-news/Consoli-dated%20relief%20efforts%20
under%20way%20in%20Imi-zamo%20Yethu. [Accessed 13 September 2018].
[10] Is-su-ing of Hous-ing Kits Policy - (Policy Number 20005), Cape Town, Western Cape
Province: City of Cape Town, 2014.
[11] City’s Executive Mayor, Pa-tri-cia de Lille, “City commen-ces su-per-blocking in
Imizamo Yethu,” 21 March 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.capetown.gov.za/
Media-and-news/City%20commences%20sup-er-blocking%20in%20Imi-zamo%20
Yethu. [Accessed 13 September 2018].
[12] Joint State-ment by the City’s Executive Mayor, Pa-tri-cia De Lille, and the Imizamo
Yethu Community Leaders, “Major De Lille de-clares Imizamo Yethu a lo-cal disas-
ter ar-ea,” 12 April 2017. [Online]. Available: http://re-source.ca-pe-town.gov.za/
documentcentre/Documents/Speeches%20and%20statements/12%20April%20
17%20Imi-zamo%20Yethu%20a%20local%20disaster%20area.pdf. [Accessed 13
September 2018].
[13] S. Fisher, “Frus-tra-tion Boiling Over as Imizamo Yethu Residents Continue to Protest,”
Eyewitness News, 3 Ju-ly 2017. [Online]. Available: https://ewn.co.za/2017/07/03/
frustration-boiling-over-as-imizamo-yethu-res-idents-continue-protest. [Accessed 13
September 2018].
[14] Joint State-ment by the City’s Executive Mayor, Pa-tri-cia de Lille, and Imizamo
Yethu Community, “City and Imizamo Yethu community leadership to push ahead
with consol-idated su-per-blocking plan,” 10 Ju-ly 2017. [Online]. Available: http://
www.capetown.gov.za/Media-and-news/City%20and%20Imi-zamo%20Yethu%20
community%20leader-ship%20to%20push%20ahead%20with%20consoli-dated%20
super-blocking%20plan. [Accessed 13 September 13].
[15] T. Pe-tersen, “Hout Bay fire vic-tims say they will not be moved,” 26 March 2018.
[Online]. Available: https://www.news24.com/SouthAf-ri-ca/News/hout-bay-fire-vic-
tims-say-they-will-not-be-moved-20180326. [Accessed 13 September 2018].

Photo credit: Sullivan Photography

30 A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements | Arup Arup | A Framework for Fire Safety in Informal Settlements 31
www.arup.com

For more information please contact:

Arup Danielle Antonellis Darren Gill

13 Fitzroy Street Fire Safety Engineering International Development
London W1T 4BQ
e: [email protected] e: [email protected]
United Kingdom
t: +44 20 7755 4908 t: +44 20 7755 3194

Photo credit: Aletta Harrison/GroundUp