PRELIM fixative used for electron microscopy, react with

amine groups (NH2) of proteins, preventing their

Histology- first used in 1847, derived from Greek degradation by common proteases
words “histos” that means tissues, study of tissues of
the body and how these tissues are arranged to 3. dehydration- tissue is transferred through a series
constitute organs. Has 4 basic types: Epithelial, of increasingly concentrated alcohol solutions, ending
Connective, Muscular, Nervous in 100% which removes all water

• Extracellular Matrix- supports the cells and 4. clearing- alcohol is removed in organic solvents in
contains the fluid (Interstitial Fluid) which both alcohol and paraffin are miscible
transporting nutrients to the cells and
carrying away their wastes and secretory 5. infiltration- tissue is then placed in melted paraffin
products, consists of many kinds of macro (wax) until it becomes completely infiltrated with this
molecule that form complex structures such substance, fully cleared tissue is then placed in melted
as collagen fibrils (ex: plasma) paraffin in an oven at 52C to 60C, which evaporates
❖ Interstitial Fluid- fluid found in the clearing solvent
matrix 6. embedding- paraffin infiltrated tissue is placed in a
❖ Matrix- environment or material small mold (like tissue cassette) with melted paraffin
in which something develops, and allowed to harden at room temperature
surrounding medium or structure
• Cells- produce the ECM locally and are in turn 7. trimming- the resulting paraffin block is trimmed to
strongly influenced by matrix molecules expose the tissue for sectioning (slicing) on a
microtome
MAIN CHARACTERS OF BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
8. sectioning- Cutting prepared tissue block into
TISSUE CELLS ECM FUNCTION sections of varying thickness, paraffin sections are
Epithelial Aggregate Small Lining of typically cut at 3-10 micrometer thickness for light
d amount surface or microscopy, less than 1 micrometer for electron
polyhedral body microscopy. the sections are placed on a glass slide
cells cavities, and stained for light microscopy or on metal grids for
glandular electron microscopic staining and examination
secretion
Connectiv Several Abundan Support and Microtome- apparatus used to section paraffin
e types of t amount protect embedded tissues for light microscopy
fixes and tissues/orga 9. staining- for the visualization of cellular
wandering ns
components (since all specimens are colorless), make
cells
various tissue components not only noticeable but
Muscle Elongated Moderat Strong also distinguishable from one another. Cell
contractil e contraction components, such as nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)
e cells amount with a net negative charge (anionic), have an affinity
Nervous Elongated Very Transmission for basic dyes and are termed Basophilic. Cationic
cells with small of nerve components such as proteins with many ionized
extremely amount impulses amino groups, stain more readily with acidic dyes and
fine are termed Acidophilic
processes
• Basic Dyes (Blue or Purple)- Toluidine blue,
Alcian blue, Methylene blue, and
FIXATION OF TISSUES FOR STUDY Hematoxylin staining basophilic tissue
1. numbering- labeling the specimen according to components such as the nucleus containing
institution’s guideline DNA, RNA and Glycosaminoglycans
• Acid Dyes (Pinkish or Orange)- Eosin, Orange
2. fixation- preservation of tissues, to preserve tissue G, and Acid Fuchsin staining the acidophilic
structure and prevent degradation by enzymes components of tissues such as mitochondria,
released from the cells or microorganisms, small secretory granules and collagen
pieces of tissue are placed in solutions of chemicals
that cross-link proteins and inactivate degradative SPECIALIZED STAINS
enzymes. Formalin (buffered isotonic solution of 37% 1. Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction- utilizes the
formaldehyde) and Glutaraldehyde (also cross-links, hexose rings of polysaccharides and other
adjacent proteins, reinforcing cell and ECM structure). carbohydrate-rich tissue structures and stains such
Both this compound (formalin) and glutaraldehyde, a macromolecules distinctly purple or magenta
2. Sudan Black- lipid soluble dye, useful in diagnosis of 1000 to 1500 times ▪ Objective smaller or
metabolic diseases that involve intracellular thinner than 0.2 micrometer (single ribosome
accumulations of cholesterol, phospholipids, or or cytoplasmic microfilament) cannot be
glycolipids distinguished
• Fluorescence microscopy- cellular substances
3. Metal Impregnation Techniques- using solutions of are irradiated by light, they emit light with
silver salts to visual certain ECM fibers and specific longer wavelength. The fluorescent
cellular elements in nervous tissue substances appear bright on a dark
4. Hematoxylin and eosin stains (H&E)- most common background. For fluorescent microscopy, the
used staining method for histology section (DNA, RNA, instrument has a source of UV or other light
matrix) Hematoxylin stains DNA in the cell nucleus, and filters
RNA-rich portions of the cytoplasm, and the matrix of ❖ Acridine Orange- DNA and RNA, (a)
cartilage, producing a dark blue or purple color. Eosin binds nucleic acids and causes DNA
stains other cytoplasmic structures and collagen in cell nuclei (N) to emit yellow light
producing pink color and the RNA-rich cytoplasm (R) to
appear orange in these cells of a
10. mounting- arranging tissues on slides, mounting a kidney tubule
protective glass coverslip on the slide with clear ❖ DAPI ( (4’,6-diamino-2-phenylindole)
adhesive (ex: Canada balsam) and Hoechst- DNA and are used to
stain cell nuclei (blue), binds DNA
Light Microscopy- all based on the interaction of light
and with fluorescein phalloidin that
with tissue components and are used to reveal and
binds actin filaments show nuclei
study tissue features
with blue fluorescence and actin
• Bright-field microscopy- examined with filaments stained green
ordinary light passing through preparation • Phase-contrast microscopy- uses lens system
❖ Condenser- focusing light on the that produces visible images from
object to be studied transparent objects and can be used with
❖ Objective lens- enlarging and living, cultured cells. Allows examination of
projecting the image of the object cells without fixation or staining. Principle:
❖ Eyepiece/ocular lens- further light changes its speed when passing through
magnifying the image cellular and extracellular structures with
❖ Condenser- collects and focuses a different refractive indices. These changes
cone of light that illuminates the are used by the phase-contrast system to
tissue slide on the stage cause the structures to appear lighter or
❖ Objective- lenses enlarge and darker in relation to each other, A
project the illuminated image of the modification of phase-contrast microscopy is
object toward the eyepiece. differential interference contrast microscopy
Interchangeable objectives with with Nomarski optics, which produces an
different magnifications routinely image of living cells with a more apparent
used in histology include X4 for (3D) aspect
observing a large area (field) of the
Refractive index- index of how light propagates
tissue at low magnification; X10 for
through a material
medium magnification of a smaller
field; X40 for high magnification of • Differential interference microscopy-
more detailed areas produces image of living cells with more
❖ Two eyepiece/ocular- magnify this apparent 3D aspect
image another X10 and project it to • Polarizing microscopy- Allows the recognition
the viewer, yielding a total of stained or unstained structures made of
magnification of X40, X100 or X400 highly organized subunits, tissue structures
containing oriented macromolecules are
Total Magnification- multiplying the magnifying
located between the two polarizing filters,
power of the objective and ocular lenses
they appear as bright structures against a
Resolving Power- smallest distance between two dark background
structures at which they can be seen as separate
Birefringence- ability to rotate the direction of
objects. It determines the quality of the image, its
vibration of polarized light and a feature of crystalline
clarity and richness of detail
substances or substances containing highly oriented
• Maximal Resolving Power- 0.2 micrometer, molecules, such as cellulose, collagen, microtubules,
which can permit clear images magnified and actin filaments ▪ optical property of a material
having a refractive index that depends on the
polarization and propagation direction of light

Refer to Living Neural Crest Cells image:

(a) Bright-field Microscopy- without fixation and

staining, only the two pigment cells can be seen

(b) Phase-contrast Microscopy- cell boundaries, nuclei

and cytoplasmic structures with different refractive
indices affect in phase light differently and produce an
image of these features in all the cells

(c) Differential interference contrast Microscopy-

Autoradiography- this process localizes cell
cellular details are highlighted in a different manner
components synthesized using radioactive precursors
using Nomarski optics
by detecting silver grains produced by weakly emitted
Electron Microscopy- transmission and scanning radiation in a photographic emulsion coating the
electron microscopes are based on the interaction of tissue section or cells, with either light microscopy or
tissue components with beams of electrons, the TEM, autoradiography permits unique studies of
wavelength in an electron beam is much shorter than processes such as tissue growth (using radioactive
that of light, allowing a 1000-fold increase in DNA precursors) or cellular pathways of
resolution macromolecular synthesis

• Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)- Cell and Tissue Culture- Cells can be grown in vitro
provides a high-resolution view of the from newly explanted tissues (primary cultures) or as
surfaces of cells, tissues, and organs. Like the long-established cell lines and can be examined in the
TEM, this microscope produces and focuses a living state by phase-contrast light microscopy
very narrow beam of electrons. Surface of
Enzyme Histochemistry- Histochemical (or
the specimen is first dried and spray-coated
cytochemical) techniques use specific enzymatic
with a very thin layer of heavy metal (often
activities in lightly fixed or unfixed tissue sections to
gold) that reflects electrons in a beam
produce visible products in the specific enzyme
scanning the specimen. SEM images are
locations, fixation and paraffin embedding denatures
usually easy to interpret because they
most enzymes, so histochemistry usually uses frozen
present a three-dimensional view
tissue sectioned with a cryostat (phosphatases,
dehydrogenases, peroxidases)

--
• Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)- Microscope- an optical instrument that is used to
imaging system that permits resolution observe tiny objects, often objects that cannot be
around 3nm. This high resolution allows seen at all with the unaided human eye (the “naked
isolated particles magnified as much as eye”)
120,000 times to be viewed in detail (used
for viruses). A beam of electrons focused • Parcentral- the condition when a specimen is
using electromagnetic “lenses” passes centered in the field of view under one
through the tissue section to produce an objective, the specimen will be partially
image with black, white, and intermediate centered after switching to the next objective
shades of gray regions. To improve contrast • Parfocal- the ability to change from one
and resolution, compounds with heavy metal objective lens to another and still have the
ions are often added to the fixative or specimen in focus more than a little
dehydrating solutions
PARTS OF MICROSCOPE 6. at the end of every experiment, clean the lenses
with lens paper
1. Magnifying Parts- used to enlarge the specimen
7. the scanning objective or LPO should be the one in
• Ocular/ Eyepiece- set of lenses found on top focus and stage should be centered and lowered
of the body tube which functions to further
magnify the image produced by the objective 8. when microscope is returned in cabinet, the
lenses, magnification: 5x-15x microscope’s arm must face the opening of the cabin
• Objectives- metal cylinders attached below
9. Use the coarse adjustment only with the low power
the nosepiece and contains especially ground
objective
and polished lenses. 4 Types of Objectives:
Scanner (red): 4x, Low Power Objective 10. Avoid jarring or bumping the microscope
(yellow): 10x, High Power Objective (blue):
40x, Oil Immersion Objective (white): 100x 11. Store the microscope covered in a protected area

2. Illuminating Parts- used to provide light Cell- basic structural and functional unit of all living
organisms, vary widely in size and shape depending on
• Mirror- reflect light rays from the light source their function, microscopes are used to study cells
to object because most cannot be seen with an unaided eye
❖ Concave Mirror- used for near light
source • Nucleus- contains most of genes in
❖ Plane Mirror- used for distant source eukaryotic cell, about 5 microns in diameter,
of lighted day light the DNA and associated proteins are
• Electric Lamp (Tungsten)- built-in illuminator organized into fibrous material called
that may be used inf sunlight is not preferred chromatin
• Condenser- focuses the light onto specimen
• Diaphragm- used to regulate the amount of
light passing into the condenser
• Filter- used for increasing contrast; blocking
ambient light, removing harmful ultraviolet
or infrared light, selectively transmitting only
wanted wavelengths

3. Mechanical Parts- used to support and adjust the

parts

• Base- the support upon which the instrument

rests, helps in holding various parts of
microscope
• Arm- a C shaped upright structure, hinged to
the base, that supports and holds the
microscope
• Stage- the horizontal plate upon which the
specimen rests • Nucleolus- region of densely stained fibers
• Body Tube- houses the objective and focus and granules adjoining chromatin, rRNA is
lenses usually formed inside nucleolus
• Coarse and Fine Adjustments- brings the • Ribosomes- for protein synthesis,
lenses into alignment prokaryotes: 70 sub unit, eukaryotes: 80 sub
PRECAUTIONS unit
❖ free- found in cytosol to synthesize
1. hold the C-shaped arm with one hand and other protein
hand under base ❖ bound- attached in outside
endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear
2. never allow direct light to fall on microscope envelope
3. while using oil immersion objective, do not adjust • endoplasmic reticulum- consists of
coarse screw membraneous tubules and sacs called
cisternae
4. oil immersion objective should be cleaned after use ❖ smooth- without ribosome,
by wiping with soft cotton cloth or lens paper synthesis of lipid glycogen
5. dry objective should never come in contact with oil
 metabolism in liver cells, stores cell prepares itself by duplicating its
calcium chromosomes and other cellular
❖ rough- with ribosome, synthesis of contents. The chromosomes at this
secretory proteins, cell membrane stage are dispersed and not visible
protein and organelle protein using a light microscope.
• golgi apparatus- major site for carbohydrates ❖ G2 Phase- short period of
synthesis, sorting and dispatching station for preparation of the cell prepares the
products of ER, consists of flattened enzymes and machinery for mitosis
membraneous sacs
• lysosomes- contains hydrolytic enzymes to
digest proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and
nucleic acid. Autophagy (self eating)
• mitochondria- energy transformer of cells,
has folds called cristae, principal site for
intracellular energy
• cytoskeleton- network of fibers extending
throughout cytoplasm, provides mechanical
strength for cell, establish cell shape,
locomotion, intracellular transport of
organelles • Prophase- the nucleolus disappears and
❖ microtubules- responsible for replicated chromatin condenses into discrete
positions of membranes enclosed, threadlike chromosomes
primarily for intracellular support ❖ Early Prophase- the cells starts to
❖ microfilament- responsible for cell break down some structures and
shaped, necessary for locomotion build others up, setting the stage for
and movement division of chromosomes
❖ intermediate filament- responsible ❖ Late Prophase- the mitotic spindle
to provide mechanical strength for begins to capture and organize the
resistance to shear stress chromosomes
• centrosomes- region near nucleus from
which microtubules sprouts, aids in
organizing microtubules or “microtubule
organizing center”, usually contain pair of
centrioles
• centrioles- composed of 9 sets of triplet
microtubules arrainged in ring, replicates
before cell division
• cilia and flagella- both provide locomotion
for cell or move fluid pass the cell, cilia
sweeps mucus, flagellum has undulating
motion that generates force in same
direction as flagellum’s axis • Metaphase- the spindle has captured all the
chromosomes and lined them up at the
Two Types of Cell Division middle of the cell, ready to divide
1. Mitosis- the mechanism by which the chromosomes
of eukaryotes are segregated so that the two
daughter cells formed by cell division receive the
same number of chromosomes that the parent cell
contained, only cell cycle phase that can be routinely
distinguished under light microscope

• Interphase- long period between mitosis

❖ G1 Phase Growth- period in which
cells accumulate enzymes and
nucleotides, the cell grows in size
and carry out their normal day to • Anaphase- the sister chromatids separate
day activities from each other and are pulled towards
❖ S Phase- period devoted primarily to opposite ends of the cell
DNA replication. Prior to mitosis, the
 Epithelial Tissues- tissue in which cells are bound
tightly together structurally and functionally to form
sheetlike or tubular structure

• Principal Functions- covering, lining, and

protecting surfaces (epidermis), absorption
(the intestinal lining), secretion (parenchymal
cells of glands)
• Characteristics- consist of contagious cells in
apposition (positioning of things or the
condition of being side by side close
• Telophase- the cell is nearly done dividing, together) over a large portion of their
and it starts to re-establish its normal surface, cells rest on a continuous
structures as cytokinesis takes place extracellular layer (basal lamina),
avascularity: absence of blood vessels among
cells, cells are arranged in layers or sheets,
variable in shape and dimensions
(Columnar/Cuboidal/ Squamous)

2. Meiosis- a specialized division of sex cells that Transcytosis- ability to transport macromolecules
results in the production of four cells, each with one from one side of cell to another
half the number of chromosomes contained by the Pinocytosis- type of endocytosis wherein pino means
parent cell “to drink”
• Prophase I- chromosomes condense, nuclear basement membrane- thin extracellular layer of
membrane dissolves, homologous specialized proteins, acts as filters which provides
chromosomes form bivalents, crossing over structural support for epithelial cells
occurs
• Metaphase I- spindle fibers from opposing • Basal lamina- a thin meshwork of type IV
centrosomes connect to bivalents (at collagen and laminin produced by the
centromeres) and align them along the epithelial cells
middle of the cell • Reticular lamina- contains type III collagen
• Anaphase I- spindle fibers contract and split and anchoring fibrils of VII collagen, all
the bivalent, homologous chromosomes secreted by cells of the immediately adjacent
move to opposite poles of the cell connective tissue, can be viewed using
• Telophase I- chromosomes decondense, transmission electron microscope
nuclear membrane may reform, cell divides
INTERCELLULAR ADHESIONS & OTHER JUNCTIONS
to form two haploid daughter cells
• Prophase II- chromosomes condense, nuclear 1. tight/occluding junctions/zonula ocludens- linear
membrane dissolves, centrosomes move to arrangements of linked proteins surround the apical
opposite poles ends of the cells and prevent paracellular passage of
• Metaphase II- spindle fibers from opposing substances, formed by interacting transmembrane
centrosomes attach to chromosomes (at proteins such as claudin and occluding
centromere) and align them along the cell
equator
• Anaphase II- spindle fibers contract and
separate the sister chromatids (now called
chromosomes) move to opposite poles
• Telophase II- chromosome decondense,
nuclear membrane reforms, cell divides to
form four haploid daughter cells
2. Adherent or anchoring junctions- are points of
strong attachment holding together cells of the
epithelium.

3. Desmosomes or macula adherens- as the name

implies, this junction resembles a single “spot-weld”
and does not form a belt around the cell, desmos
means binding, soma means body, macula means
adhering spot

4. Hemidesmosomes- composed of transmembrane 3. Cilia- larger projecting structures with a well-

integrins attach cells to proteins of the basal lamina. organized core of microtubules in which restricted,
dynein-based sliding of microtubules causes ciliary
movement that propel material along an epithelial
surface, transport materials to propel along epithelial
cells, abundant in simple cuboidal cells

5. Gap or communicating junctions- channels for

communication between adjacent cells, points of cell
contact where both plasma membranes have
numerous hexameric complexes of transmembrane
connexons each forming a channel allowing a passage
of small molecules from one cell to the other MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES OF EPITHELIA

1. simple- epithelium in which the basement

membrane has one cell layer, range widely in height,
from very thin or squamous, to roughly cuboidal, to
very tall or columnar.

FEATU CELL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

RE FORM
Simple Squamo Lining of vessels Facilitate
(one us (endothelium), movement
layer serous lining of of viscera
APICAL STRUCTURES OF EPITHELIAL CELLS of cell) cavities:pericar (mesotheliu
dium, pleura, m), active
1. Microvilli- small membrane projections with cores peritoneum transport
of actin filaments that generally function to increase (mesothelium) by
epithelial cells’ apical surface area for absorption or to pinocytosis
move substances along epithelial cells, 1mm long & (mesotheliu
0.1mm wide m and
endotheliu
m),
secretion of
biologically
active
molecules
(mesotheliu
m)
cuboida Covering the Covering,
2. Stereocilia- long microvilli with specialized l ovary, thyroid secretion
mechanosensory function in cells of the inner ear and column Lining of Protection,
for absorption in tissues of the male reproductive ar intestine, lubrication
tract gallbladder absorption,
secretion
 Squamous Mouth, Protection,
nonkeratinized esophagus, secretion,
(moist) larynx, vagina, prevents water
canal loss
Cuboidal Sweat glands, Protection,
developing secretion
ovarian
follicles
Transitional Bladder, Protection,
uterus, renal distensibility
calyses
Columnar Conjuctiva Protection

3. Pseudostratified epithelia- thick and appear to have

several cell layers, all cells attach to the basal lamina
but not all extend to the free epithelial surface.

2. stratified squamous- epithelia with two or more

layers of cells are stratified and almost all such
epithelia which the outer cell layers are thin and
flattened, cover the body surface, protecting
underlying tissues from excess water loss
(dehydration) and microbial invasion

4. Transitional epithelium/ urothelium- found only in

the lining of the urinary system, is stratified, with large
rounded surface cells protective against urine.

FUNCTIONAL EPITHELIUM

1. Mesothelium- serous lining of cavities such as

pericardium, pleura, peritoneum for lubrication

2. Endothelium- made up of flat cells that lines the

blood vessels

3. Myoepithelium- basket cells, to remodel the scars

in the skin

4. Endometrium- lining of the uterus

5. Germinal epithelium- layer of the ovaries and

seminiferous tubules

6. Glandular epithelium- for secretions

epithelial secretion/glands- the major function in

many epithelial cells is synthesis and secretion of
specialized products, organs composed primarily of
such epithelia are called glands.
Squamous Epidermis Protection, • Exocrine glands- have epithelial ducts
keratinized prevents water carrying secretions to specific sites, the ducts
(dry) loss of simple glands are unbranched and those of
compound glands are branched.
 ❖ Merocrine- secretion releases
products, usually containing
proteins, by means of exocytosis at
the apical end of the secretory cells.
Most exocrine glands are merocrine,
cells are intact
❖ Holocrine- secretion is produced by
the disintegration of the secretory
cells themselves as they complete
their terminal differentiation, which
involves becoming filled with
product. Sebaceous glands of hair
follicles are the best examples of
holocrine glands, destruction of cells
❖ Apocrine- apical product filled areas 2. Shape of surface cells- squamous, cuboidal or
of cells are extruded, secretion columnar
involves loss of membrane-enclosed
apical cytoplasm, usually containing
one or more lipid droplets. Apocrine
secretion, along with merocrine
secretion, is seen in mammary
glands, top of cell is lost/partial
destruction
• Endocrine glands- lack ducts, secreted 3. Specializations- cilia, keratin or goblet cells
substances are hormones carried throughout
the body by the interstitial fluid and blood,
with specificity produced by the hormone
receptors of target cells.

NAMING CELLS

1. specialization (ciliated)

2. number of layers

3. shape

4. specialization (keratin/non keratinized)

5. epithelial cell
Mucuos glands- oligosaccharide components of Ex:
mucus stain poorly with routine dyes but stains well
with PAS stain. 1. simple squamous epithelial cell

Serous glands- produced by exocrine glands, stain

darkly with H&E due to cells’ content of RER and
secretory granules

--

Epithelial Tissue

1. Number of cell layers- single or compound

2. simple columnar epithelial cell
3. stratified squamous keratinized epithelial cell &
stratified squamos non keratinized epithelial cell

4. stratified columnar epithelial cell

5. transitional epithelial cell

6. stratified columnar epithelial cell

connective tissue - support and connect other tissues

7. ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial cell and maintain the water required for metabolite
diffusion, forms the supportive stroma which supports
the organ’s unique functional components or
parenchyma, all consist primarily of extracellular
material rather than cells

extra cellular matrix- consists of both large protein

fibers and non-fibrous areas of unstained ground
substance rich in various GAGs and water.

Mesenchyme- embryonic form of connective tissue,

contains uniformly undifferentiated cells scattered in
a gel-like matrix
 3. Macrophages- function in ECM turnover,
phagocytosis of dead cells and debris, and antigen
presentation to lymphocytes. short-lived cells that
Cytes- mature cell, active cells (fibrocytes, osteocytes
differentiate in connective tissue from precursor cells
and chondrocytes)
called monocytes circulating in the blood, present in
Blast- immature or former cells (fibroblasts, the connective tissue of most organs and are
osteoblasts and chondroblasts) sometimes referred to as “histiocytes”

Clast- destroyers (osteoclasts)

Progenitor cells- stem cells (osteoprogenitor cells,

mesenchymal cells (undifferentiated cells)

fixed cells- mesenchymal cells, fibroblasts and

reticular cells

Wandering cells- ameboid movement, crawling

motion (macrophage, phagocytes and mast cells) 4. Mast cells - release of various vasoactive agents and
other substances during inflammatory and allergic
Plasma cells- production of antibodies reactions.
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES • Heparin- sulfated GAG, acts locally as
anticoagulant
1. Fibroblasts (fibrocytes)- the major cells of
• Histamine- promotes vascular permeability,
connective tissue proper, are elongated, irregularly
smooths muscle contraction
shaped cells with oval nuclei that synthesize and
• Serine proteases - activates various
secrete most components of the ECM. (ex: collagen
mediators of inflammation
(the most abundant protein of the body), Elastin,
GAGs, Proteoglycans, Multi-adhesive glycoproteins • Eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic
comprising the ground substance) factor- attracts certain leukocytes
• Cytokines- polypeptide that directs activity of
leukocytes and other cell of immune system
• Phospholipid precursors - important lipid
mediators of the inflammatory response

2. Adipocytes- very large cells specialized for storage

of triglycerides, they predominate in a specialized
form of connective tissue called adipose tissue,
production of heat, cushion and insulation of organs,
called as fat cells (ex: white adipocytes, beige
CELL TYPE MAJOR FUNCTION
adipocytes, brown adipocytes)
LOCATION
Monocyte Blood Precursor of
macrophages
Macrophage Connective Production of
tisue, lymphoid cytokines,
organs, lungs, chemotactic
bone Marrow, factors, several
 pleural, other to form large fibrils clearly visible in the
peritoneal molecules that electron or light microscope
cavities participate in ❖ Collagen Type I- most abundant and
inflammation, widely distributed collagen, forms
antigen large, eosinophilic bundles usually
processing and called collagen fibers. Fibrils of type I
presentation collagen are bundled together by
Kupffer cell Liver Same as other forms of nonfibrillar, linking
macrophage collagens to produce large collagen
Microglial cell Central Same as bundles. These often densely fill the
nervous macrophage connective tissue, forming
system structures such as tendons, organ
Largehans cell Epidermis of Antigen capsules, and dermis
skin processing and • Network or Sheet/ Forming Collagens- (Type
presentation IV collagen) major structural proteins of
Dendritic cell Lymph nodes, Antigen external laminae and all epithelial basal
spleen processing and laminae, have subunits produced by
presentation epithelial cells and are major structural
Osteoclast Bone Localized proteins of external laminae and all epithelial
(from fusion of digestion of basal laminae
several bone matrix
macrophages)
Multinuclear In connective Segregation
giant cell tissue under and digetsion
various of foreign
pathological bodies
conditions

5. Plasma cells- short-lived cells that differentiate • Linking/anchoring collagens- (type VII
from B lymphocytes and are specialized for the collagen) short collagens that link fibrillar
abundant secretion of specific antibodies collagens to one another (forming larger
fibers) and to other components of the ECM.
❖ Type VII Collagen- binds type IV
collagen and anchors the basal
lamina to the underlying reticular
lamina in basement membranes

FIBERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. Reticular Fibers- which stain very dark with silver
1. Collagens- constitute a family of proteins selected stains and are abundant in immune and lymphoid
during evolution for their ability to form various tissues, produced by Type III collagen, contain up to
extracellular fibers, sheets, and networks, all of which 10% carbohydrate as opposed to 1% in most other
extremely strong and resistant to normal shearing and collagen fibers
tearing forces. Fibrils with tensile strength
• Argyrophilic (Gr. Argyros, silver)- stained
black after impregnation with silver salts
• Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) positive- which like
argyrophilia, is due to the high content of
sugar chains bound to type III collagen a-
chains

• Fibrillar Collagens- (collagen types I, II, and

III,) have polypeptide subunits that aggregate
 • Loose Connective Tissue- (or areolar tissue)
3. Elastic Fibers, or sheets- called elastic lamellae, are has relatively more ground substance than
composed of the proteins elastin and fibrillin, which collagen, surrounds small blood vessels and
exist in a stretchable conformation that provides occupies areas adjacent to other types of
elastic properties to connective tissues rich in this epithelia. The most numerous cells are
material. fibroblasts, collagen fibers predominate but
elastic and reticular fibers are also present,
has a delicate consistency, it is flexible and
not very resistant to stress

Ground Substance- the watery, largely unstained

extracellular material that is more abundant than
fibers in some types of connective tissue proper. The • Dense Irregular connective tissue- filled
major types of GAGs are hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid), primarily with randomly distributed bundles
sulfated GAGs (chondroitin sulfate and keratan of type I collagen, with some elastic fibers
sulfate) providing resistance to tearing from all
directions as well as some elasticity (ex: Deep
• GAGs- long polymers of repeating dermis layer of skin, Capsules surrounding
disaccharide units, usually a hexosamine and most organs)
uronic acid.
• Proteoglycans- consist of a core protein to
which are covalently attached various
numbers and combinations of the sulfated
GAGs.
• Multiadhesive Glycoproteins- all have
multiple binding sites for cell surface
integrins and for other matrix
macromolecules.
• Dense Regular connective tissue- features
bundles of essentially parallel type I collagen,
providing great strength (but little stretch) in
binding together components of the
musculoskeletal system. (ex: Tendons (cords
connecting muscles to bones), aponeuroses
(which is sheet-like tendons), ligaments
(bands or sheets that hold together
components of the skeletal system))

Connective Tissue Proper- usually classified as loose

or dense according to the amount of collagen and
ground substance present. • Reticular tissue- consists of delicate networks
of type III collagen and is most abundant in
certain lymphoid organs where the fibers
 form attachment sites for lymphocytes and aligned with resistance
other immune cells. This collagen is also collagen to force
known as reticulin and is produced by EMBRYO
modified fibroblasts often called reticular TIC
cells that remain associated with and partially CONNEC
cover the fibers TIVE
TISSUES
mesench Sparse, Contains Mesoder
yme undifferentia stem mal
ted cells, progenitor layer of
uniformly cells for all early
distributed in adult embryo
matrix with connective
sparse tissue cells
• Mucoid tissue- a gel-like connective tissue collagen
with few cells found most abundantly around fibers
blood vessels in the umbilical cord. Mucoid Random Supports Matrix of
(mucous fibroblasts and fetal
) and collagen cushions umbilical
connecti fibers in large blood cord
ve tissue viscous vessels
matrix
SPECIALI
ZED
CONNEC
TIVE
GENERAL FUNCTIONS EXAMPL TISSUES
ORGANIZATI ES Reticular Delicate Supports Bone
ON connecti network of blood marrow,
CONNEC ve tissue reticulin/coll forming liver,
TIVE agen II with cells, many pancreas
TISSUE attached secretory , adrenal
PROPER fibroblasts(re cells, and glands,
Loose Much Supports Lamina ticular cells) lymphocyte all
(areolar) ground microvascul propria s in most lymphoi
connecti substance, ature, beneath lymphoid d organs
ve tissue many cells nerves, and epithelia organs except
and lottle immune l lining of thymus
collagen, defense digestion
randomly cells
distributed --
Dense Little ground Protects Dermis
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
irregular substance, and of skin,
connecti few cell supports organ 1. fibroblasts
ve tissue (mostly organs, capsules,
fibroblasts), resists submuco
much tearing sa layer
collagen in of
randomly digestive
arranged tract
fibers
Dense Almost Provide Ligamen
regular completely strong ts,
2. adipocytes
connecti filled with connections tendons,
ve tissue parallel within aponeur
bundles of muscoskele oses,
collagen, few tal system, chorneal
fibroblasts, strong stroma
 1. loose connective tissue

3. macrophages 2. dense irregular connective tissue

3. dense regular connective tissue

4. mast cells

5. plasma cells
4. reticular tissue

6. collagen
5. mucoid tissue

7. elastic fibers

Adipocytes- very large cells derived from

mesenchyme and specialized for energy storage in
lipid droplet(s) with triglycerides. Cells of adipose
tissue are supported by reticular fibers, with
connective tissue septa dividing the tissue into lobules
of various sizes. Connective tissue where fat storing
Mallory trichrome stain- reference method for the cells predominate, Sources: Dietary fats- chlymicrons
visualization of connective tissue on histological (intestine), Trigycerides- VLDLs (liver), Fatty acid-
sections particularly indicated for the detection of adipocytes
collagen, reticle, cartilage, bone and amyloid (ex: • White adipose tissue- found in many organs
Nuclei, neurofibrils, myolle, cartilage and bone tissue throughout the body, typically forming about
collagen fibers, erythrocytes, myelin elastic fibers) 20% of the body weight in adults. Adipocytes
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER of white fat are typically very large cells,
 ranging in diameter from 50 to 150 μm. Cells immediately around the lacunae, producing
contain primarily one large lipid droplet (they slight staining differences in this territorial
are unilocular), causing the nucleus and matrix. Chondrocytes occur singly or in small,
remaining cytoplasm to be pushed against mitotically derived isogenous groups.
the plasmalemma. The distribution of white Perichondrium is usually present, but not at
adipose tissue changes significantly through the hyaline cartilage of articular surfaces or
childhood and adult life and is partly the epiphyses of growing long bones. In
regulated by sex hormones controlling adults, hyaline cartilage is in the articular
adipose deposition in the breasts and thighs surfaces of movable joints, in the walls of
❖ Fatty acids- lipase activity whenever larger respiratory passages (nose, larynx,
nutrients are needed, will then be trachea, bronchi), in the ventral ends of rib
carried by albumin in times of stress
whenever our body needs energy\
❖ Leptin- hypothalamus, to help
regulate eating behavior

• Elastic cartilage- Resembles hyaline cartilage

• Brown fat- comprises up to 5% of the in its chondrocytes and major ECM
newborn’s body weight but smaller amounts components, but its matrix includes
in adults. Contain primarily many small lipid abundant elastic fibers, visible with special
droplets (they are multilocular) in cytoplasm stains, which increase the tissue’s flexibility.
containing many mitochondria and a central Elastic cartilage provides flexible support for
nucleus, Fatty acids released in adipocytes of the external ear as well as certain structures
brown fat are metabolized in mitochondria of of the middle ear and epiglottis and larynx; it
these cells for thermogenesis rather than ATP is always surrounded by perichondrium
synthesis, using uncoupling protein-1

Cartilage- a tough, resilient type of connective tissue

that structurally supports certain soft tissues; and • Fibrocartilage- contains varying combinations
provides cushioned, low-friction surfaces in joints. of hyaline cartilage in small amounts of dense
Cells of cartilage, chondrocytes, make up a small connective tissue, provides very tough,
percentage of the tissue’s mass, which is mainly a strong support at tendon insertions and in
flexible mass of extracellular matrix (ECM). Cartilage intervertebral discs and certain other joints.
ECM typically includes collagen as well as abundant Consists of small chondrocytes in a hyaline
proteoglycans, notablyaggrecan, which bind a large matrix, usually layered with larger areas of
amount of water. Cartilage always lacks blood vessels, bundled type I collagen with scattered
lymphatics, and nerves, but it is usually surrounded by
fibroblasts ➢ It is found in intervertebral
a dense connective tissue perichondrium that is
discs, in attachments of certain ligaments,
vascularized
and in the pubic symphysis—all places where
• Hyaline cartilage- the ECM of hyaline it serves as very tough, yet cushioning
cartilage is homogenous and glassy. The ECM support tissue for bone
has less collagen and more proteoglycan
 structural of soft to tearing
support tissues and
for compressio
respirator n
y tract

Bone- a type of connective tissue with a calcified

extracellular matrix (ECM), specialized to support the
body, protect many internal organs, and act as the
body’s Ca2+ reservoir.
HYALINE ELASTIC FIBROCART
CARTILA CARTILA ILAGE
GE GE
MAIN Homogen Type II Type II
FEATURES ous, with collagen, collagen
OF THE type II aggrecan, and large
ECM collagen and areas of
and darker dense
aggrecan elastic connective
fibers tissue with
type I
collagen • Osteoblasts- found in cavities (lacunae)
MAJOR Chondroc Chondroc Chondrocyt between bone matrix layers (lamellae),
CELLS ytes, ytes , es , secrete components of the initial matrix,
chondrob chondrob fibroblasts called osteoid, that allow matrix
lasts lasts mineralization to occur. Osteoblasts (osteon
TYPICAL Isolated Usually in Isolated or + Gr. blastos, germ), growing cells which
ARRANGE or in small in synthesize and secrete the organic
MENT OF small isogenou isogenous components of the matrix. Differentiate from
CHONDRO isogenou s groups groups (stem) osteoprogenitor cells; Important
CYTES s groups arranged components: Type I collagen, the protein
axially osteocalcin, which binds Ca2+ and matrix
PRESENCE Yes Yes No vesicles with enzymes generating PO4 ions
OF (except at cause formation of hydroxyapatite crystals,
PERICHON epiphyses whose growth gradually calcifies the entire
DRIU M and matrix
articular • Osteocytes- differentiate further from
cartilage) osteoblasts when enclosed within matrix
MAIN Many Externa Intervertebr lacunae, maintain the matrix and detect
LOCATION compone ear, al discs, mechanical stresses on bone, found in
S OR nts of external pubic cavities (lacunae) between bone matrix
EXAMPLES upper acoustic symphysis, layers (lamellae), with cytoplasmic processes
respirator meatus, meniscus, in small canaliculi that extend into the matrix,
y tract; auditory and certain maintain communication with adjacent cells
articular tube; other via a network of long dendritic processes that
ends and epiglottis joints; extend through the matrix via narrow
epiphyse and insertions canaliculi radiating from each lacuna
al plates certain of tendons
of long other
bones; laryngeal
fetal cartilages
skeleton
MAIN Provides Provides Provides
FUNCTION smooth, flexible cushioning,
S lowfrictio shape tensile
n and strength,
• Osteoclasts- very large cells, formed by fusion
surfaces support and
of several blood monocytes, which locally
in joints; resistance
erode bone matrix during osteogenesis and
 bone remodeling, are giant, multinucleated TYPE OF HISTOLOGIC LOCATIO SYNONY
cells involved in removing calcified bone BONE AL NS MS
matrix and remodeling bone tissue FEATURES
Woven Irregular and Developin Immature
bone- random g and bone,
newly arrangement growing primary
calcified of cells and bones, bone,
collagen, hard bundle
lightly callus of bone
calcified bone
fractures
Lamellar Parallel All normal Mature
bone- bundles of regions of bone,
Ca2+- bone formation, muscular contraction, nervous
remodel collagen in adult secondary
conduction, impulses, blood clotting and maturation
ed from thin layers bone bone
of immune cells
woven (lamellae),
Periosteum- layer of dense connective tissue on the bone with
outer surface of bone, bound to bone matrix by regularly
bundles of type I collagen called perforating (or spaced cells
Sharpey) fibers. between,
heavily
Endosteum- thin layer of active and inactive calcified
osteoblasts, which lines all the internal surfaces within Compact Parallel Thick, Cortical
bone; bone- lamelae or outer bone
TYPES AND ORGANIZATION OF BONES 80% of densely region
all packed (beneath
1. compact bone- dense bone immediately beneath lamellar osteons, periosteu
the periosteum, deep to the compact bone are small bone with m) of
bony trabeculae or spicules of cancellous (or spongy) intestinal bones
bone. lamellae
Cancello Interconnect Inner Spongy
us bone- ed thin region of bone,
20% of spicules or bones, trabecular
lamellar trabeculae adjacent bone,
bone covered by to marrow medullary
endosteum cavities bone

OSTEOGENESIS

1. Intramembranous ossification- with osteoblasts

differentiating directly from progenitor cells in
condensed “membranes” of mesenchyme. (ex: skull
2. woven bone/immature bone- formed during and jaw)
osteogenesis or repair and has a calcified matrix with
randomly arranged collagen fibers.

3. Lamellar bone- both compact and cancellous bone

is lamellar bone. Lamellae organized concentrically
around small central canals containing blood vessels
and nerves, thisis an osteon or Haversian system.

2. Endochondral ossification- which osteoprogenitor

cells surround and then invade hyaline cartilage
models of the skeletal elements in the embryo.
3. Primary Ossification Centers-in diaphyses of fetal
long bones form when chondrocytes die after
enclosure of the cartilage within a collar of woven
bone, creating an initial cavity that is entered by
periosteal osteoblasts and vasculature.

4. Secondary Ossification Centers- develop similarly

within the epiphyses, with cartilage of the epiphyseal
growth plate between the primary and secondary
ossification sites.

• Symphyses - have a thick pad of fibrocartilage

between the thin articular cartilage covering
the ends of the bones.

Bone Remodeling- bones change size and shape

according to changes in mechanical stress.

Bone Repair- after fracture or other injury involves

the activation of periosteal fibroblasts to produce an
initial soft callus of fibrocartilage- like tissue. The soft
callus is gradually replaced by a hard callus of woven
bone that is soon remodeled to produce stronger
lamellar bone. Diarthroses- freely mobile joints, joint cavity filled
with lubricant synovial fluid, enclosed within a tough,
Joints- places where bones meet, or articulate, fibrous articular capsule. Specialized connective tissue
allowing at least the potential for bending or of the synovial membrane lines the capsule, with folds
movement in that portion of the skeleton. extended into some areas of the joint cavity.
Synarthroses- joints with very limited or no Intervertebral discs- synarthroses in the vertebral
movement column which cushion adjacent vertebrae. Outer
layer: annulus fibrosus, Inner Core: nucleus pulposus
• Synostoses- involve bones linked to other
bones and allow essentially no movement. Macrophage-like synovial cells- remove wear-and-
tear debris from synovial fluid.

Fibroblast-like synovial cells -synthesize hyaluronan

which moves into the synovial fluid with water from
local capillaries to lubricate and nourish the articular
cartilage.

DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYTEM

1. anatomically
• Syndesmoses - join bones by dense • central nervous system
connective tissue only. (ex: interosseous ❖ brain
ligament of the inferior tibiofibular joint and ❖ spinal cord
the posterior region of the sacroiliac joints) • peripheral nervous system
❖ cranial, spinal and peripheral nerves
❖ ganglia (aggregates of nerve cell)

2. functionally

• afferent/sensory division
❖ somatic- perceived consciously (ex:
5 senses)
❖ visceral- not perceived consciously
• efferent/motor division
 ❖ somatic- conscious control (ex: NEUROGLIA OF THE CNS
skeletal muscle reflexes)
❖ autonomic- unconscious control (ex: 1. astrocyte- the most numerous cell of the CNS, cover
heart, respiratory rate) and provide regulated microenvironments, Glial
Preganglionic Neuron Fibrillary Acid Protein (GFAP)
(pathway)- where cell body 2. oligodendrocyte- Myelin Production, electrical
is in CNS Insulation, facilitates Rapid Transmission, Not
Postganglionic Neuron Routinely Seen
(pathway)- cell body is in
ganglion 3. microglia- constitute Major Mechanism for
Parasympathetic (division)- Immunity in CNS, originate from Blood Monocytes,
maintains normal body nuclei visible with H&E, also with
homeostasis Immunohistochemistry
Sympathetic (division)-
triggers fight or flight 4. ependymal cells- epithelial-like cells, lacking
response basement membranes, line fluid-filled cerebral
ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord, usually
Neurons- functional unit of CNS and PNS Columnar or Cuboidal

• Cell body (perikaryon/soma)- nucleus and NEUROGLIA OF THE PNS

organelles (ex: Euchromatic Nucleus,
1. schwann cells- neurolemmocytes, forms Myelin
prominent nucleolus, developed RER, nissl
Sheathes
bodies, golgi apparatus, mitochondria,
eurofilaments/Neurofibrils, lipofuscin) 2. satellite cells- enclose each perikaryon and regulate
• Dendrites (synapses)- receive stimuli from its microenvironment.
other neurons, Principal Signal Reception site
❖ Dendritic Spines- membrane DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE TISSUE
protrusions along the small dendritic
1. Ectoderm
branches
• Axon- conducts nerve impulses to other cells. 2. Ectoderm thickens to form epithelial neural plate.
receives information from other neurons
(info that modifies ACTION POTENTIAL), 3. Neural plates fuse to formneural tube – (ENTIRE
Axolemma (plasma membrane of axon), CNS)
Axoplasm (contents of axons), Axon Hilock
4. Neural tube detaches from ectoderm, produces
(where axon originate, pyramid shape region)
mass of mesenchymal cells called Neural Crest
❖ Action Potential- nerve Impulse that
(ENTIRE PNS)
travels along axon
--
Synapses- where nerve impulses transfer from one
neuron to another

• presynaptic axon terminal- neurotransmitter

is released by exocytosis
• postsynaptic cell membrane- contains
receptors for neurotransmitters, contains ion
channels that can initiate new impulse
• synaptic cleft- separates presynaptic and post
synaptic membranes

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

1. Multipolar Neuron- 1 Axon, > 2 Dendrites, most

Common

2. Bipolar neurons- 1 Axon, 1 Dendrite, sensory

Neurons: Retina, Olfactory Epithelium, Inner ear.

3. Unipolar Neurons- single process that bifurcates

close to the perikaryon, all other sensory Neurons

4. Anaxonic Neurons- many dendrites; NO true Axon,

regulate electrical changes of adjacent CNS neurons.
neuron

Astrocytes

Oligodendrocytes
 Satellite cells

Microglia MIDTERM

Muscle tissue- Composed of cells that optimize the

universal cell property of contractility (sliding
interaction of thick myosin along thin actin filaments),
mesodermal in origin or the middle layer of embryo,
cytoplasm of muscle cells (sarcoplasm), smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum of Muscle (sarcoplasmic)
reticulum, cell membrane and external lamina –
sarcolemma

Ependymal cells • Skeletal Muscle- bundles of very long multi

nucleated cells. Quick, Forceful, Usually
Voluntary Contractions.
• Cardiac Muscle- elongated branched cells
bound to one another at structures called
intercalated discs. Contraction is involuntary,
vigorous, and rhythmic.
• Smooth Muscle- Fusiform cells (spindle
shaped, tapered ends) which lack striations.
Slow, Involuntary Contractions

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES

1. skeletal muscle- Consists of muscle fibers, which are

long, cylindrical multinucleated cells with diameters of
10-100 μm. Elongated nuclei are found peripherally
just under the sarcolemma, reserve Progenitor cells
called satellite cells remains adjacent to most fibers of
differentiated skeletal muscle.
Schwann cells

Layers of Connective Tissue present in all types of

muscle, seen well in skeletal muscle
 • Epimysium- external sheath of dense
irregular connective tissue, surrounds the
entire muscle
❖ Septa- extends inward and carries
nerves, blood vessels and lymphatics
• Perimysium- thin connective tissue layer that
immediately surrounds each bundle of
muscle fibers termed a fascicle that makes
functional unit in which fibers work together
• Endomysium- delicate layer of reticular fibers
tissue surrounding the external lamina of SUBUNITS OF TROPONIN
individual muscle fibers. Contains scattered 1. TnT- attaches to tropomyosin
fibroblasts
• Deep Fascia – Dense Irregular Connective 2. TnC- binds to calcium
Tissue overlying epimysium. Continues with a
3. TnI- regulates actin, myosin interaction
tough connective tissue of tendons which
joins muscle to the bone, skin or another
muscle called myotendinous junctions

ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS

1. Dark bands are called A Bands- anisotropic,

birefringent PLM

2. Light bands are called I Bands- isotropic, do not

alter polarized light, bisected by a dark transverse line
called Z disc.

Sarcomere- contractile element of the muscle that is

composed of thick and thin filaments

• Z disc (telophragma)- boundaries attached to

thin filaments via the α-actinin
• M line (mesophragma)- middle, attached to
myosin by a protein called desmin
• I band- light bands, isotropic, do not alter
polarized light
• A band- dark bands, anisotropic or
birefringent in polarized light microscopy
• H zone- small band at the middle of the
sarcomere bisected by the M line

Sarcoplasmic reticulum & transverse tubule sytem-

Ca2+ sequestration during muscle contraction

• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum- membranous

smooth ER in skeletal muscle fibers
• Transverse or T-tubules - long fingerlike
invaginations of the cell membrane encircling
 each myofibril near the aligned A- and I-band mitochondria and large amounts of
boundaries of sarcomeres myoglobin and cytochrome complexes. Slow-
• Terminal cisternae- expanded structures twitch fatigue-resistant motor units
adjacent to each T-Tubule • Type IIa (Fast Oxidative Glycolytic Fibers)-
intermediate fibers seen in fresh tissue,
medium size w/ many mitochondria and a
high myoglobin content, fast-twitch fatigue-
resistant motor units that generate high peak
muscle tension
• Type IIb (Fast Glycolytic Fibers)- large fibers,
which appear light pink in fresh specimens,
contain less myoglobin & fewer mitochondria
than type I & IIa fibers. Low levels of
oxidative enzymes but exhibit high anaerobic
enzyme activity and store a considerable
amount of glycogen, fast-twitch fatigue-
prone motor units & generate high peak
muscle tension
Contraction- occurs as the overlapping thin and thick
filaments of each sarcomere slide past one another. 2. cardiac muscle- has same types and arrangements
of contractile filaments as skeletal muscle, cardiac
• Nerve impulse triggers release of ACh from muscle nucleus lies in the center of the cell, numerous
the synaptic knob into the synaptic cleft. ACh large mitochondria and glycogen stores are adjacent
binds to ACh receptors in the motor end to each myofibril. The intercalated disks represent
plate of the neuromuscular junction, junctions between cardiac muscles
initiating a muscle impulse in the sarcolemma
of the muscle fiber. • Fascia adherens (adhering junction)- the
• As the muscle impulse spreads quickly from major constituent of the transverse
the sarcolemma along T tubules, calcium ions component of the intercalated disk,
are released from terminal cisternae into the responsible for its staining in routine H&E
sarcoplasm preparations
• Calcium ions bind to troponin C. Troponin
changes shape, moving tropomyosin on the
actin to expose active sites on actin
molecules of thin filaments. Myosin heads of
thick filaments attach to exposed active sites
to form crossbridges
• Myosin heads pivot, moving thin filaments
toward the sarcomere center. ATP binds
myosin heads and is broken down into ADP
and P. Myosin heads detach from thin
filaments and return to their prepivot
position. The sarcomere shortens and the • Maculae adherens (desmosomes)- bind the
muscle contracts individual muscle cells to one another,
• When the impulse stops, calcium ions are prevents cardiac muscle cells from pulling
actively transported into the sarcoplasmic apart under strain of regular repetitive
Reticulum. Tropomyosin re-covers active
contractions
sites, and filaments passively slide back to
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions)-
their relaxed state.
provide ionic continuity between adjacent
Skeletal muscle fibers- different types of fibers can be cardiac muscle cells allowing informational
identified on the basis of (1) their maximal rate of macromolecules to pass from cell to cell,
contraction (fast or slow fibers) and (2) their major constitute to the major structural element of
pathway for ATP synthesis (oxidative phosphorylation lateral component of intercalated disc
or glycolysis).

• Type I (Slow Oxidative Fibers)- small fibers,

appear red in fresh specimens, contain many
 Attached to the Exclusively in Associated
bones heart with
Innervated by autonomic
somatic nerves nervous
Voluntary system
contraction
multinucleated branched, within elongated,
spindle-shaped intercalated disk spindle
cells with similar to gap shaped with
nucleus at the junctions, with central
periphery central nuclei nuclei
Smooth muscles- generally occurs as bundles or with myoglobin with myoglobin less
sheets of elongated fusiform cells w/ finely tapered (O2 binding (O 2 binding myoglobin
ends. Cells possess a contractile apparatus of thin and protein) protein)
thick filaments and a cytoskeleton of desmin and myofilaments with striations no striations,
forming mostly actin
vimentin intermediate filaments, specialized for slow,
striations of
prolonged contraction, nerve terminals in smooth
alternating dark
muscles are observed, only in the connective tissue and light bands
adjacent to muscle cells, smooth muscles also secrete
connective tissue matrix
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF SKIN

1. Protection- physical barrier against thermal and

mechanical insults such as friction and againts most
potential pathogens

2. Sensory- help of sensory receptors that allows skin

to monitor environment and mechanoreceptors that
helps regulate body’s interaction with physical objects

3. Thermoregulatory- skin’s insulating components

• Thin filaments- containing actin, the smooth 4. Metabolic- synthesize vitamin D3 fro calcium
muscle isoform of tropomyosin and 2 smooth metabolism and proper bone formation
muscle specific proteins, caldesmon and
5. Sexual Signaling- function of skin such as
calponin
pigmentation and hair for attraction of sexes. Sex
• Thick filaments- containing myosin II
peromones that are produced by sweat glands,
molecules are oriented in one direction on
important for attraction
one side of the filament
• Tropomyosin- present in smooth muscle, 1. skin- Integument (L. “Covering”), largest single
spanning seven actin monomers and is laid organ of the body, 15%-20% of total body weight
out end to end over the entire length of the
thin filaments. In striated muscle, • Epidermis- superficial layer of skin,
tropomyosin serves to enhance actin–myosin Ectodermal origin, Stratified Squamous
interactions Keratinized Epithelium: lacks vasculature,
• Calponin- molecules may exist in equal receives nutrients only from the dermis
number as actin, and has been proposed to ❖ Melanocytes – Pigment producing
be a load-bearing protein. ❖ Langerhans – Ag-Presenting
• Caldesmon- has been suggested to be ❖ Merkel Cells – Sensory
involved in tethering actin, myosin and LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS
tropomyosin, and thereby enhance the ability
of smooth muscle to maintain tension. 1. Stratum Corneum- 20-30 layers of dead, flattened,
anucleate, keratin-filled keratinocytes called squames.
SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH Protects against friction and water loss
MUSCLE MUSCLE MUSCLE
2. Stratum Lucidum- 2-3 layers of anucleate, dead OTHER CELLS IN EPIDERMIS
cells; seen only in thick skin
1. Melanocytes- located at basal epidermis, neural
Crest Derived. Pale-staining, rounded cell bodies,
ynthesize dark melanin pigment in melanosomes,
protect nuclear DNA from UV damage.

• Eumelanin- brown or black pigment; found in

hair follicles
• Pheomelanin- red hair

2. Langerhans Cells- APC (Antigen Presenting Cells), 2-

8% of cells in epidermis, located at spinous layer of
3. Stratum Granulosum- 3-5 layers of keratinocytes epidermis. Bind, process and present antigens to T-
with distinct kerato-hyaline Granules; Also contain lymphocytes
lamellar granules (Golgi-derived)

4. Stratum Spinosum/ Stratum Germinativum- thickest

layer, polyhedral cells with central nuclei, several 3. Merkel Cells- epithelial Tactile Cells,
layers of keratinocytes all joined by desmosomes; mechanoreceptors for light touch, abundant in
Contains tonofibrils (keratin filament bundles), cells fingertips and bases of some hair follicles.
may still divide, langerhans cells present Characterized by small, Golgi-derived dense- core
neurosecretory granules containing peptides.

• Dermis- Connective, mesodermal origin,

5. Stratum Basale- single layer of cuboidal to low
supports epidermis and binds it to
columnar cells in contact with basement membrane,
hypodermis, contains projections called
mitosis occurs here, melanocytes and Merkel cells
dermal papillae, connects with epidermal
also present
ridges, filled with nerves (Sensory Efferent
Fibers)
❖ Hypodermis – Loose Connective Tx;
Adipocytes

LAYERS OF DERMIS

1. Papillary Layer- connects to epidermis, contains:

loose Connective Tissue, Type I and III Collagen, mast
cells, dendritic cells, fibrils of Type VII Collagen (insert
to the basal lamina helping to bind dermis to
epidermis)

SENSORY RECEPTORS

1. uncapsulated- simple nerve endings with no

Schwann cell or collagenous coverings

2. Reticular Layer- thicker than Papillary Layer, • Merkel cells - tonic receptors for sustained
contains: dense connective tissue which is mostly type light touch and for sensing an object’s
I collagen, fewer cells than papillary layer. Abundant texture.
of elastic fibers • Free Nerve Endings - in the papillary dermis;
respond primarily to high and low
3. subpapillary plexus- located vetween the papillary temperatures, pain, and itching.
and reticular dermal layers, contains capillary • Root Hair Plexuses – surrounding the bases of
branches that extend to dermal papillae. hair follicles in the reticular dermis that
detects movements of the hairs.

2. capsulated- more complex structures with sensory

fibers enclosed by glia and delicate connective tissue
capsules

• Meissner Corpuscles - initiate impulses when

there is light-touch or low-frequency stimuli
against skin, numerous in plams and toes but
4. deep plexus- with larger blood and lymphatic decline slowly in number during aging after
vessels lies near the interface of the dermis and the puberty
subcutaneous layer. Thermoregulatory Function of the • Lamellated (Pacinian) Corpuscles – for
dermis is done by arteriovenous anastomoses located detection of pressure or firm touch. Located
between both plexuses that decrease blood flow deep in body like wall of rectume and urinary
mainly in papillary layer to minimize heat loss during bladder where produce sensation of pressure
colder temperature when surrounding tissue is distorted
• Krause End Bulbs - simpler encapsulated,
ovoid structures, with extremely thin,
collagenous capsules penetrated by a sensory
fiber. Found in skin of penis and clitoris
where they sense low frequency vibrations
• Ruffini Corpuscles - collagenous, fusiform
capsules anchored firmly to the surrounding
connective tissue. Has sensory axons that
stimulated by stretch, tension, twisting or
5. Subcutaneous layer/Hypodermis or Superficial torque in skin.
Fascia- contains adipocytes, has an extensive vascular
supply allowing the rapid uptake of drugs that are
injected in this layer
Epidermal Ridges + Dermal Papillae- strengthens the
adhesions of first 2 layers: epidermis and dermis • Dermal Papilla - contains capillary network;
sustains follicle
• Hair root- forms base of hair follicle
❖ Medulla- large, vacuolated, and
moderately keratinized cells; center
of root.
❖ Cortex- densely packed, heavily
keratinized; surrounds medulla
❖ Cuticle- squamous, thin layer;
heavily keratinized, outermost layer
of hair root

EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES

1. hair- keratinized Structures forming within

epidermal evaginations called hair follicles, all skin has
at least minimal hair except the glabrous skin of the
palms, soles, lips, glans penis, clitoris, and labia
minora. Rapidly undergoing keratinization to form the
medulla, cortex, and cuticle of a hair root. • Arrector Pili Muscle- consists of smooth
muscle; pulls the shaft in erect position

2. nails- hard plates of keratin on the dorsal surface of

each distal phalanx.

• Nail root- proximal part of the nail

• Nail plate - bound to a bed of epidermis
• Nail Bed - contains only the basal and spinous
epidermal layers, covered by fold of skin
called cuticle
• Nail Matrix - cells divide, move distally, and
become keratinized in a process somewhat
• Hair Bulb- terminal dilation; connects to the similar to hair formation but without
dermal papilla keratohyaline granules.
❖ Internal Root Sheath- surrounds
initial part of bulb
❖ External Root Sheath- covers IRS;
extends all the way to epidermis
 --

Skeletal muscle- composed large, multinucleated

fibers
3. skin gland

• Sebaceous Glands- produce sebum by

terminal differentiation of sebocytes, the
classic example of holocrine secretion,
secreting this oily substance onto hair in the
follicles or pilosebaceous units

• Sweat Glands
• Eccrine Sweat Glands- in the dermis
produce sweat that is mostly water A cross section of striated muscle demonstrating all
onto the skin surface, where its three layers of connective tissue and cell nuclei.
evaporation provides an important • endomysium (En)- surrounds
mechanism for cooling the body. individual muscle
• perimysium (P)- encloses a group of
muscle fibers comprising a fascicle.
• thick epimysium (E)- surrounds the
entire muscle. All three of these
tissues contain collagen types I and
III (reticulin). (X200; H&E)

• Apocrine Sweat Glands- are

restricted to skin of the axillae and
perineum, have much wider lumens
than eccrine glands, develop after
puberty, and secrete protein- rich
sweat onto the hair of hair follicles.
 Peristalsis - Series of wave-like muscle contractions
that aid in the passage of food through the digestive
tract
Cardiac muscle- composed of irregular, branched cells

LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS

Smooth muscle- composed of grouped, fusiform cells

 • arteries- composed of series of vessels
efferent from heart that becomes smaller as
they branched into various organs. They carry
blood away from heart to tissues
• veins- result to convergence of venules into
system of larger channel which continue
enlarging as they approach the heart. They
carry blood from tissue to heart wherein
blood is pumped again
• capillaries- smallest blood vessels. Sites of
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste
product exchange

OTHER STRUCTURES OF HEART

Circulatory system- pumps and direct blood cells and 1. Cardiac Skeleton- forms base for all cardiac valves,
substances carried in blood to all tissues of body such provides points of insertion for cardiac muscle in the
as blood, lymphatic vascular system. In adults, the atria and ventricles, separates atria from ventricles,
total length of vessels between 100,000-150,000km. primarily composed of dense irregular connective
tissue, helps coordinate heartbeat by acting as
• heart- propels blood through the system electrical insulation between atria and ventricles
❖ Endocardium- endothelium and
subendothelial connective tissue, 2. Cardiac Conducting System- stimulates rhythmic
contains fibroelastic tissue, smooth contractions, consists of modified cardiac muscle
muscle fibers and modified cardiac fibers, specialized to generate and conduct waves of
muscle fiber depolarization which stimulate rhythmic contractions
❖ Myocardium- contractile cardiac in adjacent myocardial fibers
muscle arranged spirally around • Sinoatrial Node/SA Node- smaller size, fewer
chambe rof heart, thicker in walls of myofibrils and fewer typical intercalated disc
ventricles particularly in left side than neighboring contractile fibers
than atrial walls because strong • Atrioventricular Node/AV Node- located in
force is required to pump blood floor of right atrium, composed of cells
through systemic and pulmonary similar to SA node
circulation
• Atrioventricular Bundle of His
❖ Epicardium- connective tissue with
• Purkinje Fibers- triggers contraction through
many adipocytes and covered by
both ventricle simultaneously, abundant in
mesothelium, contains blood
glycogen and contains sparse bundles of
vessels, corresponds to visceral layer
myofibrils
of pericardium wherein this is the
membrane which surrounds heart
 3. Connective Tissue- contains collagen that is found
in subendothelial layer while elastic Fibers provide
resiliency to blood vessel

CONCENTRIC LAYERS OF BLOOD VESSELS

1. Tunica Intima- includes the endothelium,

connective tissue, and an internal elastic lamina

2. Tunica Media- contains alternating layers of smooth

muscle and collagen or elastic lamellae, middle layer
CIRCULATIONS 3. Tunica Adventitia- contains connective tissue, small
vessels and nerves and vasa vasorum, contains
1. Pulmonary Circulation- blood is oxygenated in the
unmyelinated autonomic nerve fibers and vasomotor
lungs
nerves which release vasoconstrictor nor epinephrine
2. Systemic Circulation- blood brings nutrients and
removes wastes in tissues throughout the body

Lymphatic vascular system- wherein lymphatic

capillaries dismerge to form vessels and connects to
blood vascular system and empties to veins of heart

Endothelium- internal surface of all components of

blood and lymph, simple squamous epithelium,
maintains selectively permeable antithrombogenic
barrier, determine when and where WBCs leave
circulation, secrete variety of paracrine factors
wherein they signal vessel dilation, constriction and
growth of adjacent cells

TISSUES OF VASCULAR WALL VASCULATURE

1. endothelium- semipermeable barrier between two 1. arteries-

major internal compartments: the blood and the
• Large Elastic Arteries/Conducting Arteries-
interstitial tissue fluid. Squamous, polygonal,
with fenestrated elastic laminae in the thick
elongated with long axis in direction of blood flow
tunica media, contains Vasa Vasorum
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOTHELIUM • Muscular Arteries/distributing arteries- less
elastic material than Elastic Artery, distribute
1. present nonthrombogenic surface wherein blood blood to all organs and maintain steady
won’t clot and actively secrete agents with control of blood pressure and flow with vasodilation
blood formation such as heparin, tissue plasminogen and constriction
activator, von willebrand factor • Small Arteries- no vasa vasourm, distribute
2. Regulate local vascular tone and blood flow by blood to arterioles, adjusting flow with
secreting various factors that stimulate contractions vasodilation and constriction
such as endothelin I, angiotensin convereting enzyme 2. microvasculature
(ACE). Secretes factors that secretes relaxation such as
nitric oxide (n2), prostacyclin • Arterioles- endothelium, no connective tissue
/smooth muscle, resist and control blood
3. Inflammation and local immune responses- flow to capillaries, major determinant of
endothelial cells systemic blood pressure. Terminal arterioles
4. Secretion of Growth Factors branched into metarterioles which also resist
blood flow and relax cyclically to allow
2. Smooth Muscle- occur in the walls of all vessels pulsatile flow of blood into anastamosing
larger than capillaries and are arranged helically in capillary end
layers, permit regulated vasoconstriction and • Capillaries- Endothelium only, no Tunica
vasodilation Adventitia, exchange metabolites by diffusion
 to and from cells, smallest blood vessel,
always function in networks that are called
capillary BEPS

MICROVASCULATURE PATHWAYS
❖ Continuous Capillaries- tight
junctions, aallow cellular exchange. 1. Arteriovenous Anastomoses/AV Shunts- arterioles
Found in muscle, lungs, connective can bypass a capillary bed
tissue, exocrine glands and nervous
2. Venous Portal Systems- venules draining from one
sytem
capillary bed to branch to another capillary bed
❖ Fenestrated Capillaries- small pores
(fenestrations) which are found in
organs with rapid interchange of
substances between tissues and
blood such as kidney, instestine and
endoctrine glands
❖ Discontinuous Capillaries/Sinusoids-
arge Lumen, discontinued Basal
Lamina, permit maximal exchange of
macromolecules as well as they
allow easier movement of cells
between tissues and blood, has
highly discontinuous basement
membrane and much larger
diameter often 30-40 um which
slows blood flow. Often found in 3. veins- Most veins are classified as small or medium
liver, some endocrine organs and veins that are usually located close and parallel to
bone marrow corresponding muscular arteries.

• Large Veins- thickest layer, with bundled

• Venules- endothelium, no valves, no Tunica
longitudinal smooth muscle, return blood to
Adventitia, drain capillary bed, site of
heart. Important feature of large and
leukocyte exit from vasculature, primary site
medium veins are valves. Valves are
in which WBC adhere to endothelium and
especially numerous in veins of the legs, help
later on leave circulation at sites of infection
keep the flow of venous blood directed
or tissue damage
toward the heart and are thin, paired folds of
 tunica intima projecting across lumen. Rich in
elastic fibers and covered by both size of
endothelium

Epicardium- external tunic of the heart, site of the

coronary vessels and contains considerable adipose
tissue.

Simple squamous endothelial cells (arrows)- line the

intima (I), also has subendothelial connective tissue, in
arteries is separated from the media by an internal
elastic lamina (IEL), a structure absent in all but the
-- largest veins.

LINING LAYER OF THE HEART Media- contains many elastic lamellae and elastic
fibers (EF) alternating with layers of smooth muscle,
1. endothelium- supporting layer of fibro elastic thicker in large arteries than veins, with relatively
connective tissue more elastin, present in the outer tunica adventitia
(A), which is relatively thicker in large veins.
2. Subendocardial layer of connective tissue (SEn)-
deeper layer of connective tissues surrounding
variable amounts of cardiac muscles specialized for
impulse conduction

3. Purkinje fibers (P)- paler staining than the

contractile muscle fibers
Specialized regions in the walls of certain elastic
arteries contain tissues acting as chemoreceptors that
provide information to the brain regarding blood
chemistry.

glomus bodies- two small (0.5-5 mm diameter)

ganglion-like structures found near the common
carotid arteries, contain many large capillaries (C) Arterioles- microvessels with an intima (I) consisting
intermingled with clusters of large glomus cells (G) only of endothelium (E), in which the cells may have
filled with vesicles of various neurotransmitters. rounded nuclei. They have media (M) tunics with only
one or two layers of smooth muscle, and usually thin,
Supportive satellite cells (S)- with elongated nuclei
inconspicuous adventitia (Ad).
ensheath each glomus cell. Glomus cells form synaptic
connections with sensory fibers. o Significant changes
in the blood CO2 , O2 , or H+ concentrations are
detected by the chemoreceptive glomus cells, which
then release a neurotransmitter that activates the
sensory nerve to relay this information to the brain
 COMPOSITION OF PLASMA

1. Albumin- major plasma protein, maintains osmotic

pressure of blood, made in liver

2. Alpha and Beta Globulins- transport for different

proteins (ex. Clotting Factors like fibronectin and
prothrombin, Transport factors like transferrin), made
in liver

3. Complement Proteins- defensive system important

Veins- travel as companion to arteries: small, medium
in inflammation and destruction of microorganisms.
or large based on the size & dev’t of their tunics
4. Fibrinogen- largest plasma protein, polymerizes as
insoluble cross-linked fibers of fibrin that block blood
loss from small vessels, made in liver

5. Immunoglobulins- antibodies or Gamma Globulins,

secreted by plasma cells in many locations

Blood cells- studied histologically in the form of

prepared smears, routinely stained with eosin or
methylene blue dyes

• Erythrocytes/RBC- make up hematocrit

portion (44%), enucleated, biconcave discs,
normal lifespan is 120 days
Large veins- have a muscular media layer (M) which is
very thin compared to the surrounding adventitia (A)
of dense irregular connective tissue. The wall is often
folded as shown here, with the intima (I) projecting
into the lumen as a valve (V) composed of the
subendothelial connective tissue with endothelium on
both sides.

• Leukocytes/WBC- grouped as either

Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils) or Agranulocytes (lymphocytes,
monocytes). All leukocytes become active
outside the circulation
❖ Neutrophils- most abundant type of
leukocyte. Polymorphic, multilobed
nuclei, faint pink cytoplasmic
Blood- specialized connective tissue consisting of cells granules, phagolysosomal killing and
and fluid extracellular material called plasma, 5L is removal of bacteria.
unidirectionally moving within closed circulatory
system, liquid Portion of Blood is called Plasma. When
removed off clotting factors, the liquid portion is
called Serum

❖ Eosinophils- bilobed nuclei,

eosinophilic specific granules,
destruction of helminthic parasites
and for modulating inflammation.
 ❖ Basophils- rarest type of circulating
leukocyte, irregular bilobed nuclei,
strongly basophilic specific granules,
important in allergies and chronic Hematopoiesis/ hemopoiesis- Gr. Haima – “blood”;
inflammatory conditions, including poeisis – “making”, production of blood cells from
histamine, heparin and various hematopoetic Stem cells/progenitor cells. Organs/
hydrolases. Tissues responsible: Embryo – Yolk sac (mesoderm),
2nd Trimester – Liver (also spleen), 3rd Trimester and
Onwards - Bone Marrow

MATURATION OF CELLS

1. Erythropoesis- making of RBC

2. Granulopoesis- making of granulocytes

❖ Lymphocytes- range widely in size,
have roughly spherical nuclei, T- and 3. Thrombocytopoesis- making of platelets
B-cell subtypes in the immune
4. Lymphopoesis- making of lymphocytes
system, little cytoplasm and few
organelles. HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS

1. Pluripotential Stem Cells- occur in Bone Marrow,

cell from which differentiation of all blood cells
originate

2. Progenitor Cells- proliferate and differentiate within

microenvironmental niches of stromal cells, may also
be called Colony-Forming Units (CFU) because they
❖ Monocytes- ddistinctly indented or give rise to colonies of only one cell type, aided by
C-shaped nuclei, “kidney/coffee growth factors called Colony Stimulating Units (CSU)
bean shaped”, precursors of
macrophages and other cells of the Bone Marrow- located in medullary canals in long
mononuclear phagocyte system. bones, located in small cavities in cancellous bones

• Red Marrow- active in hematopoesis (esp. in

children), contains reticular connective tissue
(STROMA), site of phagocytosis of old RBC,
blood forming type of marrow
• Yellow Marrow- contains adipocytes that
exlude most hematopoetic cells. In
• Platelets/thrombocytes- small cell fragments newborns, all bone marrow is red and active
(2-4 μm) derived from megakaryocytes in in blood cell production but as we grows,
bone marrow, triggers blood clotting. bone marrow becomes blue
Contains Actin filaments, Alpha granules,
Delta granules, Open canalicular system
 dispersed chromatin and faint nucleoli, no
cytoplasmic granules
• Promyelocyte- characterized by presence of
basophilic cytoplasm and azurophilic granules
that contains lysozomal enzymes and
myeloperoxidases
• Myelocyte
• Metamyelocyte- specific granules gradually
increases in number and eventually occupy
most of cytoplasm at metamyelocyte stage
• Band/ Stab Cell- nucleus of this cell is
erythropoiesis- cell differentiation involving elongated but not yet polymorphic
hemoglobin synthesis and formulation of small, • Granulocyte
enucleated and biconcave corpuscle, last approx. 1
week, facilitated by hormone erythropoetin (epo) MATURATION OF AGRANULOCYTES

• Proerythroblast- distinct erythro progenitor 1. Monocytes

cell containing large cell with loose lazy • Monoblast- committed progenitor cell that is
chromatin, nucleoli, basophilic cytoplasm identical to myeloblast morphologically
• Basophilic Erythroblast- slightly smaller • Promonocyte- large cell with basophilic
containing basophilic cytopilia, contains more cytoplasm and large slightly indented nucleus
condensed nucleus. The basophilia is because
• Monocytes- circulate in blood for several
of large number of polysomes that are
hours and later on enters tissues where htye
synthesized of hemoglobin
mature as macrophages
• Polychromatophilic Eryhtroblast- cell volume
• Macrophages
is reduced, polysomes decreases and some
cytoplasmic areas begins to be filled with 2. Lymphocytes- originate mainly on thymus and
hemoglobin producing regions both peripheral lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph nodes
containing basophilic and acidophilic regions and tonsils. However, there progenitor cells orginate
in cell on bone marrow
• Orthochromatophilic Erythroblast- also called
• Lymphoblast- large cells capable of dividing 2
normoblast
or 3 times to form our lymphocytes
• Reticulocyte
• Lymphocyte
• Erythrocyte
3. Megakaryopoiesis- driven by hormone
thrombopoetin

• Megakaryoblast- contains basophilic

cytoplasm and large ovoid/kidney shaped
nucleus
• Megakaryocytes- giant cells up to 150 um in
diameter, best seen in bone marrow and
occur interstitial tissue of spleen and lungs.
Most often associated with vascular sinusoids
or capillaries
• Proplatelets- penetrates adjacent vascular
endothelium and exposed in circulating blood
Granulopoesis- involves cytoplasmic changes --
involving, synthesis for azurophilic granules (blue-
purple membrane bound organelles seen on
myelocyte and neutrophil) and specific granules, 10-
14 days, produced in rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Myeloblast- most immature, recognizable cell

in myeloid series. Typically has finely
1. Collect Blood: freshly pricked from capillaries or
blood tubes (EDTA: Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic acid;
Lavender]

2. Place a drop of blood on a slide

3. Using a second slide, pull the drop of blood across

the first slide’s surface, leaving a thin layer of blood on
the slide

4. After the blood dries, apply a stain briefly and rinse.

Place a coverslip on top o Eosin and methylene blue
Neutrophils- can be identified by their multilobulated
5. When viewed under the microscope, blood smear nuclei, with lobules held together by very thin strands.
reveals the components of the formed elements typically have diameters ranging from 12 to 15 μm,
approximately twice that of the surrounding
proerythroblast (P)- a slightly smaller basophilic erythrocytes.
erythroblast (B) with very basophilic cytoplasm

polychromatophilic erythroblasts (Pe and LPe)- with

both basophilic and acidophilic cytoplasmic regions

orthochromatophilic erythroblast (Oe)- with

cytoplasm nearly like that of the mature erythrocytes
in the field

Eosinophils- about the same size as neutrophils

(PMNs) but have bilobed nuclei and more abundant
coarse cytoplasmic granules. “salmon-pink granules”,
Nuclei in neutrophils: 3 or more while Nuclei in
Lymphocytes: 1 only

biconcave shape of erythrocytes gives the cells: very

high surface-to-volume ratio o places most
hemoglobin within a short distance from the cell
surface

Basophils- bilobed nuclei, approximately the same

size as neutrophils and eosinophils, but they have
large, strongly basophilic specific granules that usually
obstruct the appearance of the nucleus which usually
has two large irregular lobes.
small lymphocytes- are slightly larger than the
neighboring erythrocytes and have only a thin rim of
cytoplasm surrounding the spherical nucleus.
Megakaryocytes- produce all the characteristic
Medium lymphocytes- distinctly larger than components of platelets o (membrane vesicles,
erythrocytes. specific granules, marginal microtubule bundles, etc.)
Large lymphocytes- larger than erythrocytes, may
represent activated cells that have returned to the
circulation.

Platelets- color violet, small circles, smaller than

erythrocytes. Neighboring cells: RBCs or Erythrocytes

Monocytes- distinctive nuclei which are indented,

kidney-shaped, or C-shaped. o Horse-shoe shaped

BASIC IMMUNOLOGY

1. Innate Immunity- involves leukocytes (mainly

granulocytes), and proteins such as defensins,
complement,lysozyme, and interferons; cytokines.
Involves immediate non specific actions including
physical barrier such as skin and mucuos membrane of
Megakaryoblasts (Mb)- very large, fairly rare cells in gastrointestinal, respiratory and urogenital tract
bone marrow, with very basophilic cytoplasm, • Hydrochloric acid (HCl)- specific in certain
undergo endomitosis (DNA replication without region specifically stomach which lowers pH
intervening cell divisions), becoming polyploid as they giving it an acidic environment that can
differentiate into megakaryocytes (M). These cells are either kill or inhibit microorganisms’ growth
even larger but with cytoplasm that is less intensely • Defensins- short cationic polypeptides
basophilic. produced by neutrophils and various
epithelial cells that kill bacteria by disrupting
the cell walls.
• Lysozyme- enzyme made by neutrophils and
cells of epithelial barriers, which hydrolyzes
bacterial cell wall components, killing those
cells.
• Complement- system of proteins in blood
plasma, mucus, and macrophages that react
 with bacterial surface components to aid ❖ Valve- one way flow of lymph
removal of bacteria. ❖ Cortex- receives the lymph from the
• Interferons, paracrine factors from afferent lymphatics
leukocytes and virus-infected cells that signal ❖ Inner paracortex- where most
NK cells to kill such cells and adjacent cells to lymphocytes enter
resist viral infection. ❖ Central medulla- contains sinuses
that are converging from the
2. Adaptive Immunity- develops more slowly and is efferent lymphatics
based on antigen presentation to lymphocytes,
acquired gradually by exposure to microorganisms, COMPARTMENTS OF LYMPH NODES
more specific
1. Outer Cortex- point of entry of lymphocytes to the
• Antigens- usually proteins that are entire Lymph Node where B Cells encounter
recognized by lymphocytes to elicit a specific antibodies
immune response against them.
2. Paracortex- deeper extension of outer cortex, high
❖ Cellular immune response- T
endothelial Venules (HEVs) portal of entry of
lymphocyte are primarily in charge
lymphocytes to paracortex
of eliminating antigen
❖ Humoral immune response- 3. Inner Medulla
antibodies are responsible for
response against antigen • Hilum- where blood vessels and nerve(s)
• Antibodies- immunoglobulins produced by enter, contains draining sinusoids adjacent to
plasma cells after a progenitor B cell is hilum and can be subdivided into two:
activated by a specific antigen ❖ Medullary Cords- cordlike masses of
• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) lymphoid tissues
Class I Molecules- found on surfaces of all ❖ medullary Sinuses- diluted spaces
nucleated cells bear fragments of their line by discontinued endothelium
constituent proteins. Antigen presenting that separates the medullary chords
proteins
❖ MHC Class II Molecules- only
antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

LYMPHOCYTE ORIGINS/DIFFERENTIATION

1. Primary Lymphoid Organs

• Bone Marrow for B Lymphocytes- B cells

produce antibodies for humoral immunity
❖ Humoral Immunity- mediated by
antibody molecules that are
secreted by plasma cells

• Thymus for T lymphocytes- T cells function in

cell-mediated immunity
❖ Cell-Mediated Immunity- activation
of phagocytes, antigen-specific
cytotoxic t-lymphocytes and the
release of various cytokines in
response to an antigen
• MALT/Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue-
2. secondary lymphoid organs
found in the mucosa of most tracts but is
• Lymph Nodes- bean-shaped, encapsulated concentrated in the palatine, lingual and
structures, generally only 10 mm by 2.5 cm in pharyngeal tonsils, Peyer patches, and the
size, distributed throughout the body along appendix.
the lymphatic vessels, filters lymph, site for
B-cell activation and differentiation
 splenic chords, old
RBCs are removed
in splenic chords
by the
macrophages

• Spleen- Where B and T cells are often

activated, proliferate, and begin to function.
Contains a meshwork of reticulin produced
by fibroblastic reticular cells, In all secondary
lymphoid tissue, the lymphocytes are Thymus- a bilobed structure in the mediastinum,
supported by a rich reticulin fiber network of midline of the thoracid cavity surrounded by the left
type III collagen. The fibers are produced by and right pleural sacs, central tolerance which along
fibroblastic reticular cells. Only lymphoid with regulatory T cells prevents autoimmunity
organ involved in the filtration of blood
which makes it important defense against
bloodborne pathogen, main site of old
erythrocyte destruction, without a
cortex/medulla structure
❖ White Pulp- 20% of the spleen,
Enclosed by periarteriolar lymphoid
sheaths (PALS) of T cells. Central Tolerance- also known as negative selection,
❖ Red Pulp- filters blood, removes is the process of eliminating any developing T or B
defective erythrocytes, recycles lymphocytes that are reactive to self
hemoglobin iron
Splenic Cords (Cords of • Primary Lymphoid Organs
Billroth)- contains ❖ Bone Marrow for B Lymphocytes
macrophages, reticular cells Bursa of Fabricious- organ
and fibers, other found in birds where it
leukocytes, discovered by originally discovered
surgeon Theodor Billroth Thymus for T lymphocytes.
Splenic Sinusoids- lined by • B Cells- produce antibodies for humoral
unusual endothelial cells immunity
called stave cells that are ❖ B-cell Receptors (BCRs)- are IgM or
elongated and aligned IgD antibodies on the cell surface
parallel to the blood flow • T Cells- function in cell-mediated immunity.
✓ closed circulation- ❖ CD4+ T helper cells- characterized by
blood flows CD4, the coreceptor with the TCR [T-
through the cell receptor] for binding MHC class
capillaries → II molecules and the peptides they
venous sinusoids are presenting. They assist immune
▪ Stave responses by producing cytokines
cells- for that promote differentiation of B
removal cells into plasma cells, activate
or RBCs macrophages to become phagocytic,
✓ Open circulation- activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes,
blood flows and induce many parts of an
through the inflammatory reaction
capillaries → ❖ CD8+ cytotoxic T cells- also called
killer T cells /Cytotoxic T
 lymphocytes, their TCRs together macrophages (all less densely
with CD8 coreceptors bind specific packed than in the cortex)
antigens on foreign cells or virus- ❖ Secondary Layer- between cortex
infected cells displayed by MHC class and medulla
I molecules, they attach to the cell ❖ Hassall Corpuscles (Aggregates of
sources of the antigens and remove TEC)- unique to the medullasecrete
them by releasing perforins and several cytokines
granzymes, which trigger apoptosis
❖ CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells- serve
to inhibit specific immune
responses, suppressing excessive
immune responses which maintains
homeostasis
❖ γδ T Cells-TCR chains- represent a
smaller subpopulation whose TCRs
contain γ (gamma) and δ (delta)
chains. They function in many ways
like cells of innate immunity, in the
front lines against invading
--
microorganisms migrate to the
epidermis and mucosal epithelia, RETICULAR FIBERS AND CELLS OF LYMPHOID TISSUE
becoming largely intraepithelial, and
do not recirculate to secondary
lymphoid organs.

1. thymus- A child’s thymus, showing connective

tissue of the capsule (C) and septa (S) between thymic
lobules, each having an outer cortex (Co) and
• Thymic Cortex- removal of developing T-cells
incompletely separated medulla (M) of lymphoid
with nonfunctional TCRs, contains T-
tissue. (c) After-involution the thymus shows only
lymphoblasts or thymocytes, macrophages
small regions of lymphoid tissue, here still with cortex
and thymic epithelial cells. TEC: features of
(Co) and medulla (M), and these are embedded in
both epithelial and reticular cells\
adipose tissue (A). Age-related thymic involution
❖ Squamous Cells- Blood-thymus
reduces production of naïve T cells and may be
barrier
involved with the decline of immune function in the
❖ Stellate Epithelial Cells-
elderly.
Cytoreticulum, Starlike pattern,
Secrete cytokines
❖ Squamous Cortical Cells-
Corticomedullary barrier, Sheetlike
structure
• Thymic Medulla- lightly stained co, fewer and
larger and more mature lymphocytes
❖ Stellate Epithelial Cells –
Cytoreticulum, supports T
lymphocytes, dendritic cells [APC of
lymph node and spleen], and
2. thymus cortex- The cortical zone of an active
thymus is packed with small, highly basophilic
lymphoblasts that proliferate as well as undergo
positive and negative selection in that region. The
lymphoblasts are supported on a meshwork (or
cytoreticulum) of unusual thymic epithelial cells (E).

5. peyer’s patch- very large clusters of lymphoid

follicles located in the wall of the ileum which allow
close monitoring of microorganisms in the gut. (a) A
section through a Peyer patch shows a few lymphoid
nodules (N), some with germinal centers (arrow). The
mucosa of the small intestine is folded into many
projecting villi (V).

3. medulla- The thymic medulla contains fewer

lymphocytes than the cortex, and the epithelial cells
(E) located here have different morphology and
function. The most characteristic feature of the
medulla in humans is the presence of thymic (Hassall)
corpuscles (H). These are of variable size and contain
aggregates of thymic epithelial cells releasing many
cytokines important within the medullary
microenvironment, especially for dendritic cell activity REGIONS OF LYMPH NODES
and for the differentiation of regulatory T cells.
Dendritic cells in the medulla are difficult to discern 1. cortex (C)- The outer regions on the convex sides of
without special staining. a lymph node include the capsule (C), subcapsular
sinuses (S), and diffuse lymphoid tissue with lymphoid
nodules (N). Afferent lymphatic vessels (which are
only rarely shown well in sections) penetrate this
capsule, dumping lymph into the sinus where its
contents are processed by lymphocytes and APCs

4. tonsils- (b) A section showing several lymphoid

nodules (LN), collectively covered by stratified 2. paracortex (P)
squamous epithelium (E) on one side and a connective
tissue capsule (CT) on the other. Some nodules show 3. medulla (M)- (a) The medulla of a lymph node
lighter staining germinal centers (GC). Infoldings of the consists mainly of the medullary sinuses (MS)
mucosa in some tonsils form crypts (C), along which separated by intervening medullary cords (MC).
nodules are especially numerous. Lumens of crypts Lymphocytes and plasma are abundant and
contain desquamated epithelial cells, live and dead predominate in number over other cell types. A blood
lymphocytes, and bacteria. (X140; H&E) (c) Epithelium vessel within a medullary cord is also seen. (X200;
(E) surrounding tonsillar crypts (C) often becomes H&E) (b) Higher magnification of a medullary cord
infiltrated with lymphocytes and other leukocytes and (MC) shows plasma cells (arrows) with spherical,
can become difficult to recognize histologically. eccentric nuclei and much more cytoplasm than
Adjacent connective tissue at the top of the photo lymphocytes. Efferent lymph is rich in newly
also contains numerous lymphocytes. synthesized antibodies. A medullary sinus (MS) with a
meshwork of eosinophilic processes from surrounding Endocrine system- secretory cells of the endocrine
reticular cells is also seen. glands release signaling products called hormones
that is released for uptake by capillaries, has no
secretory duct, typically epithelial at least in origin,
and aggregated as cords or clusters.

DISTRIBUTION/ SECRETION OF HORMONES

1. Paracrine secretion- dispersal in interstitial fluid or

through short loops of blood vessels, localized or has
effect in vicinity of the gland secreting it (Ex: Gastrin
made by pyloric G cells reaches target cells in the
fundic glands)

2. Juxtacrine secretion- signaling molecule remains on

the secreting cell’s surface or adjacent extracellular
matrix and affects target cells when the cells make
contact. (Ex: Embryonic and regenerative tissue
6. spleen- The capsule (C) of the spleen connects to
interactions)
trabeculae (T) extending into the pulp-like interior of
the organ. The red pulp (R) occupies most of the 3. Autocrine secretion- cells may produce molecules
parenchyma, with white pulp (W) restricted to smaller that act on themselves, only has an affect on cell
areas, mainly around the central arterioles. Names of which it is secreted (Ex: Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
these splenic areas refer to their color in the fresh produced by several cell types may act on the same
state: red pulp is filled with blood cells of all types, cells that produced it.)
located both in cords and sinuses; white pulp is
lymphoid tissue. Large blood vessels and lymphatics
enter and leave the spleen at a hilum

Pituitary gland- also known as hypophysis, lies below

the brain in a small cavity on the sphenoid bone, the
sella turcica, develops from developing brain and oral
cavity

• Neural Component- Neurohypophyseal Bud

that forms from diencephalon
❖ Posterior pituitary
(Neurohypophysis)- has a part called
the pars nervosa develops as a
downgrowth of the developing brain
and is attached in the hypothalamus
by the infundibulum.
 • Oral Component- Hypophyseal (Rathke) during childbirth and myoepithelial cells in mammary
Pouch that forms from roof of pharynx gland
❖ Anterior pituitary
(Adenohypophysis) includes the
large pars distalis, the pars tuberalis
that surrounds the infundibulum,
and the thin pars intermedia
adjacent to the pars nervosa.

CELLS IN THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND AND

THEIR HORMONE SECRETIONS

1. acidophils- often stained as red to pink

2. basophils- stained violet to purple

3. chromophobes- poorly stained that appears light

violet or purple because they contain bery minimal to
no hormone content, former acidophil that hve
Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system- has great degranulated and released hormones already
importance because it carries neuropeptides to the
adenohypophysis where they either stimulate or
inhibit hormone release by the endocrine cells there,
pituitary gland’s neural connection to brain and each
blood supply

• Primary capillary plexus- in the infundibulum

and lower hypothalamus
• Secondary plexus- in the pars distalis,
connected by portal veins and draining to the
hypophyseal vein.

CELL CELL TYPE HORMONE

GROUP PRODUCED
Acidophil somatotroph Somatotropin
(Growth Hormone)
lactotroph Prolactin (PRL)
Basophil gonadotroph Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing
Hormone (LH)
thyrotrophs Thyroid Stimulating
NEURONS OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND Hormone (TSH)
AND THEIR HORMONE SECRETIONS corticotrophs Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone (ACTH)
1. Supraoptic nucleus/SON- contains neurosecretory
Beta-Lipotropic
cell that produces ADH (antidiuretic Hormone (LPH)
hormone)/Vasopressin that is released in response to
increased blood tonicity (hypertonic) which is sensed
by osmoreceptor cell present in hypothalamus

2. Paraventricular nucleus/PVN- contains

neurosecretory cells that produces oxytocin that
stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle
 and supported by a reticular fiber network.
Contains neural crest-derived chromaffin
cells synthesizing catecholamines either
epinephrine or norepinephrine that regulate
the stress response. Both hormones
stimulate glycogen breakdown, elevating
blood glucose levels. Together these effects
augment the capability for defensive
reactions or escape of stressors, the fight- or-
flight response.

Adrenal (or suprarenal) glands- paired organs lying

near the superior poles of the kidneys, embedded in
the pararenal adipose tissue and fascia.

• Adrenal cortex- yellowish, arises from

mesoderm, consists of three concentric
zones, all histologically distinct but with cells
producing steroid hormones and all drained
by the same system of capillaries.

ZONE OF DESCRIPT HORMONE

ADRENAL ION PRODUCED
CORTEX
Zona 15% of Mineralocorticoids
Glomerulosa/su cortex, (Aldosterone)-
percial round regulates
cluster of electrolyte levels
cells
Zona 65 to 85% Glucocorticoids
Fasciculata/mid of cortex, (Cortisol)- regulates
dle elongate several aspects of
d carbohydrate pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)- are compact
strands of metabolism
spherical or ovoid masses of endocrine cells
cells
embedded within the acinar exocrine tissue of the
Zona 10% of Androgens/sex
pancreas, localized mostly in the gland’s narrow tail
Reticularis/inne cortex, steroids
rmost smaller (Dehydroepiandros region, constitute 1%-2% of the organ’s total volume.
irregular terone)- converted Cells of islets are polygonal or rounded, routine stains
cords of to testosterone or or trichrome stains show that most islet cells are
cells estrogen acidophilic or basophilic with fine cytoplasmic
granules.

CELL HORMONE PRODUCED

α-cells or A Cells (20%) Glucagon- acts on
several tissues to make
energy stored in
glycogen and fat
available through
glycogenolysis and
glycolysis, increases
blood glucose content
• Adrenal medulla- reddish-brown from the β -cells or B Cells (70%) Insulin- causes entry of
neural crest, composed of large, pale-staining glucose into cell causing
polyhedral cells arranged in cords or clumps
 decrease in blood
glucose content
δ cells or D Cells (5-10%) Somatostatin- inhibits
action of other islet cell
hormones through
paracrine action,
inhibits release of
growth hormone, TSH
and HCl acid secretion
by gastric parietal cells
PP Cells (rarer, <5%) Pancreatic Polypeptide-
stimulates activity of
Pineal gland- also known as the epiphysis cerebri and
gastric parietal cells,
regulates the daily rhythms of bodily
inhibits bile secretion,
pancreatic enzyme and activities/circadian rhythm, develops from embryonic
inhibits bicarbonate neuroectoderm, remains attached to the brain, and
secretion and intestinal contains modified neurons called pinealocytes that
motility secrete the amine melatonin. Melatonin release from
pinealocytes is promoted by darkness and inhibited by
daylight, pineal landmarks are the concretions called
thyroid gland- located anterior and inferior to the corpora arenacea (brain sand); neural connections
larynx, consists of two lobes united by an isthmus, from the retina to pinealocytes allow diurnal secretion
originates in early embryonic life from the foregut of melatonin and rhythms in physiological activities.
endoderm near the base of the developing tongue,
consists mainly of spherical follicles composed of
simple epithelium

CELL HORMONE PRODUCED

Follicular Cells Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
Parafollicular or C cells Calcitonin- inhibits
osteoclasts activity
whenever there is an
increase in blood
calcium concentration

--

pituitary gland- Histologically the two parts of the

pituitary gland reflect their origins, as seen in this low-
parathyroid glands- four small ovoid masses. They are
magnification section of an entire gland. The
located on the back of the thyroid gland, usually
infundibular stalk (IS) and pars nervosa (PN) of the
embedded in the larger gland’s capsule, Derived from
neurohypophysis resemble CNS tissue, while the
the embryonic pharyngeal pouches—the superior
adenohypophysis’ pars distalis (PD), pars intermediate
glands from the fourth pouch and the inferior glands
(PI), and pars tuberalis (PT) are typically glandular in
from the third pouch
their level of staining.
• principal (chief) cells- secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH), an important regulator of
blood calcium levels.
 Pancreatic islet

Pars distalis- Acidophils, basophils and Chromophobes

Thyroid follicular cells and Parafollicular cells

Adrenal cortex

Parathyroid principal cells/chief cells

Adrenal medulla

Pineal gland
FINALS ❖ Mucus/ Internal aspects- always wet
with numerous mucus and minor
Digestive system- obtain molecules from ingested
salivary glands
food that are necessary for maintenance, growth and
• Teeth- adults have 32 permanent teeth that
energy needs of body.
is arranged in two bilaterally in maxillary and
STRUCTURES WITHIN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT ALLOW mandibular bones, each tooth is suspended
THE FOLLOWING: in a bony socket called alveolus by dense
collagenous connective tissue called
1. Ingestion- introduction of food and liquid in oral periodontal ligament, lined and supported by
cavity the gingiva
❖ Crown- portion of teeth visible in
2. Mastication- chewing which divides solid food into
the oral cavity
digestible pieces
❖ Root- portion of teeth housed
3. Motility- muscular movements of materials through within the alveolus
alimentary tract ❖ Cervix- portion of the teeth
between the crown and the root
4. Secretion of lubricating and protective mucus,
❖ Pulp- loose, gelatinous connective
digestive enzymes, acidic and alkaline fluids, and bile
tissue with extensive vascular and
5. Hormone release- for local control of motility and nerve supply, communicates with
secretion periodontal ligament through apical
foramen, contains calcified
6. Chemical digestion- enzymatic degradation of large elements called pulp stones or
macromolecules in our food to their smaller denticles, with thin myelinated pain
molecules and subunits fibers called rashkows plexus
7. Absorption of the small molecules and water into Odontogenesis/tooth development- starts at 6 to 7
the blood and lymph age of gestation from ectodermally derived oral
epithelium called dental lamina
8. Elimination of indigestible, unabsorbed components
of food

Oral cavity- lined by oral mucosa (stratified squamous

non-keratinized epithelium) region exposed to
considerable friction and shearing forces that are
partly or fully keratinized, associated with salivary
glands which release enzymes such as amylase,
lactoferrin, lysozyme, and IgA. Bounded anteriorly by
the lips and posteriorly by the palatoglossal folds

• Lips- upper and lower lips usually in contact

with each other, composed of skeletal muscle
(orbicularis oris muscle) responsible for its
mobility, entrance to oral cavity++
❖ External aspect- covered by thin skin
with sweat glands, hair follicles and MINERALIZED SUBSTANCES
sebaceous glands
1. Enamel- hardest substance in the body, translucent,
❖ Vermillion zone- pink region with
made up of hydroxyapatite crystals, organic minerals
highly developed capillary roots in
(amelogenin and enamelin) and water. Produced by
the dermal papilla called rete
ameloblasts which produce enamel daily in 4-8 um
apparatus, covered by thin skin
segments producing enamel root segments (striae of
devoid of sweat glands and hair
retzus), ameloblasts dies before tooth eruption and
follicles with non-functional
thus cannot repair enamel damage, lined by primary
sebaceous glands and hair follicles;
enamel cuticle before tooth eruption
necessitates occasion moistening
due to non-functional glands 2. Dentin- second hardest tissue in the body, yellowish
and highly elastic, produced by odontoblasts which
remain viable for life, with dendritic processes which 2 unequal surfaces: the anterior 2/3 and the
occupies a tunnel or dental tubules forming lines of posterior 1/3, divided by a V-shaped groove
Owen called sulcus terminalis whose apex is a deep
concavity called toramen caecum
3. Cementum- restricted to the root, similar to bone
❖ posterior 1/3- uneven due to the
and produced by cemetocytes within lacunar spaces,
presence of numerous lingual tonsils
with collagen fibers from periodontal ligament which
❖ anterior 2/3- lined with lingual
suspends the tooth in the bony sockets (Sharpey's
papilla:
fibers)

Filiform- most numerous

and slender, gives a velvety
• Palate- separates oral and nasal cavities
appearance to the tongue,
❖ Anterior hard palate- immovable
for scraping food with no
with bony shelf or palatine bone,
taste buds
lined by stratified squamous
Fungiform- resembles a
partially keratinized epithelium with
mushroom, vascular, and
clusters of adipose cells and
appears like red dots
posteriorly with acini of mucus and
amidst the filiform papillae,
minor salivary glands, nasal aspect
with taste buds
covered by respiratory epithelium
Foliate- located in the
with patches of non- keratinized
posterior-lateral aspect of
epithelium
the tongue, appears like
❖ Posterior soft palate- movable with
vertical furrows and leaf-
skeletal muscular attachment, lined
like, contains ducts of
by stratified squamous non-
minor salivary glands of
keratinized epithelium with minor
Von Ebner located in the
salivary glands, nasal aspect lined
core of the tongue, with
with columnar ciliated epithelium,
taste buds that is functional
posterior-most extension is the
only in newborns and
uvula
regenerates on 2 to 3 years
old
Circumvallate- 8-12 large
papillae along the sulcus
terminalis, also with glands
of Von Ebner

• Tongue- largest structure in oral cavity,

extremely movable because of intrinsic
muscle called lingualis and extrinsic muscles,
the dorsal surface delineates the tongue into
 Alimentary canal- continuation of the oral cavity,
tubular portion of the digestive tract where food is
mixed, liquefied, digested, absorbed and eliminated.
About 9 meters long and divided into regions:
esophagus, stomach, small intestines and large
intestines

• Mucosa- lined by epithelium underneath a

connective tissue layer called lamina propria,
connective tissue is vascular with glands,
lymph vessels and nodules. Surrounded by
• Taste Buds- intra-epithelial sensory organ
muscularis mucosa
that functions in the perception of taste or
• Submucosa- dense, irregular, fibro-elastic
gustation, there are about 3000 taste buds
connective tissue, houses glands in the
present on the surface of the tongue and
esophagus and duodenum, contains blood
posterior aspect of the oral cavity, each taste
vessels, lymph vessels and parasympathetic
buds is composed of 60-80 spindle-shaped
nerve plexus called meissner’s plexus which
cells in an oval structure with thin ends
controls motility and glandular secretion
opening at the taste pore.
• Muscularis Externa- thick smooth muscular
layer responsible for peristalsis, arranged in
inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
between the layers is the
parasympatheticnerve plexus called
auerbach’s myenteric plexus
• Serosa or Adventitia- thin connective tissue
layer, if intraperitoneal (serosa), if
retroperitoneal (adventitia) that adheres to
body wall

COMPONENTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

❖ Basal cells (Type IV cells)- functions
1. esophagus- muscular tube25 cm in length that
as reserve cells and regenerate
conveys bolus from the oropharynx to the stomach,
other cell, has 10 days life span
lined by stratified squamous non-keratinized
❖ Dark cells (Type I cells)- young taste
epithelium which is usually collapsed and opens only
bud cells from basal cells
during swallowing, with glands in the submucosa
❖ Light cells (Type II cells)- mature
composed of 2 types of cells: mucus cells and serous
taste buds cells
cells with granules that contain pepsinogen and
❖ Intermediate cells (Type III cells)- old
lysozymes, the muscularis external in the upper 1/3 is
or senescent taste buds
made up of purely skeletal muscles, the middle 1/3 of
PRIMARY TASTE SENSATIONS both skeletal and smooth muscles, and the lower 1/3
of purely smooth muscles. Covered by adventitia until
1. Salty and Sour- perception is based on the presence
it pierces the diaphragm where it is covered by serosa
of specific ion channels in the taste bud cells, salty
with 2 physiologic sphincters
(soidum ions), sour (hydrogen ions from acids)

2. Bitter and Sweet- perception is based on the

presence of membrane receptors in the plasmalemma
of taste bud cells, bitter (alkaloids and certain toxins),
sweet (sugar and other related compounds)

3. Complex taste perception- due more to the

olfactory apparatus than the taste buds
(discrimination)

4. umami- japanese word meaning savory, detection

of amino acids such as glutamate and aspertate
 • Pharyngo-esophageal sphincter 5. Enteroendocrine cells (Argentaffin / Argyrophilic
• Gastro-esophageal sphincter- prevents reflux cells)- scattered epithelial cells in gastric mucosa with
of food endoctrine or paracrine functions including G cells
that produces peptide gastrin, secretes hormone such
2. stomach- most dilated portion of the alimentary as serotonin, secretin, somatostatin, gastric,
canal, can accommodate 1500 ml of food and gastric cholesystokinin and glucagon
juices at maximum distention, process food bolus into
chyme, liquefies and digest food by production of HCI • APUD/Amine Precursor Uptake and
and enzyme (pepsin, rennin and gastric lipase), with Decarboxylation cells
mucosal and submucosal folds called rugae which • DNES/Diffuse Neuro Endoctrine System cells
allows distention, the epithelium invaginates into the • Secretes hormones
mucosa forming gastric pits called foveolae with
gastric glands in each pit, with 4 regions: 3. small intestine- 5 meters is the longest portion of
the GIT, composed of 3 regions duodenum, jejunum
• Cardia- narrow transitional zone between and ileum. Digests food materials and absorbs
esophagus and stomach nutrients
• Fundus and Body- identical in microscopic
• Plica Circulares (Valves of Kerckring)-
structure, sites of gastric glands releasing
permanent transverse folds of the mucosa
gastrus
that increases surface area by 2-3x
• Pylorus- funnel shaped regions that opens
• Villi- fingerlike projections of the lamina
into small intestine
propria rich with capillary loops called lacteal,
confers a velvety appearance to the small
intestines, increases surface area by 10x,
more in the duodenum, covered by simple
columnar epithelium by absorptive cells
called enterocytes
• Microvilli- modifications of the surface cell
membrane of the epithelium, increases
surface area by 20x

CELLS OF THE EPITHELIUM OF SMALL INTESTINE

1. Surface absorptive cells- most numerous with

striated borders, for terminal digestion and
absorption of water and nutrient, for esterification of
THE LAMINA PROPRIA PACKED WITH 15 MILLION fatty acids to triglycerides and chylomicron
FUNDIC (OXYNTIC) GLANDS COMPOSED OF 5 MAJOR
CELL TYPES 2. Goblet cells- unicellular glands, secretes mucin
which is a protective layer of mucus, less numerous in
1. Surface lining cells- simple columnar cells that lines the duodenum
the lumen and gastric pits, secretes thick adherent
and highly viscous layer, rich in bicarbonate irons, 3. Enteroendocrine cells- secrete paracrine and
protects mucosa from abbrasive effects of endocrine hormones
intralumenal food and corrosive effect of schroma
4. M cells (Microfold cells)- squamous-like cells which
acid
are modified macrophages
2. Mucus neck cells- less columnar, often distorted by
neighboring cells, their mucous secretions is less
alkaline 4. large intestine- 1.5 meters long, for absorption of
water and for the compaction of feces for elimination,
3. Parietal (Oxyntic cells) cells- forms hydrochloric and
the colon has no villi but with numerous crypts of
gastric intrinsic factor for vitamin D12 absorption,
Lieberkühn and without Paneth cells.
deficiency may lead to pernicious anemia
• Muscularis externa- with discontinuous
4. Chief (Zymogenic) cells- secretes pepsinogen,
longitudinal layer, gathered into 3 narrow
rennin and gastric lipase
ribbons of muscle fascicle (taenia coli) which
 pushes the colon into sacculation (haustra 2. pancreas- secretes variety of digestive enzymes that
coli). is produced by:
• Serosa- with fat-filled pouches (appendices
• Pancreatic acinar cells- with zymogen
epipliocae)
granules released by cholecystokinin from
• Rectum- resembles the colon except with
enteroendocrine cells of the small intestines,
fewer but deeper crypts of Lieberkühn
synthesize a wide variety of enzymes that can
• anal canal- 3-4 cm long with relatively short
hydrolyze the ff:
crypts
❖ Proteins- proteases, trypsin,
• anal mucosa- displays longitudinal folds in
chymotrypsin and elastase
anal columns which meets and forms
❖ Carbohydrates- amylase
pouches called anal valves
❖ Nucleic acid- ribonuclease,
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE GLANDS deoxyribonuclease
❖ Lipids- lipase, phospholipase
1. salivary glands- surrounds the oral cavity containing • Centroacinar cells- produce a watery
adenomeres that secrete saliva, moistens food, bicarbonate fluid in response to secretin
lubricates the digestive tract, enzymatic digestion of from enteroendocrine cells of the small
carbohydrates, with lysozymes and IgA against intestines to neutralize the acid
microorganisms

• Serous cells- basophilic producing protein

rich watery secretion
• Mucus cells- acidophilic, foamy appearance
producing thick mucus rich secretion
• Myoepithelial cells- contains contractile
basket cells
• Others- IgA secreting plasma cells, connective
tissue cells

MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS

1. Parotid Gland- with exclusively serous acini, with

3. liver- body's largest gland, covered by a thin
Stensen's duct Glisson's capsule, hepatocytes are the predominant
cells lined 2-3 cells thick, separated by hepatic
2. Submandibular (Submaxillary) Gland- produce 70%
sinusoids, enzymatic processing of absorbed nutrients,
of the salivary volume with both serous and mucus
detoxification, synthesis of important proteins,
adenomeres, with serous demilunes that secrete
synthesis of bile, storage site for glucose, fats and
lysozymes with Wharton's duct
vitamin A, storage of iron complexes with protein
3. Sublingual Glands- mostly mucus secretions, ferittin, removes effete erythrocytes
produce about 5% of the saliva with numerous ducts
of Rivinus

Parasympathetic stimulation- usually after meals, has

increase serous saliva production
• Hepatocytes- primary structural and
Sympathethic stimulation- usually during stress or functional subunits of the liver, polygonal
fear, increase mucus saliva or cotton mouth with numerous glycogen granules and lipid
 droplets, with short microvilli projecting into
the sinusoids called space of Disse
• Kupffer cells- modified macrophage which
are phagocytic, found in-between sinusoidal
endothelial cells, for detoxification
• Fat-storing cell- lies in the space of Disse,
accumulate fat and store vitamin A (retinyl
esters)

Tongue

4. gall bladder- blind sac attached to the lower surface

of the liver, sores, concentrate and release bile
responds to cholecystokinin
Teeth
• Mucosa- simple columnar with abundant
apical microvilli
• Muscularis- interwoven smooth muscle,
responds to cholecystokinin triggered by
entry of dietary fat in the intestines
• Adventitia and serosa- adventitia attaches
gall bladder to the liver, while serosa covers
the free surface of the gall bladder

Esophagus

--

Lip- part of oral mucosa

Stomach
 Parotid gland
Wall of stomach with rugae

Submandibular & sublingual gland

Gastric glands

Pancreas
Small intestine

Liver
Colon mucosa
Gallbladder RENAL VASCULATURE

1. Renal Artery- largest, divides into 2 segmental

arteries at hilum

2. Interlobar Arteries- branch from segmental arteries,

extend between renal pyramids towards
corticomedullary junction

3. Arcuate Arteries- branches from interlobar arteries

4. Interlobular Arteries- branches from arcuate

arteries, extend all the way to renal cortex

Urinary system- ensures optimal property of blood

• Kidney
❖ Cortex (outer)- stains darker than
medulla
❖ Medulla (inner)- contains 8-12 renal
pyramids containing

Renal Pyramids- apical end contains renal papilla and

minor calyx that eventually become one of three
major calyces, separated by structures called renal
column

❖ Renal Hilum- where renal artery and

vein are located, the ureter exits the
kidney from here
NEPHRONS

1. Renal Corpuscle- surrounded by double wall

epithelial capsule which is called glomerular capsule
or Bowman’s capsule, dilated part enclosing a tuft of
capillary loops, site of blood filtration

• Glomerulus- acts as “sieve” for filtration of

blood inside kidneys
❖ Fenestrated Capillary Endothelium
❖ Glomerular Basement Membrane-
RENAL FUNCTIONS contains Type IV Collagen, produced
by Podocytes, blocks large proteins
1. Regulation of the balance between water and ❖ Slit Pores- found in pedicels which
electrolytes (inorganic ions) and the acid-base balance are interdigitating secondary
processes that covers capillary
2. Excretion of metabolic wastes along with excess
surface
water and electrolytes in urine (excretory products)

3. Excretion of many bioactive substances, including

many drugs

4. Secretion of renin (protease)

5. Secretion of erythropoietin

6. Conversion of the steroid prohormone vitamin D

into its active form which is calcitrol

7. Gluconeogenesis during starvation or periods of

prolonged fasting
 • Glomerular Capsule ( Bowman’s Capsule)- Urinary bladder- where urine temporarily is stored,
simple Squamous Epithelialium contains folded mucosa which unfold as bladder fills,
• Podocytes- unusual stellate epithelial Cells, transitional epithelium gets thinner as bladder fills
ompose the apparatus for renal filtration
Urethra- drains bladder in both gender
2. Proximal Tubule- continues as thin and thick limb,
• Males- urothelium is followed by stratified
part of loop of Henle
and pseudostratified columnar epithelium,
3. Loop of Henle last portions of male urethra is stratified
squamous epithelium
4. Distal Tubule ❖ Prostatic Urethra- 3 to 4 cm long
5. Connecting Tubule- links nephron to collecting ❖ Membranous Urethra- passes
ducts through urogenital diaphragm
❖ Spongy Urethra- 15 cm long,
stratified squamous epithelium
• Women- lined initially with transitional
epithelium which then transitions to
nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium continuous with that of the skin at
the labia minora, exclusively urinary organ

--

Renal corpuscle

Nephron tubules- for Reabsorption and Secretion of

Substances

• Proximal Convoluted Cuboidal Tubule-

located at renal cortex, simple Cuboidal Cells,
contains Microvilli, abundant Mitochondria,
basolateral Folds
❖ Molecules reabsorbed- glucose, Renal cortex
amino acid, electrolytes, water
• Loop of Henle- with Thin Ascending and Thin
Descending parts, contains simple squamous
epithelium, Thick Ascending Limb which
further thickens to macula densa

Macula Densa- specialized smooth muscle cells, have

juxtaglomerular cells, secrete renin

• Distal Convoluted Tubule- where Electrolyte

Levels are adjusted further, do not contain
brush border, fewer mitochondria, where Renal medulla
electrolyte level are adjusted further
• Connecting Tubules- join to form the cortical
collecting ducts, simple cuboidal epithelium

Urinary tract- pale staining, few mitochondria,

contain cell membranes rich in aquaporins for passive
water reabsorption, delivers filtrate of plasma into
minor calyces, filtrate is now called urine. The calyces,
renal pelvis, ureters, and urinary bladder are lined by
urothelium or transitional epithelium
Collecting ducts
 ❖ Tunica albuginea- dense connective
tissue capsule that forms the
mediastinum testis along the
posterior surface
❖ Septa- extension of the tunica
albuginea which penetrates the
testes and divides it into 250
compartments or lobules
❖ Lobules- includes 1-4 seminiferous
tubules (exocrine) with discrete
clumps of Leydig's cells (endocrine)

Leydig cells/ interstitial cellss- develops as round,

polygonal cells with entral nuclei and eosinophilic
cytoplasm that is rich in small lipids droplets, for the
Ureters production of testosterone that promotes
development of secondary male characteristics

Seminiferous tubules- where sperm is produced, 200

million rate of production per day, 250-1000 tubules
per testicular lobules

• Spermatogenic epithelium
• Basement Membrane
• Myoid Cells ( for contraction)
• Sertoli cells- physically and metabolically
Bladder and urothelium support developing sperm cell precursors,
produce androgen-binding protein (ABP) that
concentrates testosterone, phagocytoses
shed debris from differentiating spermatids,
secrete fluid that carries sperm along the
tubules

Spermatogenesis- begins with spermatogonia which is

a diploid cell containing 46 chromosomes

Spermiogenesis- process of cell differentiation by

Urethra which spermatids mature and becomes sperm

Excretory genital ducts- transport sperm from

scrotum to penis during ejaculation

• Epididymis- lies in scrotum along posterior

and superior sides of each testes, passage of
sperm thourgh epididymis takes 2-4 weeks,
where maturation occurs, pseudostratified
columnar epithelium
❖ Head- where efferent ductules enter
❖ Body- where sperm cell undergo
Male reproductive system- for production of sperm, further subtle modifications
for secretion of hormones and production of ❖ Tail- where sperm is stored until
substances required for sperm acitivity ejaculation
• Ductus Deferens/Vas Deferens-
• Testes- paired organ located in scrotum
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
❖ Tunica vaginalis- mesothelial sac
• Urethra
which covers the anterior surface of
each testes, extension of
peritoneum
Accessory glands- produce secretions that is mixed Sympathetic Stimulation- occurs at ejaculation,
with sperm during ejaculation, essential for constricts blood flow through the helicine arteries,
reproduction allowing blood to empty from the cavernous tissues.

• Seminal Gland/ Vesicle- lined with both

simple and pseudostratified columnar
epithelium (containing secretory cells),
exocrine Glands, secretion makes up 70% of
ejaculate
❖ Fructose- major energy source for
sperm
❖ Prostaglandins- stimulate activity in
female reproductive tract
❖ Fibrinogen- allows semen to
coagulate after ejaculation
• Prostate Gland- collection of 30-50 Female reproductive system- undergoes cyclic
tubuloacinar glands embedded in a dense changes roughly every 28 days especially the ovaries
fibromuscular stroma and the uterus, controlled by pituitary gonadotropins
❖ Transition Zone (5%)- surrounds FSH and LH which modulate follicle growth and
superior portion of urethra, contains development and hormone production which controls
periurethral mucosa the menstrual cycle.
❖ Central Zone (25%)- contains
periurethral submucosal glands that • Paired Ovaries- “almond shaped”, contains a
has longer ducts cortex that is cellular connective tissue and
❖ Peripheral Zone (75%)- contains contains ovarian follicles, has medulla that
prostate’s main glands with long has loose connective tissue and blood
ducts vessels, covered with simple cuboidal
epithelium, surface/germinal epithelium and
tunica albuginea
❖ Ovarian Follicles- consists of an
oocyte surrounded by layers of
epithelial cells and lamina
❖ Primordial Follicles- formed from
developing fetal gonad
❖ Primary Follicles- develop from
primordial follicles, enlarging
primary oocyte surrounded by larger
• Bulbourethral Gland- AKA cowper glands,
epithelial cells now called granulosa
empties into proximal part of penile urethra
cells.
Penis- contains 3 Cylindrical Masses of Erectile Tissue, ❖ Granulosa Cells- responsible for
Penile Urethra and Skin steroid hormone production during
maturation
• Corpora Cavernosa (dorsal) ❖ Zona Pellucida- contains
• Corpus Spongiosum (ventral)- surrounds glycoproteins (ZP proteins) to which
urethra the sperm surface must bind to
• Penile Urethra- pseudostratified columnar reach the oocyte at fertilization.
epithelium
OOCYTE DIFFERENTIATION
Penile Erection- blood filling cavernous spaces in
tissue, triggered by external stimuli to CNS, controlled 1. Growth of Cell and Nuclear Enlargement
by autonomic nerves
2. Production of more Mitochondria
Parasympathetic Stimulation- relaxes the trabecular
3. RER becoming more extensive
smooth muscle and dilates the helicine arteries,
allowing increased blood flow and filling the 4. Enlargement of Golgi Complexes
cavernous spaces, enlargement of corpora muscles
5. Formation of Cortical Granules Corpus Albicans- white scar that replaces a
degenerated corpus luteum
FOLLICULAR GROWTH
• Paired Oviducts/fallopian tube (Uterine
1. Formation of Unilaminar Primary Follicle- forms
Tubes)- paired, muscular tubes continuous
simple cuboidal epithelium around growing oocyte
with the uterus, functions to capture and
2. Formation of Multilaminar Primary Follicle- forms conduct ovulated ovum towards the uterus,
stratified follicular epithelium, avascular, surrounded supported by ligaments
by basement membrane, ❖ Infundibulum- funnel-shaped distal
segment with finger-like extensions
3. Formation of Zona Pellucida ❖ Ampulla- wide middle segment,
most common site of fertilization,
4. Formation of Follicular Theca- “outer covering”
with numerous mucosal folds
• Theca interna- has steroid producing cells ❖ Isthmus- narrowest segment
called androstene dione ❖ Pars interstitials (intramural
• Theca externa- more fibrous and has smooth portion)- penetrates the uterine
muscle walls, with few mucosal folds with
the myometrium in the muscularis
5. Formation of Secondary/Antral Follicles layer
6. Formation of Graafian Follicles- contains primary
oocyte

Ovulation- hormone stimulated process by which

oocyte is released from ovary, involves movement of a
very large, dominant graafian follicle to the ovary
surface, completion of meiosis I, release of a polar
body from the oocyte

Corpus luteum- temporary endoctrine gland, WALLS OF THE TUBES

degenerates 2 weeks after ovulation, leaving a 1. Mucosa- lamina propria and lining epithelium of
temporary collagen-filled region called a corpus simple columnar epithelium
albicans
• Ciliated columnar cells- most abundant, beats
• Granulosa Lutein- secretes progesterone or contracts in waves
• Theca Lutein- secretes estrogen • Peg cells- mucus secreting cells

2. Muscularis- thick, well defined, contains interwoven

circular/spiral and longitudinal layers of smooth
muscle

3. Serosa- covered with visceral peritoneum with

mesothelium

• Uterus- pear shaped muscular organ, site of

implantation and development of embryo
❖ Endometrium- uterine mucosa,
simple columnar with simple tubular
glands
stratum functionale (pars
Corpus Luteum of Menstruation- when no functionalis)- temporary
fertilization occurs layer at the surface which
responds to hormones,
Corpus Luteum of Pregnancy- develops with undergoes cyclic thickening
fertilization, enlarges and maintained for 6 months; and shedding
secretes relaxin stratum basale (pars
basalis)- thin deep
permanent layer
 ❖ Myometrium- muscularis layer, 1. embryonic and fetal Oogonium- primary
thick, whorled (figure of 8) period (all stages are oocyte (via mitosis,
❖ Serosa (in the fundus) and adventitia diploid) arrested in prophase I)
(in the body) 2. childhood (ovary is Primary oocyte (going in
inactive) meiosis I, arrested)
Cervix- lower cylindrical part of uterus, narrow, 3. monthly, from primary oocyte ->
inferior end of uterus puberty to menopause secondary oocyte (via
meiosis II, haploid) ->
• Endocervical Mucosa- lined with simple ovulation (meiosis II is
columnar epithelium, contains cervical glands completed if fertilized)
that secretes mucous
• Exocervical Mucosa- lined with simple sq.
nonkeratinized epithelium --

• Vagina- lacks gland, epithelium of vagina is

stratified squamous, squamous cells
accumulate glycogen which is later
metabolized by bacteria into lactic acid Testes
❖ Mucosa
❖ Muscular Layer
❖ Adventitia
• External Genitalia- AKA Vulva, contain
stratified sq. epithelium, richly innervated
with meissner’s corpuscles and pacinian
corpuscles, free nerve endings
❖ Vestibule- contains tubuloacinar
glands
❖ Labia Minora- lacking hair follicles,
has oil glands Lobules
❖ Labia Majora- similar histologically
to skin of scrotum
❖ Clitoris- erectile structure similar to
penis

Interstitial cell and sertoli cell

Mammary glands- compound tubuloalveolar glands

specialized to secrete milk, alveolar secretory units
develop after puberty on a branching duct system
with lactiferous sinuses converging at the nipple.
Highly modified Apocrine Sweat Glands. Milk
secretion (lactation), which begins in late pregnancy
and continues until weaning, involves both protein
exocytosis and apocrine secretion of lipid droplets.
Seminiferous tubules
OOGENESIS
 Penis

Epididymis

Penile urethra and erectile tissue

vas deferens
Ovary

Primordial follicles
Seminal vesicle

Primordial follicles

Prostate gland

Antral follicle and mature follicle

Wall of antral follicle Cervix

Atresia
Vagina

Corpus luteum

Respiratory system- for exchange of oxygen and

carbon dioxide to and from blood, production of
sound or phonation, ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium (respiratory epithelium), lamina
propria with mucus glands and cartilage to prevent
collapse, smooth muscle layer, adventitia

• Ventilating mechanism- creates pressure

difference that move air in and out of the
lungs. (diaphragm, intercostal muscles,
Mucosa of uterine tube abdominal and elastic connective tissues)
• Conducting portions- carry air to and from
the site of exchange, conditions air (filters,
moistening and warming) (nasal cavity,
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronhi,
bronchioles, terminal bronchioles)
• Respiratory portions- function for gaseous
exchange. (alveoli, alveolar ducts, respiratory
bronchioles)
Uterus
EPITHELIAL CELL TYPE
1) Ciliated columnar cells- predominant cell type

2) Mucus goblet cells- contains basal nuclei and apical

domains filled with granules of mucin glycoprotein

3) Brush cells- lacks cilia, contains microvilli and free

nerve endings for sensory reception

4) Basal cells- stem and progenitor cells that give rise

to other epithelial cell types

5) Small Granular cells- contains small granules within

its cytoplasm, can undergo metaplasia

Nasal cavities- lie within the skull as two cavernous Pharynx- first part of the nasopharynx, contains
chambers separated by the osseous nasal septum, Respiratory Epithelium, connects to the middle ear
contains conchae which is a bone like projections cavity

• Vestibule- has nares (nostrils), preliminary

filter of inspired air
• Internal Nasal Cavity

Larynx- contains Hyaline Cartilage and Elastic Cartilage

for structural support and sound production, known
as the voicebox, passage of air between pharynx and
Olfactory epithelium- specialized region of the trachea
mucous membrane covering the superior conchae at • Vestibular Folds- contain stratified squamous
the roof of the nasal cavity. nonkeratinized epithelium, contains many
• Olfactory Neurons- send nerve impulses that seromucous glands, occassionally has
pass through the cribriform plate of the lymphoid nodules
ethmoid bone, bipolar neurons • Vocal Folds (or cords)- have features
• Supporting cells - columnar, with narrow important for phonation or sound
bases and broad, cylindrical apexes production, have underlying vocalis muscles
containing the nuclei and extending microvilli that change pitch and sound of voice,
into the fluid layer, abundant ion channels, minimal to no seromucous glands
help maintain microenvironment conducive Epiglottis- flattened structure projecting from the
to olfactory function and survival upper rim of the larynx, prevents swallowed food
• Stem Cells/ Basal Cells - are small, spherical, from entering air passageways, stratified squamous
or cone-shaped cells near the basal lamina, epithelium is found on upper lingual surface,
replaces Olfactory Neurons every 2-3mos respiratory epithelium on laryngeal surface
Lamina propria- possesses serous glands known as Trachea- lined with typical respiratory mucosa,
olfactory Glands (of Bowman), produce constant flow contains numerous seromucous glands producing
of fluid, access of new odoriferous substances watery mucus, supported by C-shaped rings of hyaline
cartilage
 • Trachealis Muscle- smooth Muscle and prevents alveolar collapse, known as great alveolar
Fibroelastic Tissue, relaxes during cells or alveolar septal cells, interspresed with type I
swallowing, facilitate passage of food penumocyte, bactericidal

Bronchial tree- left and right primary bronch, Alveolar Macrophages- removes debris that escapes
secondary, tertiary and smaller bronchi, branches are the muco-ciliary apparatus of the conducting portion,
lined by respiratory mucosa, branches have bands of also remove blood that enter alveoli in heart failure >>
smooth muscle and hyaline cartilage. heart failure cells, known as dust cells, large and
monocyte derived phatocytic cells
Bronchioles- branches of the bronchial tree with
diameters of 1 mm or less, lined by simple columnar --
or cuboidal ciliated cells.

• Terminal Bronchioles- last branches to lack

alveoli, lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
❖ Cuboidal cells/club cells- secretion
of surfactant lipoproteins and
mucins in fluid layer on epithelial Respiratory epithelium
surface, detoxification of inhaled
xenobiotic compounds by enzymes
of SER, secretion of antimicrobial
peptides and cytokines for local
immune defense

Olfactory mucosa

Alveoli- small sacs which open into a bronchiole, an

alveolar duct, an atrium or an alveolar sac, separated
by thin walls of interalveolar septum specialized for
gas exchange, with continuous capillaries forming
blood-air barrier, septum may be interrupted by pores
of Kohn, to relieve or equalize pressure and allow
Larynx
collateral circulation, respomsible for spongy structure
of lungs

• 2 or 3 highly attenuated thin cells lining the

alveolus
• The fused basal laminae of thin cells and
endothelial cells of capillaries
• The thin capillary endothelial cells

Type 1 pneumocytes- serves as a gas-permeable

component of the blood-air barrier, 97% of alveolar
surface
Tracheal wall
Type II pneumocytes- with membrane-bound lamellar
/ multilamellar bodies, secretory cells that secrete
surface surfactant that decreases surface tension and
Bronchus
Alveoli

Bronchial wall

Bronchioles

Terminal bronchiole