Grammar Reference

Unit 1
• Clauses
 that contain a structure with be + -ing / -ed can
REVISION OF -ING VS be reduced by eliminating the subject and the verb be:
-ED ADJECTIVES When he was taken to court for stealing, he felt
ashamed.
-ing adjectives When taken to court for stealing, he felt ashamed.
• They describe how something or someone makes If you are caught in traffic, you’ll have to be patient.
others feel. If caught in traffic, you’ll have to be patient.
This poison has paralysing effects. • Relative
 clauses in the present can be reduced using –ing,
even if the original clause is not in a continuous form:
This novel is long but interesting.
Students who need a special certificate should contact
Ms Adams is a very encouraging teacher. the international office.
The huge dog was a frightening sight. Students needing a special certificate should contact
the international office.
-ed adjectives
Incorrect Reduced Adverb Clause to Adverbial
• They describe how people feel.
Phrase
I was paralysed with fear.
• Because she needed to study for a test, her brother
We are really interested in your new product. took care of the dog. ≠ Needing to study for a test,
Students are encouraged to study on their own. her brother took care of the dog.
I’m frightened of dogs. The verb form needing doesn’t have a clear subject so
the reader will assume that her brother is the subject and
therefore the person who needs to study.
REDUCED –ED / -ING CLAUSES
We can use reduced clauses when the subjects are
• 
Clauses that refer to time, cause and opposition can be different if we mention the first subject too: His sister
reduced using –ing forms: needing to study for a test, he took care of the dog.

TIME
REVISION OF MODIFYING ADVERBS
• -ing (meaning as)
As I was crossing the street, I tripped over my • For
 more information on gradable and non-gradable
shoelace. adjectives, see page 117
Crossing the street, I tripped over my shoelace.
Modifying adverbs with gradable and
• Before / After / Since / Until / While non-gradable adjectives
Before he lived in Spain, he never ate olives. The teacher was
Before living in Spain, he never ate olives. extremely helpful.
extremely Her eyes were fairly
• with
• When can be replaced by On / upon gradable fairly large.
When she arrived at the party, the host took her adjectives rather He was rather strange.
coat.
hot, cold, slightly I find her giggle
On arriving at the party, the host took her coat.
angry... very slightly annoying.
CAUSE As the water was very
cold, I didn't take a dip.
• (not) -ing (meaning because / since / as)
As she knew she was going to be late, she called • with non-
her mother. gradable
Knowing she was going to be late, she called her adjectives* We were absolutely
mother astonished by her
boiling,
Since we didn’t want to disturb the neighbours, freezing, absolutely reaction.
we closed the door quietly.
furious, totally She felt totally awful
Not wanting to disturb the neighbours, we closed
the door quietly. enraged, completely about what she’d done.
hilarious, His threats sounded
OPPOSITION repulsive, completely ridiculous.
heartbroken
• Although / Though / While ...
Although he felt unwell, he carried on with the work.
Although feeling unwell, he carried on with the work. *
These are extreme, or maximum intensity, adjectives.
While he is still a child, he speaks like an adult. Classifying adjectives (like international, indoor, or civilian)
While still being a child, he speaks like an adult. are also non-gradable but cannot be modified by adverbs
like very or absolutely.
C1.1

really I was really anxious Anticipatory it as subject

(informal) when I found out I’d It’s obvious /
be on my own. It’s obvious that he wasn’t happy
clear / probable
with the new arrangements.
pretty She can be pretty that…
(informal) awful when she It appeared / seemed that they
wants to be. It appears /
quite + hadn’t taken the necessary
• with both seems that…
precautions.
types gradable The exam was quite
(not very) difficult (difficult, but It’s a mistake to ignore their
It’s a mistake
quite not very). warnings.
/ a shame
+ non- He was quite furious that… / It’s a shame that so many
gradable when he heard the to… resources are wasted.
(totally) news (totally furious).
It + be a good It was a good idea to publish the
idea / a pity / results early.
absurd /
• We
 tend to use rather with negative adjectives. difficult / It has been difficult to accept his
When we use it with positive adjectives, it usually wrong, etc. to… resignation.
means we were surprised by the positive quality
described. It + be a good
idea / a pity /
She’s rather nosy when it comes to my personal It would be absurd / wrong for me
absurd /
life. to make that decision because I
difficult /
can’t be impartial.
It turned out to be a rather enjoyable experience. wrong, etc. for
someone to…
• There
 are many other modifying adverbs we can It + be
use with both gradable and non-gradable adjectives essential / It’s essential / imperative / vital to
which add intensity or an opinion to the adjective imperative / reduce costs.
(e.g. incredibly, purely, perfectly, thoroughly, vital to…
utterly, simply, exceedingly, ridiculously, bitterly,
etc.). There are no rules for using one or another It + be
beyond noticing what people say. Some words essential /
function together (collocate) and some don’t. imperative / It’s essential / imperative / vital
vital that that she (should) be here at
She’s perfectly capable of doing that job on her someone eight.
own. (should) +
Assuming the opposite would be utterly ridiculous. infinitive
He thought the cake was incredibly good. It + be
essential / It’s essential / imperative / vital
It was bitterly cold outside when they left the imperative / for them to change their attitude
house. vital for on this matter.
someone to…
It amazes / It amazes / surprises me that
IT IN IMPERSONAL AND annoys / they have never questioned
their motives.
ANTICIPATORY USES bothers /
frightens / It often frightens / scares people
scares / that not every situation can be
• We
 use the pronoun it as an impersonal subject for surprises / controlled.
sentences that refer to dates, time, the weather or worries
distances. It really annoys / bothers me
someone that / when people waste good
It’s two o’clock. It’s sunny. when… opportunities.
It’s two miles from here to the station.

• W
 hen we have long complex clauses as subjects,
• We can also have a long clause as an object, and
we normally put them at the end of the sentence therefore use an anticipatory it after the main
and use an ‘empty’ it to anticipate the subject. verb.
Why he made such a ridiculous decision is not clear. I like it when you smile.
Object

It is not clear why he made such a ridiculous decision.

 Grammar Reference

Anticipatory it as object
I, he, she… like(s)… it when / that / if…
I don’t like it when he lies to me.
He hates it that you never seem to understand
his problems.
She would love it if they chose her for the role.

I, he, she... consider(s) / find(s) it

interesting…that / to...
I consider it a major step that they have accepted
our apologies.
We find it necessary to express these feelings in
public.

Sometimes
 we use it when there is no object
but the structure needs one (normally with
verbs that are similar to like or hate).
I love it here.

• Remember
 that we also use it + be… that / who at
the beginning of a sentence when we want to give
importance to a specific element.
My ex-girlfriend decided that we should split up.
It was my ex-girlfriend that / who decided we
should split up.
Most weddings are held in late spring. ➞
It is in late spring that most weddings are held.
 Grammar Reference

Unit 2
People: who
ADJECTIVE ORDER
Things/Animals: which
Time: when
The usual order of adjectives before a noun is: Places: where
Opinion / Size / Shape/ Age (temperature) / Possession: whose
Colour / Origin / Material / Purpose
Andy Warhol, who died in 1987, is one of the most
famous artists in the world.
He owned a beautiful old French oil painting.
Picasso’s last painting, which dates from 1972, is
She gave me an enormous pink birthday card.
now on sale.
• 
The purpose is often described using a noun In the 90s, when the gallery was opened, business
as an adjective, e.g. city centre, alarm clock, was booming.
tennis racket. These compound nouns are never
separated by other words. The new storage room, where the paintings are
now kept, is much larger.
• –ed
 / -ing participles can come before adjectives
that describe origin or material, e.g. a worrying We visited the Bargello Museum, whose collection
regional phenomenon, a painted wooden door includes masterpieces by many Italian sculptors

 informal English, when can be replaced by that or omitted

* In
after nouns referring to time.
RELATIVE CLAUSES

Defining relative clauses

• Used to specify which object, person, place or After a preposition we have to use whom (for
time we refer to. people) and which (for things) but this structure
is only used in formal English. More commonly,
• No commas are used. prepositions are placed at the end of the clause
• That, which and who can be omitted if they are and that, which or who are used (or omitted)
not the subject of the clause, that is, if they are following the rules shown above.
not followed by a verb. Julius II is the Pope for whom Michelangelo
painted.
People: who / that
Julius II is the Pope (that / who) Michelangelo
Things and animals: which / that
painted for.
Time: when
This is the town in which he shot his first
Places: where film.
Possession: whose
This is the town (which / that) he shot his
Adjectives expressing opinion usually go before first film in.
those expressing more objective qualities
following this order:
People who / that appreciate art will enjoy visiting
this museum.
The Picasso (which / that) they were trying to sell
was fake.
The time (when / that*) you could find bargains in
art galleries is now gone.
The room where they stored the pieces was too
damp.
Velázquez and Goya are only two of the many
artists whose work you can see at the Prado.
Non-defining relative clauses
• Used
 to add extra information about an object,
person, place or time.

• Placed
 between or after commas.
C1.1

Reduced relative clauses RECOMMEND, ADVISE,

• A
 relative pronoun followed by a verb in the SUGGEST
active voice or a continuous form in the passive
voice is reduced to the -ing form. There verbs can be followed by different structures without
The company which sponsored the a change in meaning.
exhibition has spent millions of pounds. ➞
The company sponsoring the exhibition advise recommend suggest
has spent millions of pounds.cThe
woman who was standing next to me The agent A colleague
is a famous actress. ➞ The woman advised The guidebook suggested
standing next to me is a famous actress. buying* recommends organising
-ing
the tickets visiting the a day trip
The pieces which are being auctioned are as early as local museum. to Hampton
exceptional. ➞ The pieces being auctioned possible. Court Palace.
are exceptional.
• A
 relative pronoun followed by a verb in the The
A friend
I suggest that
passive voice is reduced to the past participle. that organisers
recommended
you don’t
that I went to
The artists who will be included in the someone + advised spend too
see the new
project are all American. ➞ The artists conjugated that people much time on
James Bond
included in the project are all American. verb reserved in the interactive
film but I
advance. displays.
Her latest novel, which was published last hated it.
month, has been a hit. ➞ Her latest novel,
published last month, has been a hit. Experts
They The guide
advise that
recommended suggested
• A
 relative pronoun followed by have to (or that buyers
that our group that everyone
equivalent words like need to, must, should etc.) someone should take
should allow should get
is reduced to to + infinitive. should + measures
at least two a copy of
infinitive to prevent
If you are interested in politics, this is hours for the the free
being
the programme that you should watch. visit. catalogue.
conned.
➞ If you are interested in politics,
this is the programme to watch. We advise
His teacher The artist
that
This is the place where you must go if you recommends suggests that
that students
want to eat the best hamburgers in town. ➞ that he everyone
someone + take the
This is the place to go if you want to eat the continue with consider the
infinitive extra art
best hamburgers in town. his private impact of
appreciation
classes. consumerism.
course.

I recommend
The police
you to read a
someone advised
bit about the
to + us to be
artist before
infinitive aware of
you visit the
pickpockets.
exhibition.


* Also advise against + -ing, used for warnings: Experts strongly
advise against using cleaning products on paintings.
 Grammar Reference

Unit 3 • Rather / fairly:


Rather and fairly can be used before an adjective
INVERSION FOR EMPHASIS to mean moderately. However, rather often shows
disapproval whereas fairly shows approval.
If you start a sentence with the expression not only in
order to make it more dramatic or emphatic, that part He was driving fairly slowly. (He was being careful,
of the sentence will take the structure of a question. not driving too fast).
Not only is frequently used in combination with but… He was driving rather slowly. (He was driving too
also / as well : slowly).
They wanted to interview me and find out all my Sometimes rather can be used before a positive
secrets. adjective to mean very (often with the idea of
'surprisingly' or 'contrary to what was expected').
Not only did they want to interview me, but they
also wanted to find out all my secrets. I met your sister and I think she’s rather clever.
Although I didn’t expect much when I went to the
She is both a good friend and a faithful one as cinema, the film was rather amusing.
well.
Not only is she a good friend, but a faithful one Here are some common extreme adjectives:
as well.
He not only works hard, but he also enjoys his job. Gradable Extreme
Not only does he work hard, but he also enjoys angry furious
his job.
bad awful, terrible, horrible
He could play the piano at the age of four and
write music when he was six. beautiful gorgeous
Not only could he play the piano at the age of four, big huge, enormous
but he could also write music when he was six.
cold freezing

GRADABLE AND NON-GRADABLE crowded packed

ADJECTIVES
frightened terrified
• Gradable adjectives can have degrees of intensity
and can be modified by adverbs like extremely, funny hilarious
very, quite, slightly, rather, fairly, a bit, etc. (See Unit
amazing, fantastic,
1 – modifying adverbs). good
wonderful
It was extremely cold for September so we couldn’t
use the pool. The children got rather angry when hungry starving
we told them.
interesting fascinating
• Extreme adjectives describe an absolute quality or
have the meaning of very + quality, so they cannot scary terrifying
be modified in the same way, e.g. we can’t say It was
slightly finished or It was very impossible. Adverbs silly ridiculous
we can use to make these adjectives stronger are
absolutely, totally and completely. (See Unit 1 – small tiny
modifying adverbs).
tired exhausted
The weather was absolutely freezing so I was totally
furious when my central heating broke down.
upset devastated
• Quite:
EXPRESSING CONFIDENCE AND
If
 we use quite with extreme adjectives, it means HESITATION
absolutely.
• If we are confident about an opinion or fact, we can
The food in the restaurant was quite awful. use totally, certainly, definitely before verbs and
 we use quite with gradable adjectives, it means
If adjectives.
really. Skydiving was certainly / totally / definitely fun,
although scary.
The food in the restaurant was quite good.
I certainly / totally / definitely think you are wrong.
C1.1

• If we want to soften an opinion, we can use a bit

(often with negative adjectives), pretty, somewhat,
sort of, kind of before adjectives and sort of, kind of
before verbs.
The lecture was pretty / somewhat / kind of / sort
of interesting.
The children were a bit upset by the bad news
I kind of / sort of knew something was wrong.
C1.1

Unit 4
DESCRIBING TYPICAL BEHAVIOUR GET USED TO AND BE USED TO
Routines Typical behaviour
get used to + noun / -ing
will
• To become accustomed to something.
• To describe characteristic
behaviour. When I came to live in the city, it took me a
while to get used to the constant noise.
She’s not a heavy smoker.
I will eventually get used to my new
She’ll usually smoke a
smartphone.
cigarette after dinner, but
that’s all. I’ve finally got used to getting up at 6:00 a.m.
every morning.
He’s very unreliable. One
present simple day he’ll work for fifteen
hours and the next day be used to + noun / -ing
I usually smoke
a cigarette after he’ll stay in bed all day. • To
 be familiar or accustomed to something.
dinner. She’s used to her new smartphone.
present continuous
I don’t usually I’m used to speaking in English with my
drink coffee in • To describe repetitive classmates now.
the evening. behaviour perceived as
exaggerated or annoying.
She’s constantly checking
her phone to see if she’s DESCRIBING PAST HABITS AND
got messages. ROUTINES
My neighbours are forever
spying on us through the Routines
window.
used to + infinitive
He’s always telling lies!
• To describe routines that have changed in the
present, past habits or states.
OTHER WAYS TO DESCRIBE
REPETITIVE BEHAVIOUR I used to smoke ten cigarettes a day, but I quit
smoking years ago.
Did she use to play volleyball when she was
On (and on), keep (on), carry on, go on a student?
(and on)
He didn’t use to be very strong, but now he’s
• To
 continue doing something. started training and it shows!
We were totally lost, but he just drove on (and Typical behaviour
on) hoping to find his way.
He keeps (on) telling me that he doesn’t need would + infinitive *
help… but he does! • To describe characteristic behaviour in the
They carried on arguing after I had left. past.
I went on working until my boss told me to When he was young, he was very foolish.
take a break. He would do drugs, and he’d drink and drive
every weekend.
I told her to stop insulting me, but she went on
(and on) until I lost my temper. As a student, I would always study for exams
the night before.
verb + and + verb
She insisted and insisted until she managed to
*We never use would to describe qualities in the past:
talk to the manager.
I used to be (would) very thin when I was young.
He just talks and talks but no one actually listens
to him.
 Grammar Reference

SHOWING IMPATIENCE AND

INSULTING

• In
 English, it is quite frequent to use religious words
like God or Jesus to show impatience and anger.
However, this is considered disrespectful language
and it can easily offend people. Therefore, people
often use the word goodness to avoid saying God.
A
 similar thing happens with the word hell, which
is frequent in expressions like What the hell…?,
Where the hell…?, Who the hell…?, etc. It is safer to
use alternatives like the heck (very colloquial), on
earth (more neutral) or in heaven’s name.
Oh my goodness! Look at you! You look so pretty!
Who the heck are you?
How on earth did the dog get in here?
What in heaven’s name do you think you are
doing?

• When we want to insult someone, we usually

address them with the word you + noun.
Why on earth did you have to do that, you fool?
Of course they wanted to keep your money, you idiot!

• When we don’t want to insult the listener but a third

person, we can use the + noun.
Look at John trying to climb that tree, the fool!
 Grammar Reference

Unit 5
REVISION OF VERB PATTERNS
• Speakers use like + to and like + -ing indistinctively
Verb patterns to express enjoyment or lack of it.
I don’t like doing the laundry. = I don’t like
verb + infinitive They could help us if
to do the laundry.
they wanted to.
modal verbs: can, could, I like watching series on TV. = I like to watch
You must find
may, might, must, shall, series on TV.
ways to solve this
should, will, would problem.
• We
 often use like + -ing to imply we enjoy
They let us use their doing something, but like + to + infinitive
verb + noun / pronoun + car when they are when we do something because we think it is
infinitive away on holiday. a good idea or best for us. It describes habits
or routines. We often use a time expression.
let, make* They made us pay
for our meals. / We I like to get a full medical check-up once a year.
*with to in the passive voice were made to pay for We like to cook with very little salt.
our meals.
They arranged
verb + to + infinitive to meet us at the
airport.
agree, aim, arrange,
ask, attempt, choose, He promised to be • Hate + to + infinitive is used to announce an
decide, demand, expect, here at eight. action that we’d rather avoid.
fail, help*, hope, intend, We managed to get I hate to tell you this, but we’re out of money
learn, long, manage, offer, our picture taken
plan, prepare, pretend, with our favourite
promise, propose, refuse, player.
tend, would hate, would
Verbs followed by to or -ing without a change
like, would love, would I would love to see in meaning
prefer you again. The baby began to cry / crying
*also followed by infinitive The new study and I didn’t know what to do with
without to could help (to) find a begin, start her.
vaccine. As soon as we left the house, it
verb + noun / pronoun + started to rain / raining.
to + infinitive
They encouraged us
advise, allow, ask, to ask for a loan.
convince, enable,
encourage, expect, force, She persuaded me
get, help*, intend, invite, to work for her.
order, persuade, prefer, I would like you to
remind, teach, tell, want, help your brother if
warn (not to), would like you can.
*also followed by infinitive
without to

verb + -ing

admit, avoid, can’t help, I don’t feel like going

can’t stand, consider, out tonight.
deny, detest, dislike, They finished
enjoy, fancy, feel like, repairing the roof
finish, give up, hate*, late at night.
imagine, involve, keep,
We’ve given
like*, love, mind, miss,
up trying to
practise, prefer**, put off,
demonstrate that we
risk, suggest
are right.
*see note below
**see unit 8
C1.1

Verbs followed by to or -ing with a change in

meaning • Verbs
 related to the senses: hear, listen to, see,
After the talk, he went smell, watch, etc. can be followed by an infinitive
on to answer our without to or -ing. We use the infinitive without
to: change activities to to imply that we have witnessed the whole
go on questions.
-ing: continue action or event. By using the -ing form of the
He went on talking for
verb, we imply that we notice an action which is
three more hours.
in progress.
I didn’t mean to hurt We watched the mechanic fix the car. It only
to: have the intention your feelings. took him ten minutes.
mean
-ing: involve Saying no to the project We saw the mechanic fixing our car when we
will mean losing jobs. walked by the garage.
We need to find ways
to: active meaning to solve this problem.
need
-ing: passive meaning This house needs
NEW SUBJECT BEFORE -ING
tidying up. (It needs to
be tidied up.)
• We
 can have different subjects in the main clause
We regret to inform and in the -ing clause. The subject of the -ing clause
you that your request can be expressed by a pronoun in the object form
to: give bad news
has been denied. or by using a possessive adjective (in more formal
regret -ing: wish something contexts).
had been different I regret not taking their
offer. I would be rich I hope you don’t mind me / my watching while
now. you are trying to fix that.
I remembered to lock She wouldn’t want to risk us / our losing the contract.
to: do something the door, but I forgot to
as a result of leave the key under the
remembering mat. OFFERS AND REQUESTS
remember
-ing: remember Of course, I remember
that you did meeting her. She made
something a great impression on Offering help
me! • Why don’t I + infinitive?
We stopped to have Why don’t I carry those bags for you?
a coffee, and then we • Can I give you a hand + -ing?
continued our trip. Can I lend you a hand mowing the lawn?
to: reason for stopping
stop I stopped worrying
-ing: quit
about the future years
• Let me + infinitive
ago. Let me open this door for you.
• Subject + would + be delighted to + infinitive
I’d be delighted to cook for you while you’re ill.
We tried to help him
escape from the fire, but
to: make an effort he got badly hurt.
try
-ing: see if it works
Requests
Why don’t you try
taking an aspirin for that • Imperative + will / won’t / would you?
headache? It might help. Open that door for me, will / won’t / would you?
She wants to help us • Can you give me a hand with…?
with the project. Can you give me a hand with this, please?
to: feel the need This house wants
want • Could you (possibly) + infinitive?
painting. Do you know
-ing: lack, need Could you (possibly) turn the volume down?
of a good painter that
can come help us with • Will / Would you + infinitive?
that?
Will you please stop making that noise?
Would you please lock the door when you
leave?
• Would you mind + -ing?
Would you mind helping me with the gardening?
 Grammar Reference
Unit 6
EXPRESSING QUANTITY • We use twice, three times, etc. for multiple
quantities.
There were twice as many people at the second
• When
 saying long numbers, remember to use the
meeting.
singular with million, thousand and hundred. Say
and after hundred or, when there are no hundreds, Their budget is three times larger than ours.
after thousand or million. This prison was designed for one thousand people
120 ➞ a / one hundred and twenty but now holds three times that number.
756 ➞ seven hundred and fifty-six
39,042 ➞ thirty-nine thousand and forty-two
Basic mathematical operations
78,384,915 ➞ seventy-eight million, three
hundred and eighty-four thousand, 2+2=4 5–3=2
nine hundred and fifteen Two plus two is four. Five less three is two.
Two plus two equals Five minus three
• In sport results we often use the word nil for four. equals two.
zero. Two and two is four. Five take away three
They lost two - nil (2-0). equals two.
• In tennis, however, we use the word love for 5 x 2 = 10 12 : 3 = 4
zero. Five times two is ten. Twelve divided by
The score is 15-love (15-0). Five multiplied by two three is four.
• When numbers are used to identify or classify equals ten. Three goes into
(e.g. room numbers, course numbers, post twelve four times.
office box numbers) and for telephone numbers,
we usually say oh for zero.
I’m in room five oh two (502).
Our phone number is oh eight oh eight, one PLURALS
six eight, double one six eight (0808 168 1168).

• We use ordinal numbers in fractions. Irregular plurals

2/3 two thirds    4/8 four eighths foot – feet, tooth – teeth, man
1/10 one tenth of a second. changes in the /mæn/ – men /men/, mouse –
word mice, woman /ˈwʊmən/ – women
/ˈwɪmɪn/
•  1/2 a / one half is an exception. We also say
half a + noun. half – halves, knife – knives,
two and a half kilos of potatoes leaf – leaves, life – lives, shelf
-f(e) ➞ -ves
an hour and a half / one and a half hours – shelves, thief – thieves, wife –
half a pint of beer wives, wolf – wolves
half a kilo of meat -Ø deer, fish, salmon, sheep

• For
 decimals we use point and then say the figures old English
child – children, ox – oxen
one by one. -en
3.47% ➞ three point four seven per cent

• With
 negative numbers we use the word minus.
-17ºC ➞ minus seventeen (degrees) Celsius

• We
 can use some or -something (colloquial) for
approximate numbers.
There were some two hundred people at the
meeting. (Approximately two hundred.)
She’s thirty-something. (In her thirties.)
C1.1

Latin and Greek plurals (often technical or • S

 ome words that were originally compounds
scientific) are now considered one unit and take a final -s.
cactus – cacti, syllabus – syllabi, bagful – bagfuls (although bagsful is also
-us ➞ -i
nucleus – nuclei common)

-a ➞ -ae alga – algae •S

 ome words with prefixes may look like a
compound but they are not.
bacterium – bacteria, curriculum vice-president – vice-presidents
-um ➞ -a – curricula, datum – data*,
symposium – symposia
Collective nouns
analysis – analyses, crisis – crises, • Collective nouns refer to groups, for example,
-sis ➞ -ses
parenthesis – parentheses
family or team. They are usually followed by a
singular verb when we think of them as a unit
criterion – criteria, phenomenon –
-on ➞ -a and a plural verb when we think of them as a
phenomena
group of individuals.
* Many people use data as a singular countable noun nowadays. The family lives in the house on the corner.
The family are eating hamburgers in the café.
Nouns ending in -s The class has equal numbers of girls and boys.
-s in singular The class are behaving badly today.
means, series, species
and plural
• Some nouns that can be used as singular or
singular billiards, economics, linguistics, plural are:
words that mathematics, measles, mumps,
end in -s news, phonetics, physics, politics army, class, club, committee, company,
council, crew, department, family, government,
classics, clothes, customs,
earnings, funds, glasses, goods,  jury, public, orchestra, staff, team, board (of
words used greens, headquarters, jeans, directors), (political) party
only in plural manners, the Middle Ages,
savings, scissors, shorts, stairs, BOTH, ALL, NONE, NEITHER, EITHER
surroundings, trousers, valuables

• Both, all and none are plural when used as pronouns.

 emember: a piece of news, a pair of glasses /
R
scissors / trousers The teacher asked two students for the answer but
both were wrong.
There were a few restaurants in the area but all
The plural of compound nouns were closed.
two nouns (the first noun acting as an adjective) They offer rooms to let but none are available.
➞ the second noun takes plural form
golf clubs, apple pies, toy shops, assistant • Both (of the) is always followed by a plural noun
teachers, toothbrushes and verb.
Both (of the) answers were right.
two nouns (the first noun is the word man or
woman) ➞ both nouns take plural form
• All (of) can be followed by singular or plural.
women teachers, men farmers, women doctors
All (of) the money is in the bank now.
noun + other elements ➞ the noun takes plural All (of) the contestants have won a prize.
form
coats-of-arms, commanders-in-chief, passers-by, • None of can also be followed by a singular or plural
mothers-in-law noun. When it’s followed by a plural noun, the verb
can be singular or plural.
verb + particle used as noun ➞ the compound None of that money was ours.
takes -s at the end None of the students is / are ready to take the test yet.
grown-ups, take-offs
• Neither (nor) and either (or) are generally used with
verbs in the singular.
Neither John nor his partner wants to continue
with the project.
 Grammar Reference

I have talked to both of them but neither thinks

It is essential (that) we should make
the idea will work.
a long-term plan.
If either you or your daughter needs to talk to me, It is + adjective It is crucial (that) he should consider
I’ll be in my office. + (that) + the after effects.
subject + should It is vital (that) they should include
+ infinitive all the staff in decision-making.
REVISION OF SUGGESTING AND It is imperative (that) she should act
RECOMMENDING as quickly as possible.

propose / recommend / suggest

These verbs can be used with the following structures
without a change in meaning.
The guide proposed spending some
time at Stonehenge.
+ -ing I recommend starting the day early.
He suggested visiting the new
factory.

They proposed (that) we had a new

meeting the following day.
The boss recommended (that)
+ (that) +
we checked every single piece of
subject + verb
information twice.
She suggested (that) we increased
the budget for next year.

He proposed (that) we should spend

+ (that) + more money on R&D.
subject + The council recommended (that)
should + citizens should use bicycles.
infinitive We suggest (that) you should invest
in low-risk options.

I propose (that) we have a meeting

next week.
+ (that) +
His doctor recommended (that) he
subject +
take up yoga.
infinitive
My daughter’s teacher has
suggested (that) she read more.

Making strong recommendations

It is essential to make a long-term
plan.
It is crucial to consider the after
It is + adjective effects.
+ to + infinitive It is vital to include all the staff in
decision-making.
It is imperative to act as quickly as
possible.
It is essential (that) we make a long-
term plan.
It is + adjective It is crucial (that) he consider the
+ (that) + after effects.
subject + It is vital (that) they include all the
infinitive staff in decision-making.
It is imperative (that) she act as
quickly as possible.
 Grammar Reference
Unit 7
PERSUADING AND DISSUADING Encouraging

Come on! Come on! You can

• Persuading definitely pass the exam!

There are many ways to express persuasion. The Go for it! You won’t regret
use of intonation is also a common device. Go for it! it!

• Dissuading
Making suggestions
These are some expressions you can use to
Would you mind if we dissuade people from doing things.
Would you mind if +
stayed here a bit longer?
subject + verb?
Can I persuade you to stay
Can / Could I
for dinner? I would (strongly) I would strongly advise
persuade you to +
infinitive? If you’re going to commute advise against + against trying to extend
to work every day, you noun / -ing the life of your car beyond
Subject + might as fifteen years.
might as well get a travel
well + infinitive
card. I wouldn’t bother I wouldn’t bother fixing
May / Might I (about) + -ing that lamp. Just get a new
May I suggest visiting our
suggest + -ing…? one.
local museum?
I wouldn’t bother I wouldn’t bother about
about + noun the money now!

Reassuring

Subject + don’t /
You don’t have to worry QUESTION TAGS
about having to pay
doesn’t have to
for extras. Everything’s
worry about + -ing • Question tags are used at the end of a sentence to
included!
check information or ask for agreement. We can use
question tags to soften emotional appeals, orders
I can assure you… I can assure you it will last or suggestions and make them more persuasive.
you a lifetime. They are usually formed by using the same auxiliary
we would use to transform the main sentence into
I guarantee… I guarantee you won’t regret
a question. If the main sentence is affirmative, the
it!
question tag is usually negative and vice versa.
You will definitely + You will definitely save time
You don’t really want to spend the rest of the
infinitive… and money by buying one
evening here, do you?
of our machines.
You aren’t going to let me down, are you?
It can’t be that + It can’t be that difficult to
adjective! convince your wife! This isn’t the first time you’ve spoken to him, is it?
He will never agree to that, will he?

Offering alternatives

Wouldn’t you prefer Wouldn’t you prefer to

to + infinitive? stay in a hotel? • Remember the contraction for am I not is aren’t I:
Tired of cooking?
Why don’t you… I’m early, aren’t I?
Why don’t you go to a
instead?
restaurant instead?
Instead of + noun / Instead of slaving away in
-ing, the kitchen, you could be
enjoying a nice evening
out.
You don’t need to carry
… instead.
cash with you. You can use
your debit card instead.
C1.1

• Imperatives
– shall we? is the question tag for let’s. • After negative expressions like no way, never
before in my life / in a million years, etc., on no
Let’s go over the contract now, shall we? account (formal) or under no circumstances
(formal), sentences take the structure of a
– will you / won’t you? is the question tag for question (i.e. auxiliary verb before the subject).
positive imperatives. No way am I going to let them use my house
Call me when you’ve made up your mind, will for free!
you / won’t you? Never in a million years would I agree to
appear on a reality TV show!
– will you is the question tag for negative On no account should they be allowed to
imperatives. enter the premises.
Don’t forget to buy some bread, will you? Under no circumstances does our company
ever grant that kind of permission.
• Questions
 with subjects like anything, nothing,
everything or something in the main sentence use
it in the question tag.
Nothing will ever change, will it?

• Questions
 with subjects like anyone, someone,
everybody, etc. in the main sentence use they in
the question tag.
Everyone wants to find a solution, don’t they?

• Statements using barely, hardly, seldom, neither,

no, nobody, none and nothing are regarded as
negative statements, so they take a positive
question tag.
No one likes him as a person, do they?
We hardly have any time, do we?

REFUSING

• Here
 are a few expressions that can be used to
refuse to do something emphatically.

No way!
Absolutely not!
A: Please, say you will buy
Over my dead me a new car when I get
body! my licence!
Not in a million B: Over my dead body! I will
years! never buy you a car or even
Don’t (you) even pay for your petrol! Get a
think about noun / job! And don’t even think
-ing! about asking your mother
either!
I will never (ever)
+ infinitive
 Grammar Reference

Unit 8
PREFER AND WOULD RATHER

• Expressing preferences would prefer it if + subject2 + past simple

– To express preference with nouns I’d prefer it if you went by bus.
She’d prefer it if we didn’t call her in the evening.
prefer + noun + (to + noun) Would you prefer it if we stayed a bit longer?
I prefer tea to coffee.
We gave my father an e-reader, but he still would rather + subject2 + past simple
prefers his old books. They’d rather we paid them in cash.
I’d rather you didn’t smoke inside the house.
– To express preference with actions Would you rather we left now?

prefer + (not) to + prefer + (not) -ing +

infinitive + (rather (to + -ing) • To express complaints or regrets about what
than + infinitive) happened in the past.
We prefer not to take I prefer not having to
a bus there because make a choice.
it takes longer than would prefer it if + subject2 + past perfect
walking. I’d prefer it if you had taken it a bit more seriously.
She prefers to live Does he really prefer Would you prefer it if she hadn’t stayed here
alone rather than cooking to eating in last weekend?
share a flat. a restaurant?

would rather + subject2 + past perfect

would rather + (not) would rather +
I’d rather you had warned me before bringing
infinitive infinitive + (than +
everybody over to the house.
Although I like coffee, infinitive)
She’d rather we hadn’t spoken to the boss, but
I’d rather have tea in He’d rather stay here
how could we have known?
the morning. than move to London.

would rather have + past participle + (than +

infinitive)
• Prefer can be followed by to + infinitive or by We would rather have stayed* home than go to
-ing. Both structures are similar but prefer + to the cinema, but mum insisted.
can imply habit or refer to what we think is the
best way to do things. They would have rather spent* the weekend at
B T
 o
I prefer towhat
indicate weearly
get up would like other
every people
morning so Ito home with us than stay in a hotel.
dohave more time to get ready for work. (This Would you rather have seen a more serious film?
doesn’t imply that I enjoy getting up early.)

*When there is only one subject, we usually use

would rather have + past participle. However,
• N
 otice that after rather than, we use infinitive would have rather + past participle is also
without to. correct.
They prefer to walk to work rather than She’d rather have seen the movie the first
take the bus. time it was on. = She’d have rather seen the
movie the first time it was on.

• To indicate what we would like other people to

do.
C1.1

REVISION OF SECOND AND MIXED CONDITIONALS

THIRD CONDITIONALS
Mixed conditionals
Second conditional If + subject + past perfect, subject + would /
If + subject + past simple, subject + would / could + infinitive
could + infinitive • Condition
 in the past, present consequences.
• Improbable
 or unreal condition in the present, If I hadn’t sold those shares two months ago,
present consequences. we would be rich now.
If I had a bigger house, I would get a dog. If they had given you the job, you’d be my
boss now.
If she was / were taller, she could be a model. Would you still live in Australia if you hadn’t
Would you buy the car if it was / were cheaper? married an Australian man?

Third conditional
If + subject + past simple, subject + would +
If + subject + past perfect, subject + would / have + past participle
could + have + past participle
• Present
 state or habit, past consequences.
• 
Impossible condition in the past, past
consequences. If I were more organised, I wouldn’t have lost
the report.
If she had known that you were coming, she She would have understood your note if you
would have stayed longer. wrote more clearly.
If they hadn’t wasted so much money, they
could have gone on the trip.
Would they have acted differently if they had REVISION OF CONNECTORS
had the chance?

Reason
because of + noun
• Remember that in the case of the verb to be, you due to + pronoun or possessive + -ing
can use were for all subjects.
+ -ing

because / as /
+ clause (subject + verb)
since
SUPPOSE / SUPPOSING
Result
• We
 can use Suppose / Supposing instead of If at Consequently, …
the beginning of a conditional sentence to imagine
Therefore, …
the result of a potential action or situation.
– For present situations: Suppose / Supposing + As a result, …
present tense So, …
Suppose we take the other road. Do you think it Purpose
will be quicker than the motorway? in order (not) to …
– For possibility: Suppose / Supposing + past + infinitive
so as (not) to
tense
Suppose we took the other road. It might be to...
quicker than the motorway. + clause
so / so that …
– For impossible situations: Suppose / Supposing
+ past perfect tense Addition
Suppose we had taken the other road, it would in addition to
have been quicker than the motorway. + noun / pronoun / -ing
as well as
Also, … ... as well.
In addition, … Furthermore, ...
Likewise, ... Moreover, …
As well as that, … Besides (this), …
What’s more, …
 Grammar Reference

Contrast
Despite
+ noun / pronoun / -ing, ...
In spite of
Despite
+ the fact that + clause, ...
In spite of
Whereas
While + clause, ...
Although

However, … On the other hand, …

Nevertheless, … In contrast, …
On the contrary, …
 Grammar Reference

Unit 9
INVERSION WITH SO AND SUCH ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION
• Remember
 we use so + adjective / adverb (that…)
or such (a / an) + adjective + noun (that…) to
emphasise qualities. Adjective + preposition
He’s become so famous that he seems to have lost addicted to drugs, a fond of football, her boss,
his right to privacy. game, watching TV telling jokes
She’s such an enthusiastic person! afraid / terrified of the
glad about your new job
They’re such great artists that their works are dark, making a mistake
priceless.
• In
 written or more literary language, we can start anxious about the glad for you
a sentence with so or such. In this case, the rest of meeting, losing his job (but also: glad to see you)
the sentence takes the structure of a question (i.e.
auxiliary verb before the subject). good / bad / great / terrible
anxious for your family
at maths, giving directions
So quickly did the fire spread that it seemed
impossible to put it out. aware of your
Such was the force of the wind that all ships had surroundings, having involved in a task, a book
to return to port. made a mistake

capable of anything, involved with his family,

WHAT CLAUSE + BE FOR EMPHASIS solving a problem their school

• We
 can use this structure to emphasise one part of
committed / dedicated /
keen on my neighbours,
the sentence (the part underlined in the examples reading
devoted to her family,
below). (but also: keen to help,
helping others
accept the offer)
The way he dealt with the press was amazing. ➞
What was amazing was the way he dealt with the delighted / pleased
press. ready for school, bed
about / with the results /
(but also: ready to join the
You need a good opportunity. ➞ What you need is (but also: delighted /
party)
a good opportunity. pleased to help us)
The encouragement from his friends gave him depressed / worried responsible for our safety,
strength. ➞ What gave him strength was the about the future breaking the vase
encouragement from his friends.
desperate for a job
satisfied with their
• If
 what we want to emphasise is a clause, we need (but also: desperate to
performance
to introduce it with the fact that. find a partner)
He sold a million copies of his book and that was devastated /
amazing. ➞ What was amazing was the fact that fascinated / frustrated /
he sold a million copies of his book. impressed / moved /
short of money, breath
shattered / shocked /
• If
 what we want to emphasise is an action, we need upset by the news, the
to use the verb do. results
They were trying to fool you. ➞ What they were disappointed in / with sick of this car, politicians,
trying to do was fool you. you, the President repeating the same thing
I can give you advice. ➞ What I can do is give you staggered / surprised at
advice. disappointed at / about / / by the price (but also:
by their response staggered / surprised to
hear her complaints)
C1.1

Adjective + preposition
ecstatic / excited about
suitable for children, the
their new car, starting a
occasion
new career
famous for her articles, overjoyed / thrilled about /
being caustic with / by their success

PASSIVE + INFINITIVE /
PERFECT INFINITIVE
• Some
 verbs, mainly connected with language
or opinion, like claim, consider, know, prove,
report, say, suppose, think, etc., have two possible
structures in the passive voice.

It + be + past participle + that + clause

It is thought that he lives in the south of France
now.
It is said that they are the richest family in the UK..

Subject + be + past participle + to + infinitive

He is thought to live in the south of France.
They are said to be the richest family in the UK

• If
 the action described with the infinitive is finished,
we use the perfect infinitive (have + past participle).
He is thought to have lived in France.
They are said to have been the richest family in
the UK.

• There
 are a number of verbs that can also be
followed by an infinitive in the passive voice: be
allowed to, be asked to, be expected to, be made
to and be scheduled to.
We have been asked to write a report about our
trip.
They were made to fill in a number of documents
before they were allowed to go through customs.
The ship is scheduled to depart at 6 a.m.