Chapter 1

Analog switching telephony

1. Introduction to telephony

a. Historical background of telephone

1. The combination of principles on which the operation of the telephone, is based, was
discovered in 1875 by Alexander Graham Bell. At once, Bell started a series of experiments
to perfect practical instruments for the transmission of sound over wires. After 9 months, the
first complete sentence was transmitted over an indoor line extending a distance of about
150 feet (about 45.7 m). By 1877, an outdoor line from Boston to Cambridge, a distance of
about 2 miles (about 3.2 Km) was in use. The early instruments were crude and not too
effective. They operated on the principle that a diaphragm vibrating in a magnetic field, can
induce an electric current in a wire. The same device was used as both transmitter and
receiver. The strongest magnets and best diaphragms then available would not permit
transmission over long distances.

2. One year after the invention of the original telephone, however, the perfection of the Blake
transmitter made possible good, practical telephone transmission. This transmitter operates
on the principle that the vibration of a, diaphragm can vary the strength of an already existing
electric current. Immediately, the problem was presented of establishing a means to connect
the lines of different subscribers, whenever they wished to talk. This problem was overcome
in 1878 with the opening of the first central office or exchange, in New Haven. By 1900
means, were evolved for the telephone user and exchange to signal (ring) each other when
calls were to be initiated or completed. Present day telephone systems provide vast
improvements over those earlier design and construction in the distances over which
satisfactory transmission can be accomplished, dependability of established plant facilities,
and the quality of the reproduced signals.

b. Basic functions of telephone system.

(1) By means of the telephone, conversations may be held over great distances. To
accomplish this, the sound waves of speech must be converted into a form of energy
that can be transmitted efficiently over wires. The conversion is effected by electrical

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 waves (current) in the transmitter of the speaker's telephone set. There, electrical
waves are created which correspond to sound waves both in waveform and
frequency. The electrical waves are transmitted over the wire, or transmission line,
and enter the receiver of the listener's telephone set. The receiver converts the
electrical wave back into sound wave which, again, correspond in waveform and
frequency to the original sound wave. The listener in his receiver thus hears words
corresponding to those spoken into the distant transmitter.
(2) This process is shown in block form in figure 1. Above, on each side, is a graph of the
sound waves as spoken and heard. The electrical wave is shown in the center.
(3) The fundamental principle of the telephone can be summarized by the explanation
that electrical waves, traveling over wires, are substituted for sound waves, traveling
in air, over the major portion of the distance separating the speaker and listener.
Various types of telephone systems are in use, but this underlying principle is
common to them all.

Figure 1. Transmission of sound by telephone.

2. Simple telephone circuit (Principle of telephony)

a. The simplest telephone circuit is obtained by connecting a transmitter to a receiver,

as in figure 3. In such a circuit, the transmitter may be located a considerable
distance from the receiver, perhaps several miles away, and yet a person speaking
into the transmitter at station A can be heard by another person at the ·receiver at
station B. One-way telephone communication is effected.

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 Figure 2. Simple telephone circuit

b. One-way communication serves for the transmission of intelligence in one

direction, but it is inadequate for most of the purposes for which the telephone is
used. Two-way conversation is indispensable. Figure 3 shows how simply this can
be arranged. A receiver is added at the transmitting end and a transmitter at the
receiving end. with two transmitters and two receivers, so connected, the voice of
a person speaking into either transmitter can be heard in both receivers, and two-
way communication is effected between stations A and B.

Figure 3. Practical telephone circuit

c. Although the circuit in figure 3 can be used as the basis for a simple telephone
system, its. usefulness is limited. How can a person at station A signal someone
at station B to come to the phone so that conversation may begin ? Although the
circuit does not provide any means, this, too is arranged simply figure 4. At each
station, A and B, signaling (ringing) circuits are added, and these make it possible
for a person at either station to signal the other station when conversation is
desired. A signaling circuit includes a ringer (bell or buzzer) and a hand generator.
A person at station A, wishing to talk with someone at station B, turns the crank of
the hand generator.

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 Figure 4 Telephone circuit with hand generator and ringers

This generates an ac voltage which sends a signaling current t over the transmission line to
operate the ringer at station B. The sounding of the ringer attracts the attention of someone,
who thereupon answers the call. The transmission line connecting the two stations conducts
both the voice currents and the signaling current; also, although a ringer has been mentioned
as the signaling device and a hand generator as the source of signaling current, other devices
may be used for the generation of signaling current and the signaling itself.

3. Telephone Switchboard
a. A telephone system frequently consists of hundreds, even thousands of telephone
stations. In operation, the system permits voice communication between any of the
telephone stations which are part of it. The simple circuit of figure 4 can be used in a
telephone system if each station is connected by a similar circuit to all the other
stations in the system. Such an arrangement would require the use of two wires and
a switch from each station to every one of the other stations. lt would be impractical
for serving a large number of telephone stations: for even a few, the system would be
a maze of wires. The block diagram of figure 5 shows the wiring required to
interconnect eight stations.
b. An important saving in line wire is obtained by including in the system a centrally
located switchboard. Each telephone station, then, is connected directly to the
switchboard, not to each of the others. The connecting wires and theirs attachments
constitute a transmission line.

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 Figure 5. Station interconnections of telephone system without switchboard

Conversation between any two stations is made possible by interconnecting their

transmission lines at the switchboard. The connections are made by a switchboard operator
or attendant by means either of switches or, more frequently, cords with plugs for insertion in
jacks connected to the ends of the lines from the two telephones. The block diagram of figure
6 shows the eight telephone stations of figure 5 connected to a switchboard.

Figure 6. Telephone stations connected to a switchboard

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 c. With the circuit arrangement of figure 6, all conversations take place through the
switchboard. A person at station A wishing to call a person at station B first signals
the switchboard operator. When the operator replies, the caller supplies the name or
number of the station being called -station B, in this case- and the operator then
completes the connection at the switchboard and signals station B. When station B
answers, conversation between the two telephone stations proceeds.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TELEPHONE SYSTEMS

Historically, voice transmission was at the origin of the first transmission networks. Using the
principle of circuit switching, the PSTN (Public Switched Telecommunication Network)
connects two subscribers via a dedicated link throughout the exchange is done (figure 7).

Figure 7. Principle of the switched telephone network.

Circuit switching consists of juxtaposing physical communication from end-to-end the where
the link is maintained throughout the exchange. Originally it was performed manually by
operators. The digitization of voice (in 1962) enabled time-division multiplexing of
communications. Circuit switching was then replaced by time slot (TS) or time switching. This
concept is illustrated in figure 8. By linking an IT of one input frame with an IT of another
output frame, time-division switching emulates a circuit. Since communication is full duplex,
a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s in each direction is reserved for the entire communication.

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 Figure 8. Principle of time switching.

Despite the digitization of the network, the connection of residential subscribers has
remained essentially analog. It is the home switch that performs the analog/digital
conversion and vice versa for voice (figure 9).

Figure 9. Connection methods.

ORGANIZATION OF THE TELEPHONE NETWORK

Traditional architecture
The traditional telephone network is organized hierarchically on three levels (figure
10). It is structured in zones, each zone is corresponding to a level of concentration
and, in principle, of taxation. A distinction between them is made:

- Autonomous routing area (ZAA): this area, the lowest in the hierarchy, comprises
one or more Autonomous Routing Switches (CAA), which in turn serve Local Switches.
Local switches are simply concentrators to which end subscribers are connected. The
ZAA (Autonomous Routing Zone) is a star network, forming the service network;

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Secondary transit zone (ZTS), this zone includes secondary transit switches (CTS).
There are no subscribers connected directly to the CTS.

- Main transit zone (ZTP), for switching long-distance links. Each ZTP comprises a
Main Transit Switch (CTP). At least one Main Transit Switch (CTP) is connected to
an International Transit Switch (CTI).

Figure 10. Telephone network organization

As the network is partially meshed, several routes are generally possible to reach a
subscriber. To optimize beam utilization, we distinguish between two types of beam:
first choice and second choice; second choice beams are overflow beams. For a given
number, the first-choice beam For a given number, the beam of first choice is
determined in such a way that it directs the call to the switch closest to the called
subscriber, using beams of lower hierarchy. Today, the telephone network telephone
network is evolving towards a loop architecture (figure 10) based on SDH transport.

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Network management
General network management is divided into three functions:

- Distribution, which essentially comprises management (installation, implementation,

maintenance) of the subscriber line or local loop (metal pair) linking the subscriber's
installation to the transmission center. This line transmits voice (voice frequency from
300 to 3,400 Hz), numbering (10 Hz for decimal numbering and frequencies from 697
to 1,633 Hz for frequency numbering) and subscriber/network signaling (current loop,
voice frequencies, etc.);

- Switching, the network's essential function, consists of connecting two subscribers,

maintaining the established link throughout the exchange and releasing resources at
the end of the exchange. The network determines the charging parameters and
charges the cost of the call to the calling or called party;

- Transmission, the telecommunication support part of the network. This function is

fulfilled either by a copper wire system, optical fiber or microwave. Today, some
developed countries networks are entirely optical and digitized, with only the
subscriber link still mostly analog and copper-based, especially for residential
subscribers.

SETTING UP A TELEPHONE CALL

How a telephone works
Establishing a telephone call involves connecting two telephone terminals. To achieve
this, the telephone set must perform several functions, each of which is performed by
a specific component. The basic telephone terminal comprises five elements (Figure
11):
- The hooks or supports on which the handset rests; when the handset is lifted, the
contacts close the circuit. The reattachment switch detects a current and deduces that
the subscriber that the subscriber wishes to make a call. An adjustable resistor allows
this current to be set at 30 mA. Similarly, when on-hook, the switch detects the
opening of the current loop. Current loop. When this loop opens or closes, the on-
hook switch simply detects the terminal's change of state (signalling);

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 Figure 11. Terminal example

- The microphone or transducer, consisting of a simple membrane which, under the

effect of acoustic pressure the internal resistance of the microphone (carbon shot
microphone). These variations in resistance lead to variations in current in the current
loop. This these variations, proportional to the pressure on the diaphragm (voice),
which constitute the analog voice signal transmitted, after digitization, to the remote
user;

- An earphone, a simple metal membrane that vibrates according to variations in

current in an electromagnet the sound;

- A dial, which, by opening the current loop (decimal numbering), sends pulses to the
switch. These are interpreted and used to identify the called party;

- A ringing tone, powered at 50 Hz (80 V), alerts the remote subscriber and invites
him or her to pick up the phone. which sends the 50 Hz signal when a call is made.

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