CLAUSE COMBINING AND THE USE OF JUNCTIVES

→LOGICO-SEMANTIC RELATIONS: Another source of textual unity is the expression of logical relations between the
clauses that realize a text. Logical meanings create continuity in texts by linking messages in terms of clarification,
addition, time, consequence and comparison. They add connectedness to the text. Logico-semantic relations hold
between clauses in a clause complex and across sentence.

● TYPES OF LOGICO-SEMANTIC RELATIONS

Junctives or linking words express logico-semantic relations
➢ Coordinators: and, or, but.
➢ Subordinators: although, because.
➢ Conjuncts or Sentence Connectors: in other words, therefore, for instance.
➢ Prepositional clusters: apart from, on account of.

OM
There is a wide range of meaning relations that can hold between clauses or clause complexes:
o Elaboration: one clause may elaborate the message in another clause by restating it in different words, giving
more details, being more specific, giving an example or clarifying it in some way.
- Restatement: in other words, that is to say... - Clarification: in fact, actually…
- Exemplification: for example, for instance… - Description: non-defining relative clause

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o Extension: one clause may extend the meaning in another clause by addition or by alternation.

- Addition: and, besides, moreover, also, furthermore…

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- Alternative: or, alternatively…

o Enhancement: one clause may enhance the meaning of another clause by providing circumstantial information
including time, space, manner, cause or reason, purpose, condition and concession.
- Time: while, meanwhile, before, after… - Purpose: so that, in order to…
- Space: where, and there… - Condition: if, otherwise…
LA

- Manner: similarly, likewise, by… - Concession: but, yet, although, however, even
- Cause/Reason: because, as, since… though…
- Effect: therefore, so, as a result, consequently…
FI

a- Logico-semantic relations across sentences (clause complexes)

- He criticizes his colleagues. However, he relies on them for support. Not structurally linked
- He criticizes his colleagues. But he relies on them for support. Not syntactically related

b- Logico-semantic relations between clauses in a clause complex



- He criticizes his colleagues but he relies on them for support. Structurally related
- Although he criticizes his colleagues, he relies on them for support. Syntactically combined
Form a clause complex
- He criticizes his colleagues; however, he relies on them for support.

Only clauses that are part of a clause complex are syntactically or structurally combined

→ STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CLAUSES/TACTIC RELATIONSHIPS: within the clause complex, interstitially
(inside the sentence). When two or more clauses are combined inside the same sentence,
they form clause complexes. The taxis or tactic relationship ends with a period. [(A) (B)]:
TACTIC RELATION
● PARATAXIS: paratactically related clauses are clauses which are in a relation of
equality. [(A)]. [(B)]:
- Juxtaposed: with a comma, colon, semicolon or dash between them. NO TACTIC RELATION
- Joined by:
1

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 Coordinator: and, but, or
Correlative Pair: not only… but also, either… or
Conjunct: moreover, in addition, similarly, on the contrary, yet, namely
“2 Cl, parataxis shown by juxtaposition/ the relation of equality of parataxis is shown by a coordinator/correlative…”

● HYPOTAXIS: hypotactically related clauses are in a relation of inequality. (NOT embedded defined Relative Cl).
Structurally dependent on an independent clause.
- Subordinators: although, because, unless, until, if, while.
- Relatives: who, which, whose, when
- Subject operator inversion
- Non-finite clause
with no other marking
preceded by a conjunction (e.g. while)/ preposition or prepositional cluster (e.g. besides, despite)

OM
→ PUNCTUATION PROBLEMS
1) Comma Splice: when a comma separates two independent clauses. To correct add “;” or “.”. It is not considered
comma splice when we use it before ellipsis.
- (I love sports), (play them regularly), and (compete twice a year.): No comma splice
- (My brother is weird), (he likes to get up early.): Comma splice
- (My brother is weird) ;/. (He likes to get up early): Corrected

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2) Run-On Sentence: no punctuation at all separates independent clauses. To correct it add “;” or “.”.
- (My brother is weird) (he likes to get up early): Run-On Sentence
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3) Incomplete Sentence or Sentence Fragment: when the subject or the verb is missing in the main clause or when
the independent clause is missing in a clause-complex.
- (He is very industrious.) (Works extremely hard every day.): S. Fragment, Subject missing.
- (Because he wanted to save a lot of money for the car.): S. Fragment, independent clause missing.
LA

→ CLAUSE REDUCTION: non-finite or verbless clauses created by reducing/contracting a finite clause. They are used to
compress information and may be structurally dependent on another clause or embedded to it.
● Dependent Reduced Clauses
- (Having passed the exam), (we all relaxed.): no subordinator, reduced non-finite Cl.
- (When ripe,) (the apples are picked and sorted.): with subordinator “when”, reduced verbless Cl.
FI

● Embedded Reduced Clauses

- (A former is interested in) (how to apply the practice): complement of a preposition are obligatory.


When the subject is NOT present in a non-finite or verbless clause, it is assumed to be identical in reference to the
subject of the main clause.
- (When driving), (you can’t use your cell phone)”: reduced clause without subject.
- “(When you are driving), (you can’t use your cell phone)”: unpacked/expanded reduced clause.

→ DANGLING CONSTRUCTIONS: when the subject of the reduced clause is different from the subject of the main
clause, but is not explicitly stated. If it is not stated, the subject is assumed to be the same subject as the main clause,
but it isn’t. These constructions are ungrammatical and they should be fixed 1) by making the subjects in both clauses
co-referential, or 2) by turning the non-finite clause into a finite one.
- (Reading the evening paper), (a dog started barking.): UNGRAMMATICAL
- (Reading the evening paper), (I heard that a dog started barking.)/ (While I was reading the evening paper), (a dog…)

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● Exceptions: when the subjects of the reduced and the main clause are different and the reduced clause is not
considered a dangling construction.
- (Judging from his expression), (he is in a bad mood.) Style disjuncts: the
- (Taking everything into consideration), (they ought to be given another chance.) speaker is implied

- (Given the circumstances), (the economy appears strong.) Fixed expressions

Unit 5
MOOD AND MODALITY: LANGUAGE AS AN INTERACTION

Whenever we use language, we do so to interact with others. Language is structured to express interpersonal
meanings.

OM
● The Semantics of Interaction: when we use the language, we establish a relationship between ourselves and our
interlocutor, taking up different speech roles, assigning roles to our interlocutors. The basic speech roles we can
take up are giving or demanding information or goods and services. These semantic categories are realized by
MOOD CHOICES.

→ THE SYSTEM OF MOOD: belongs to the interpersonal metafunction of language and is the grammatical resource for
realizing interaction. Each major mood in English is typically associated with the realization of one of the speech

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functions mentioned above.

Mood Type/Choice Speech Functions

(speech acts- illocutionary force)
DD
Declarative Statements → give information
Interrogative Ask a question → demand information
Imperative Request for action demand goods and services
Command/ Order/ directive give/offer goods and services
LA

➢ Typical/ Congruent grammatical realization of the speech function/ use of mood choices:
“The speech function (…) is realized by means of (…) mood structure which is the typical one”
➢ Metaphorical/ Non- Congruent grammatical realizations of the speech function/ use of mood choices:
The same speech function may be realized by means of other mood structures which are not the typical ones.
FI

The motivations for use indirect/metaphorical realizations may be tact, politeness, friendliness, among others.

● Mood Types: the basic distinction within the grammatical system of MOOD is between imperative and indicative
mood types. Indicative mood type is subdivided into:
- Declaratives: 1) Exclamative (How cool it was!), 2) Non-Exclamative (It was cool)


- Interrogatives: 1) Yes/No type (Was it cool?), 2) Wh-Type (What was cool?)

→ MODALITY: has to do with the different ways in which a speaker can intrude on his/her message to show how he
feels, expressing attitudes and judgements of various kinds. Expresses interpersonal meaning. All expressions of
interpersonal meanings that lie between it is so and it is not so.

Modal Expressions
Modal Auxiliaries can, could, will, would, may, might, should,
Semi-Modal Auxiliaries have to, need to, used to
Modal Adjuncts maybe, definitely, certainly, always, seldom, never,
possibly, perhaps, probably, conceivably
Modal Lex. Verbs - verbs that express modality

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 seem, appear, allow, request, forbid, intend
Mental Clauses -S+V
I think, I believe, I doubt, I suppose, I don’t doubt

Modality
Meaning
Likelihood - Judgements of the likelihood of sth happening or being.
H-M-L - EPISTEMIC
- Value/Degree: H-M-L
- High: certainly (will, must, can’t, couldn’t)
- Mid: probably (would, may, should, shouldn’t)
- Low: possibly (could, might, might not, may, may not)

OM
-Modal Expressions: Modal Auxiliary Verbs (must, should, may), Modal Adjuncts (certainly,
probably, perhaps), Attributive Cl (I am sure, it is possible), Mental Clauses (I think, I believe, I
doubt, I suppose, I don’t doubt), Modal Verbs (seem).

[--------+----------------+-------------------+-----]
this is so this is not so

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Requirement - NON-EPISTEMIC
H-M-L - Value/Degree: H-M-L
- High: obligation (must, must not, have to)
- Mid: advice (should, should not)
DD
- Low: permission (can, don’t have to
- Modal Expressions: Modal Auxiliary Verbs (must, should, may), Semi-Modals (have to, need
to), Modal Verbs (allow, require, forbid), Attributive Cl (it is advisable, it is convenient, it is
recommended)
[--------+----------------+-------------------+-----]
LA

do so don’t do so
Frequency - judgements of how probable a state of affair is.
H-M-L - Value/Degree: H-M-L
- Modal Expressions: Modal Adjuncts (always, sometimes, seldom, never), Modal Auxiliaries
FI

(would, will, could), Attributive Cl (it is usual/unusual).

Inclination/Volitio - strength of an offer to do sth. Determination, intention, willingness.
n - NON-EPISTEMIC
- Value/Degree: H-M-L


- High: determination
- Mid: intention
- Low: willingness
- Modal Expressions: Modal Auxiliaries (will, shall, would), Attributive Cl (I am willing, he’s
determined, he is going to, I refuse to), Modal Verbs (intend, mean)
Ability - internal abilities and skills that make it possible for a certain action to be performed or
situation to come about.
- NON-EPISTEMIC
- Modal Expressions: Modal Auxiliaries (can, can’t, could)
Potentiality - external circumstances that make it possible for a certain action to be performed or situation
to come about.
- NON-EPISTEMIC

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 - Modal Expressions: Modal Auxiliaries (can, can’t, could), Attributive Cl (it is
possible/impossible to)

OM
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DD
LA
FI


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