EEM 19375E/19375

Power Electronic Circuits/Güç Elektroniği Devreleri

Inverters

Dr. Mehmet Onur GÜLBAHÇE

Elektrik Elektronik Müh. Bölümü
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf Üniversitesi

2020
Inverters

❑ Inverters are circuits that convert dc to ac. More precisely, inverters transfer
power from a dc source to an ac load.
❑ Inverters are used in applications such as adjustable-speed ac motor drives,
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and running ac appliances from an automobile
battery.
Inverters – Full-bridge Converter

❑ The full-bridge converter of Fig 1 is the basic circuit used to convert dc to ac. In this
application, an ac output is synthesized from a dc input by closing and opening the
switches in an appropriate sequence. The output voltage vo can be +Vdc, -Vdc, or zero,
depending on which switches are closed. Figure 8-1b to e shows the equivalent circuits
for switch combinations.

Figure 1a Full-bridge Converter

Inverters – Full-bridge Converter

Figure 1 (b) S1 and S2 closed; (c) S3 and S4 closed; (d) S1 and S3 closed; (e) S2 and S4 closed.
Inverters – Full-bridge Converter

❑ Note that S1 and S4 should not be closed at the same time, nor should S2 and S3.
Otherwise, a short circuit would exist across the dc source. Real switches do not turn on
or off instantaneously, as was discussed in Chap. 6. Therefore, switching transition times
must be accommodated in the control of the switches. Overlap of switch “on” times will
result in a short circuit, sometimes called a shoot-through fault, across the dc voltage
source. The time allowed for switching is called blanking time.
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ The simplest switching scheme for the full-bridge converter produces a square wave
output voltage. The switches connect the load to +Vdc when S1 and S2 are closed or to
-Vdc when S3 and S4 are closed. The periodic switching of the load voltage between
+Vdc and -Vdc produces a square wave voltage across the load. Although this alternating
output is nonsinusoidal, it may be an adequate ac waveform for some applications.
❑ The current waveform in the load depends on the load components. For the resistive
load, the current waveform matches the shape of the output voltage. An inductive load
will have a current that has more of a sinusoidal quality than the voltage because of the
filtering property of the inductance. An inductive load presents some considerations in
designing the switches in the full-bridge circuit because the switch currents must be
bidirectional.
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ For a series RL load and a square wave output voltage, assume switches S1 and S2 in Fig.
1a close at t=0. The voltage across the load is +Vdc, and current begins to increase in the
load and in S1 and S2. The current is expressed as the sum of the forced and natural
responses

❑ Eq. 1

where A is a constant evaluated from the initial condition and τ=L/R. At t=T/2, S1 and S2
open, and S3 and S4 close. The voltage across the RL load becomes -Vdc, and the current
has the form

Eq. 2

where the constant B is evaluated from the initial condition.

Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ When the circuit is first energized and the initial inductor current is zero, a transient
occurs before the load current reaches a steady-state condition. At steady state, io is
periodic and symmetric about zero, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Let the initial condition for the
current described in Eq. 1 be Imin, and let the initial condition for the current described
in Eq. 2 be Imax.
❑ Evaluating Eq. 1 at t=0,

or Eq. 3
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

Figure 2 Square wave output voltage and steady-state current waveform for an RL load.
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ Likewise, Eq. 2 is evaluated at t=T/2.

or Eq. 4

❑ In steady state, the current waveforms described by Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) then
become

Eq. 5
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ An expression is obtained for Imax by evaluating the first part of Eq. 5 at t=T/2

Eq. 6

Eq. 7

❑ Substituting -Imax for Imin in Eq. 6 and solving for Imax,

Eq. 8

❑ Thus, Eqs. 5 and 8 describe the current in an RL load in the steady state
when a square wave voltage is applied. Figure 2 shows the resulting currents
in the load, source, and switches.
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ The integration may be simplified by taking advantage of the symmetry of the waveform.
Since the square each of the current half-periods is identical, only the first half-period
needs to be evaluated.

Eq. 9

❑ If the switches are ideal, the power supplied by the source must be the same as
absorbed by the load. Power from a dc source is determined from

Eq. 10
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ Example 1 Square-Wave Inverter with RL Load

The full-bridge inverter of Fig. 1 has a switching sequence that produces a square wave
voltage across a series RL load. The switching frequency is 60 Hz, Vdc=100 V, R=10 , and
L=25 mH. Determine (a) an expression for load current, (b) the power absorbed by the load,
and (c) the average current in the dc source.
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ Solution
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

❑ The switch currents in Fig. 2 show that the switches in the full-bridge circuit must be
capable of carrying both positive and negative currents for RL loads.
However, real electronic devices may conduct current in one direction only. This
problem is solved by placing feedback diodes in parallel (anitparallel) with each
switch. During the time interval when the current in the switch must be negative,
the feedback diode carries the current. The diodes are reverse-biased when current is
positive in the switch. Figure 3a shows the full-bridge inverter with
switches implemented as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) with feedback diodes.
Transistor and diode currents for a square wave voltage and an RL
load are indicated in Fig 3b. Power semiconductor modules often include feedback
diodes with the switches.
Inverters – The Square-wave Inverter

Figure 8-3 (a) Full-bridge inverter using IGBTs; (b) Steady-state current for an RL load.

❑ When IGBTs Q1 and Q2 are turned off in Fig. 3a, the load current must be continuous
and will transfer to diodes D3 and D4, making the output voltage -Vdc, effectively
turning on the switch paths 3 and 4 before Q3 and Q4 are turned on. IGBTs Q3 and Q4
must be turned on before the load current decays to zero.
Inverters – Fourier Series Analysis

❑ The Fourier series method is often the most practical way to analyze load current
and to compute power absorbed in a load, especially when the load is more complex
than a simple resistive or RL load. A useful approach for inverter analysis is
to express the output voltage and load current in terms of a Fourier series. With
no dc component in the output,
Inverters – Fourier Series Analysis

❑ Power absorbed by a load with a series resistance is determined from I2rmsR,

where the rms current can be determined from the rms currents at each of the
components in the Fourier series by

where

and Zn is the load impedance at harmonic n.

Inverters – Fourier Series Analysis

❑ Equivalently, the power absorbed in the load resistor can be determined for
each frequency in the Fourier series. Total power can be determined from

❑ In the case of the square wave, the Fourier series contains the odd harmonics
and can be represented as
Inverters – Fourier Series Analysis

❑ Example 2
For the inverter in Example 1 (Vdc=400 V, R=10Ω , L=25 mH, f=60 Hz), determine the
amplitudes of the Fourier series terms for the square wave load voltage, the amplitudes of
the Fourier series terms for load current, and the power absorbed by the load.

The amplitude of each voltage term is

The amplitude of each current term is determined

Power at each frequency is determined

Inverters – Fourier Series Analysis

❑
Inverters – Total Harmonic Distortion

❑ Since the objective of the inverter is to use a dc voltage source to supply a load
requiring ac, it is useful to describe the quality of the ac output voltage or current.
The quality of a nonsinusoidal wave can be expressed in terms of total harmonic
distortion (THD) . Assuming no dc component in the output,

❑ The THD of current is determined by substituting current for voltage in the

above equation. The THD of load current is often of greater interest than that
of output voltage. This definition for THD is based on the Fourier series, so
there is some benefit in using the Fourier series method for analysis when the
THD must be determined.
Inverters – Total Harmonic Distortion

❑ Example 3
Determine the total harmonic distortion of the load voltage and the load current for the
square-wave inverter in Examples 1 and 2.

❑ Solution
Use the Fourier series for the square wave and the definition of THD. The rms value of the
square wave voltage is the same as the peak value, and the fundamental frequency
component is the first term,
Inverters – Amplitude and Harmonic Control

❑ The amplitude of the fundamental frequency for a square wave output from of
the full-bridge inverter is determined by the dc input voltage. A controlled output can be
produced by modifying the switching scheme. An output voltage of the form shown in
Fig. 4a has intervals when the output is zero as well as +Vdc and -Vdc. This output
voltage can be controlled by adjusting the interval on each side of the pulse where the
output is zero. The RMS value is

Figure 5 (a) Inverter output for amplitude and harmonic control; (b) Switching sequence for the full-
bridge inverter
Inverters – Amplitude and Harmonic Control

❑ The Fourier series of the waveform is expressed as

❑ Taking advantage of half-wave symmetry, the amplitudes are

where is the angle of zero voltage on each end of the pulse. The amplitude of
each frequency of the output is a function of α. In particular, the amplitude of the
fundamental frequency (n=1) is controllable by adjusting α:
Inverters – Amplitude and Harmonic Control

❑ Harmonic content can also be controlled by adjusting α. If α=30°, for

example, V3=0. This is significant because the third harmonic can be eliminated
from the output voltage and current. Other harmonics can be eliminated by
choosing a value of α which makes the cosine term to go to zero. Harmonic n is
eliminated if

❑ The switching scheme required to produce an output like Fig. 5a must provide intervals
when the output voltage is zero, as well as ±Vdc. The switching sequence of Fig. 5b is a
way to implement the required output waveform.
Inverters – Amplitude and Harmonic Control

❑ Example 4
Design an inverter that will supply the series RL load of the previous examples (R=10
and L=25 mH) with a fundamental-frequency current amplitude of 9.27 A, but with a
THD of less than 10 percent. A variable dc source is available.

❑ Solution
A square-wave inverter produces a THD for current of 16.7 percent which does not meet
the specification. The dominant harmonic current is for n=3, so a switching scheme to
eliminate the third harmonic will reduce the THD. The required voltage amplitude at the
fundamental frequency is

❑ Using the switching scheme of Fig. 5b, the amplitude of the fundamental-frequency
voltage,
Inverters – Amplitude and Harmonic Control

❑ Solving for the required dc input with α=30°,

❑ Other harmonic voltages are described and currents for these harmonics are determined
from voltage amplitude and load impedance using the same technique as for the
square-wave inverter of Example 2. The results are summarized in Table 8-2.
Çok-Seviyeli Eviriciler
❑ H-köprü konsepti, ek gerilim seviyeleri üretebilecek şekilde genişletilebilir.

❑ Çok seviyeli çıkış gerilimi, kalite açısından daha sinüzoidaldir ve harmonik içeriği azdır.

❑ Değişken-hızlı motor sürücüleri

❑ Fotovoltaik gibi yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının şebekeye entegrasyonu için uygundur.

Her bir köprünün çıkış gerilimi ve

eviricinin toplam çıkış gerilimi
İki DA kaynaklı 3 seviyeli evirici
Bağımsız DA Kaynaklı Çok-Seviyeli Eviriciler

❑ Çok-seviyeli eviriciler her biri bir H köprüsü ile

donatılmış bağımsız DA kaynakları kullanır.

❑ Her bir H köprüsünün çıkışı, (Şekil 1'de

gösterildiği gibi) Vda, -Vda veya 0'dır.

❑ Çok seviyeli dönüştürücünün çıkışındaki

toplam anlık gerilim, bireysel köprü
gerilimlerinin herhangi bir kombinasyonudur.

❑ Bu nedenle, iki DA kaynaklı bir evirici için çıkış

gerilimi, 2Vda, Vda, 0, -Vda veya -2Vda'nin
herhangi biri olabilir.

❑ Genlik veya harmonik kontrol için kullanılan bir

anahtarlama düzeninde çalışır.

❑ Her köprü, farklı bir ateşleme açısında çalışır.

Bağımsız DA Kaynaklı Çok-Seviyeli Eviriciler
❑ Bu serinin Fourier katsayıları şunlardır:

❑ Modülasyon endeksi (Mi), çıkış geriliminin temel bileşeninin genliğinin, 2Vdc genliğindeki
bir kare dalganın temel bileşeninin genliğine olan oranıdır.

❑ Çıkış gerilimindeki harmonikler, 1 ve 2'nin uygun seçimi ile ortadan kaldırılabilir. İki
kaynaklı dönüştürücü için, m. harmonik şu şekilde ortadan kaldırılabilir.

❑ m. harmoniğini ortadan kaldırmak ve aynı zamanda belirli bir modülasyon endeksini

karşılamak için her iki denkleminin eşzamanlı olarak çözülmesi gerekmektedir.
Örnek
İki DA kaynaklı 5 seviyeli evirici için Vdc=100 V ise:

a) n=9 için Fourier katsayılarını ve α1=20° ve α2=40° için modülasyon endeksini belirleyin.
b) n=3 olan üçüncü harmoniğin ortadan kaldırılması ve Mi=0.8 olacak şekilde α1 ve α2'yi
belirleyin.

V1 V3 V5 V7 V9
217 0 -28.4 -10.8 0

Temel bileşenin genliği, 200 V'lik bir kare dalga genliğinin %85,3'üdür.

Üçüncü harmoniği eşzamanlı olarak ortadan kaldırmak ve Mi=0.8 modülasyon endeksine

ulaşmak için:

İteratif bir yöntem kullanarak elde edilen sonuçlara göre, α1 ≈ 7.6° ve α2 ≈ 52.4°
11 Seviyeli Evirici
❖ Kaskad bağlı k ayrı kaynak için, 2k+1 gerilim seviyesi bulunmaktadır.

❖ Daha fazla DA kaynağı ve H köprüsü ekledikçe, çıkış gerilimi daha fazla adıma sahip olur
ve daha sinüse benzeyen bir basamaklı kare dalgası 0lur.

❖ Beş kaynaklı bir sistem için, 11 olası çıkış gerilim seviyesi bulunmaktadır.
K Seviyeli Evirici
❖ Her biri Vda’ya eşit k ayrı DA kaynağı için basamak dalgası gibi bir dalga formu için
Fourier serisi şöyle olacaktır:

❖ m'inci harmoniği ortadan kaldırmak için:

❖ k tane DA kaynağı için, k - 1 harmonik belirli bir Mi kısıtında ortadan kaldırılabilir.

11 Seviyeli Evirici-Örnek
❖ 5, 7, 11 ve 13. Harmonikleri ortadan kaldırmak ve modülasyon endeksini Mi ≈ 0.8 elde
etmek için 5 kaynaklı 11 seviyeli evirici için gerekli olan açılarını belirlemek oldukça
karmaşık bir işlemdir.
❖ Bu tür bir sorunu çözmek genellikle Newton-Rapson gibi iteratif yöntemler kullanılır ve
doğrusal olmayan birçok denklemi içerir.

•1​≈6.57°
• 2​≈18.94°
• 3​≈27.18°
• 4​≈45.14°
• 5​≈62.24°
Ortalama Kaynak Gücünü Dizilim Değişimi ile
Dengeleme
❖ Her bir DA kaynağından çekilen ortalama gücü dengelemek amacıyla kare dalga
dizilimleri değiştirilebilir. (Pattern Swapping- Duty Swapping)
Diyot Kenetlemeli Çok Seviyeli Eviriciler
❖ Tek bir DA kaynak ile çok seviyeli evirici yapılabilir mi?
Inverters – PWM Output

❑ Darbe Genişlik Modülasyonu (PWM), toplam harmonik distorsiyonunu azaltmanın bir

yoludur.

❑ PWM anahtarlama düzenindeki bir evirici çıkışındaki süzgeç boyutu, kare dalga
anahtarlama düzeninden daha küçüktür.

❑ PWM'de çıkış geriliminin genliği, darbelerin genişliği ile kontrol edilebilir.

❑ Karmaşık kontrol devreleri ve daha sık anahtarlamadan kaynaklanan artan kayıplar

bulunur.

❑ Sinüsoidal PWM sinüs biçimli bir referans sinyali ve anahtarlama frekansını kontrol eden
üçgen bir dalga olan bir taşıyıcı sinyalin karşılaştırılması ile elde edilir.

❑ Bipolar ve unipolar anahtarlamalı düzenler daha sonra tartışılacaktır.

Inverters – PWM Output – Bipolar Switching

❑ Figure 8-17 illustrates the principle of

sinusoidal bipolar pulse-width
modulation. Figure 7a shows a
sinusoidal reference signal and a
triangular carrier signal.
❑ When the instantaneous value of the
sine reference is larger than the
triangular carrier, the output is at +Vdc,
and when the reference is less than the
carrier, the output is at -Vdc:

Figure 7 Bipolar pulse-width modulation. (a)

Sinusoidal reference and triangular carrier; (b)
Output is Vdc when vsine>vtri and is -Vdc when
vsine<vtri.
Inverters – PWM Output – Bipolar Switching

❑ This version of PWM is bipolar because the output alternates between plus and minus
the dc supply voltage. The switching scheme that will implement bipolar switching using
the fullbridge inverter of Fig. 1 is determined by comparing the instantaneous reference
and carrier signals:
Inverters – PWM Output – Unipolar Switching

❑ In a unipolar switching scheme for pulse-width modulation, the output is switched

either from high to zero or from low to zero, rather than between high and low as in
bipolar switching. One unipolar switching scheme has switch controls in Fig. 1 as follows:

❑ Another unipolar switching scheme has only one pair of switches operating
at the carrier frequency while the other pair operates at the reference frequency,
thus having two high-frequency switches and two low-frequency switches. In
this switching scheme, where the sine and triangular waves are as shown in Fig. 8a.
Inverters – PWM Output – Unipolar Switching

Figure 8 (a) Full-bridge converter for unipolar PWM; (b) Reference and carrier signals; (c) Bridge
voltages va and vb; (d) Output voltage.