SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN

HUMANS
Sexual intercourse (Copulation)
Passage of Sperm to egg
Capacitation
Acrosome reaction
Fertilisation & its effect
Implantation
Early Embryonic Development & Development of
extra-embryonic membranes.
Sexual Intercourse (Copulation/Coitus)
• Achieved by the insertion of the male
reproductive organ (penis) into the female
reproductive organ (vagina).
• Release of gametes within the female
reproductive tract.
 Sexual intercourse (Copulation)
• Penis erects due to the increase in blood flow
within the spongy erectile tissues.
• Sexual stimulation involves stimulation of the
parasympathetic nervous system.
• Results in vasoconstriction of veins leading
away from penis and vasodilation of arterioles
entering the penis- increase in blood
volume=increase in pressure in penis --
ERECTION
 Sexual intercourse (Copulation)
• An erection enables entry into the vagina.
• Rhythmic movements of sexual intercourse
increases the stimulation of sensory cells at
the tip of the penis.
• This activates the neurons of the sympathetic
nervous system which closes the internal
sphincter of the bladder.
 Sexual intercourse (Copulation)

• Contraction of the smooth muscle of the

epididymis, vas deferens and the male accessory
glands (seminal vesicles, prostate and Cowper’s
glands) releases sperm and seminal fluids into the
top of the urethra where they mix to form
semen.
 Sexual intercourse (Copulation)
• Rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the
base of the penis forces semen out through
the urethra during ejaculation.
• The other physiological and psychological
sensations associated with this climax in both
males & females are called orgasm.
 Sexual intercourse (Copulation)

• Lubrication during intercourse provided by:

A clear mucus secreted by the male Cowper’s
gland following erection.
Mainly by glands in the vagina & vulva in the
female.
Fluid from the blood also seeps through the
vaginal epithelium.
 Sexual intercourse (Copulation)

• Secretions of the male accessory glands are

alkaline and decrease the normal acidity of
the vagina to pH 6-6.5 which is optimum for
sperm motility following ejaculation.
Passage of Sperm to Egg
 Sperm to egg
• Sperm is deposited at the top of the vagina
close to the cervix.
• Sperm will travel from here through the cervix
and uterus to the oviducts.
• Cervical mucus gets thinner during the first
part of the menstrual cycle to allow for sperm
penetration to the uterus.
• PROGESTERONE causes it to thicken once
again in the second half of the cycle.
Sperm have a long journey to reach the oocyte, so it is
useful that they are not immediately able to fertilize;
they can ‘switch on’ as they are moving towards the site
of fertilization.
 Sperm to egg
• Some sperm can pass through the vagina,
through the uterus and finally to the top of
the oviducts in five (5) minutes.
• Due to not only swimming but contractions of
the female uterus and oviducts.
• Contractions may be due to chemicals in
semen like prostaglandins and oxytocin
released by female during intercourse.
• Also due to cilia action on the lining on the
uterus and oviducts.
 Sperm to egg
• Most sperm will take 4-8 hours to reach the
oviducts and can survive in the female for 1-3
days.
• Sperm are only highly fertile for 12-24hrs.
• Only a few thousand complete the journey to
the egg.
 Capacitation
• When released from the male reproductive
tract, mammalian sperm will not be capable
of fertilising an oocyte immediately.
• They must first undergo a process called
capacitation.
• Capacitation involves a physiological
‘switching on’ of sperm so that they can
fertilize an egg.
• Capacitation takes time.
 CHANGES DURING CAPACITATION
• Changes in intracellular ion concentrations
e.g. a steady rise in intracellular Ca 2+
• Changes in membrane structure and fluidity
 CHANGES DURING CAPACITATION
Changes in membrane structure and fluidity
• There is the removal of a layer of glycoprotein
and plasma proteins from the outer surface of
the sperm.
• These were initially added by the epididymis
& plasma proteins were added by seminal
fluid.
• These are removed from the sperm by
enzymes in the uterus.
 CHANGES DURING CAPACITATION
Changes in membrane structure and fluidity
• Cholesterol is also lost from the cell surface
membrane around the sperm head,
weakening the membrane.
 CHANGES DURING CAPACITATION
Changes in intracellular ion concentrations e.g.
a steady rise in intracellular Ca 2+
• The membrane also becomes more permeable
to calcium ions, which have the dual effect of
increasing the beating activity of the sperm
tail and promoting the acrosome reaction.
 Capacitation
• During capacitation the acrosome membrane
fuses with the cell surface membrane, a
process which begins with the release of
acrosomal enzymes.
 Acrosome Reaction
• When a sperm reaches the secondary oocyte
within the oviduct the following occurs:
The membrane of the sperm next to the
acrosome, and the membrane of the acrosome
ruptures.
Rupture enables hydrolytic (digestive enzymes)
such as hyaluronidase and proteases stored in the
acrosome to be released rapidly.
Aforementioned summarises A.R.
In normal fertilization, (1) the capacitated sperm binds to the zona pellucida,
(2) undergoes the acrosome reaction, (3) penetrates the zona and then
(4) fuses with the oocyte.
 FERTILIZATION

Fertilization & the Effect of Fertilization

 Fertilisation
• Fertilization is the fusion of a sperm nucleus
with the egg nucleus to form a diploid cell
known as the zygote.
• It takes place in the following stages……..
 Stages of Fertilisation
Stage One
• The enzymes particularly Hyaluronidase released by the acrosomes
of the many sperm digest a path through the material that holds the
granulosa follicle cells together.
Stage 2
• The sperm move by lashing their tails and reach the outer surface of
the Zona pellucida, a thick layer surrounding the secondary oocyte.
The Zona pellucida has special receptors to which the sperm heads
can bind.
Stage 3
• Another acrosomal enzyme digests a path through the Zona
pellucida and the sperm moves through to the surface of the
secondary oocyte.
Stage 4
• Here the head of a sperm will fuse with microvilli surrounding the
secondary oocyte and penetrate its cytoplasm.
 Stages of Fertilisation
Stage five
• Immediately the sperm has penetrated and the lysosomes in the
outer region of the secondary oocyte also known as cortical granules,
release their enzymes which cause the zona pellucida to thicken and
harden forming the fertilization membrane. This is called the cortical
reaction.
• It prevents the entry of further sperm and therefore the possibility of
more than one sperm fertilizing the same egg.
• The enzymes also destroy the sperm receptor sites so sperm can no
longer bind to the Zona pellucida.
Stage 6
• The entry of the sperm acts as the stimulus for the completion of the
second meiotic cell division of the secondary oocyte which produces
the ovum and the second polar body. The second (II) polar body
immediately disintegrates and the tail of the sperm is lost within the
cytoplasm of the ovum.
 Stages of Fertilisation
Stage 7
• The nucleus of the sperm swells as its chromatin becomes
less tightly coiled. At this stage the nuclei of the sperm and
secondary oocyte are called Pronuclei.
Stage 8
• The male pronucleus fuses with a female pronucleus. This
is the actual act of fertilization. The new nucleus formed
has two sets of chromosomes - one from the egg and one
from the sperm. The cell is now diploid and is called the
ZYGOTE.
• The nucleus divides immediately by mitosis. The zygote
then undergoes cytokinesis or cell division and produces
two diploid cells.
Final Stages Fertilization
• Completion of the
second meiotic division &
formation of the female
pronucleus.
• Formation of the male
pronucleus :
It is a swollen nucleus of
the sperm.
Its tail is detached and
degenerated.
 Zona reaction : it is a change in
properties of zona pellucida
that makes it impermeable to
zygote
other sperms.
 Chromosomes in zygote

• Zygote is genetically unique.

• Half of its chromosomes come from the father and the other half
comes from the mother.
• zygote contains 46 chromosomes (diploid).
• New combination is formed which is different from either of the
parents.
• This mechanism forms biparental inheritance and leads to
variation of the human species.
 Sex of the Embryo
• Embryo's chromosomal
sex is determined at the
time of fertilization.
• Sex is determined by the
type of sperm (X
or Y) that fertilizes the
oocyte.
• So, it is the father whose
gamete decides the sex.
 The Effect of Fertilisation
• If fertilization occurs the zygote develops into a ball of
cells called a blastocyst which embeds itself into the wall
of the uterus within eight days of ovulation.
• The outer cells of the blastocyst called the trophoblastic
cells, then begin to secrete the hormone called human
chorionic gonadotrophin HCG which has a similar
functions of luteinizing hormone LH.
• Function of HCG includes prevention of the breakdown
of the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum therefore
continues to secrete progesterone and estrogen and
these bring about increased growth of the endometrium
of the uterus. Loss of the lining of the endometrium is
prevented and the absence of menstruation or the period
is the earliest sign of pregnancy.
 The Effect of Fertilisation
• The placenta gradually takes over from the
corpus luteum from about week 10 of pregnancy
when it begins to secrete most of the
progesterone and estrogen essential for a normal
pregnancy.
• Failure of the corpus luteum before the placenta
is fully established is a common cause of
miscarriage at about 10 to 12 weeks of
pregnancy.
• During pregnancy HCG may be detected in the
urine and this forms the basis of pregnancy
testing.
 Results of Fertilization
• Stimulates the secondary oocyte to complete
its second meiotic division
• Restores normal diploid number (46) of
chromosomes in zygote
• Results in variation in human beings
• Determines the chromosomal sex of the
embryo
• Causes metabolic activation of zygote &
initiates cleavage (cell division of zygote)
 Cleavage
• As the zygote passes down the Oviduct it
divides by successive nuclear & cell divisions
into a small ball of cells by a process called
cleavage.
• Cleavage involves cell division without growth
in size, because the cells continue to be
retained within the zona pellucida.
 Cleavage
• The cells get smaller during cleavage and
nuclear division is by Mitosis.
• The cells are now called Blastomeres and form
a hollow ball of cells whose central cavity is
called the Blastocoel.
• Blastocoel fills with liquid from the oviduct.
• The outer layer of Blastomeres is called the
trophoblast which thickens to form a mass of
inner cell mass.
 Cleavage
• Repeated mitotic division of
zygote
• Begins about 30 hours after
fertilization
• There is rapid increase in number
of cells. The cells, blastomeres,
become smaller with each
division
• Normally occurs as the zygote
passes along the uterine tube to
the uterus
• During cleavage, zygote lies
within the zona pellucida
 Cleavage cont’d
• After nine-cell stage, the
cells become compactly
arranged..compaction
• 12-16 cell stage is called
morula. It is formed about 3
days after fertilization and
enters the uterus
• Internal cells of the morula,
inner cell mass, are
surrounded by a layer of cells
that form the outer cell
mass
• *********************
Text!
 Cleavage cont’d
• Fluid filled space called the
blastocyst cavity (blastocoel)
appears inside morula
• Blastomeres are separated into:
 Outer cell layer, the
trophoblast, which gives rise to
embryonic part of placenta
 Centrally located, inner cell
mass (embryoblasts) which
gives rise to embryo
 Cleavage cont’d
• At this stage, the conceptus is
called Blastocyst.
Embryonic pole
• It has two poles: embryonic
& abembryonic
• Zona pellucida gradually
degenerates and disappears
• Blastocyst takes its
nourishment from uterine
secretions and enlarges in
size.
• It is ready to get attached
Abembryonic pole
and implanted to the uterine
wall (womb/uterus).
• When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus the Zona
pellucida gradually disappears over about 2 days,
allowing the cells of the trophoblast to make contact
with the cells of the endometrium.
• The term “tropho” means “feeding” and the
trophoblast starts the process of invading the uterus
wall and getting nutrients from the endometrium.
• The trophoblast cells multiply in the presence of these
nutrients and between the 6th and 9th days after
fertilization the blastocyst becomes embedded within
the endometrium. This process is called implantation.
 The process by which the developing
mass gets embedded within the Uterine
wall/Uterus/Womb
 Implantation
• Begins 6 days after
fertilization:

The blastocyst attaches

to the endometrial
epithelium, usually
adjacent to the
embryonic pole
 Implantation cont’d
 Trophoblast proliferates rapidly and
differentiates into two layers:
 inner cellular cytotrophoblast,
 outer mass of CHORION or
syncytiotrophoblast
(multinucleated protoplasm with
no cell boundaries)
• The chorion and forms the chorionic villi- finger-like processes
which grow into the endometrium.

 Finger like processes of CHORION or

syncytiotrophoblast extend through
the endometrium and invade the
endometrial connective tissue
 The areas of the endometrium between these villi
form interconnecting spaces which gives this region of
the endometrium a spongy appearance.
 Implantation cont’d
• By the end of 7th day, the
blastocyst gets implanted
in the superficial compact
layer of endometrium and
derives its nourishment
from the eroded
endometrium
 Implantation cont’d
• The blastocyst gradually
embeds deeper in the
endometrium
• By 10th day it is completely
buried within the
‘Functional layer’ (stratum
compactum + stratum
spongiosum) of the
endometrium
 Implantation cont’d
• The defect in the
endometrial epithelium is
filled by closing plug (day
10)

• The defect gradually

disappear as the
endometrial epithelium is
repaired (day 12 & 13) by
the proliferation of the
surrounding cells
 Implantation cont’d
• Small cavities, the
lacunae appear in
CHORION/
syncytiotrophoblast, and
get filled with maternal
blood, establishing
primitive uteroplacental
circulation
• Hydrolytic enzymes released by the trophoblast
cause the arterial and venous blood vessels in the
endometrium to break down and blood from them
fill the spaces.
• In the early stages of development of the blastocyst
exchange of nutrients such as oxygen and excretory
materials between the cells of the blastocyst and
the maternal blood in the uterus wall -This occurs
through the chorionic villi.
• Later in development this function is taken over by
the placenta
 Normal Implantation Sites
The implantation site
determines the site of
formation of the placenta
Normally it occurs in the
upper part of the body of
uterus, more often on the
posterior wall
 Abnormal Implantation Sites
• Uterine:
Implantation in the lower
segment leads to placenta
praevia
• Extrauterine: leading to
ectopic pregnancies
Fallopian tube
Ovary
Abdominal cavity
Implantation
 Early embryonic development
• The outer layer of thee blastocyst named t
trophoblas continues grow and develop into-
THE CHORION, plays a major role in nourishing
and removing waste from the developing
embryo.

• Two cavities soon develop within the inner cell

mass which gives rise to the amnion and the
yolk sac.
 The Amnion
• A thin membrane covering and protecting the
embryo.
• Between the amnion and the embryo is the
amniotic fluid which is secreted by the
amniotic cells and fills the amniotic cavity.
• Amniotic fluid supports the embryo and
protects it from mechanical shock.
 Yolk Sac
• *****No significant function in
humans****** but in reptiles and birds it
absorbs food from the separate yolk and
transfers food to the gut of the developing
embryo.
 Development of extra-embryonic
membranes
• The cells of the inner cell mass, between the
early amnion and the yolk sac, form a
structure called the embryonic disc, which
gives rise to the embryo.
• These cells differentiate to form an outer layer
of cells-ectoderm & an inner layer-
endoderm.
• At a later stage the mesoderm is formed.
• All three layers gives rise to all the tissues of
the developing embryo.
 Development of extra-embryonic
membranes
• The development of the three layers
(ecto,meso, and endo –derms) is called
gastrulation- occurs 10-11 days after
fertilisation.
• The brain and spinal cord begin to develop in
the third week from a special tube called the
neural tube arising from the ectoderm.
• A swollen section from the groove of the
ectoderm forms the brain- 1st organ to
appear.
 Development of extra-embryonic
membranes
• The chorionic villi enables the exchange of
materials between the mother and embryo
during the early stages of embryonic
development.
• A fourth membrane- the allantois, soon
develops from the embryonic hindgut.
• The allantois grows and makes contact with
the chorion forming a structure filled with
blood vessels called the allantochorion.
 Development of extra-embryonic
membranes
• The allantochorion contributes to the
development of a more efficient and effective
exchange structure called the placenta.

• Refer to handout and pdf file sent earlier on

male& female reproductive system !!!